Main and minor types of word formation

Word-Formation
is the system of derivative types of words and the process of
creating new words from the material available in the language after
certain structural and semantic formulas and patterns. For instance,
the noun driver
is
formed after the pattern v+-er,
i.e.
a verbal stem +-the noun-forming suffix -er. The meaning of the
derived noun driver
is
related to the meaning of the stem drive-
‘to
direct the course of a vehicle’ and the suffix -er
meaning
‘an active agent’: a driver
is
‘one who drives’ (a carriage, motorcar, railway engine, etc.).
Likewise compounds resulting from two or more stems joined together
to form a new word are also built on quite definite structural and
semantic patterns and formulas, for instance adjectives of the
snow-white
type
are built according to the formula п+а,
etc.
It can easily be observed that the meaning of the whole compound is
also related to the meanings of the component parts. The structural
patterns with the semantic relations they signal give rise to regular
new creations of derivatives, e.g. sleeper,
giver, smiler or soat—blасk,
tax-free,
etc.

In
conformity with structural types of words described above¹
the
following two types of word-formation may be distinguished,
word-derivation and word-composition (or compounding). Words created
by word-derivation have in terms of word-formation analysis only one
derivational base and one derivational affix, e.g. cleanness (from
clean),
to overestimate
(from
to
estimate), chairmanship (from
chairman),
openhandedness (from
openhanded),
etc.
Some derived words have no derivational affixes, because derivation
is achieved through conversion ²,
e.g. to
paper (from
paper),
a
fall
(from
to
fall), etc.
Words created by word-composition have at least two bases, e.g.
lamp-shade,
ice-cold, looking-glass,” daydream, hotbed, speedometer, etc.

Within
the types, further distinction may be made between the ways of
forming words. The basic ways of forming words in
word-derivatiоn,
for instance, are affixation
and conversion.
It
should be noted that the understanding of word-formation as expounded
here excludes semantic word-building as well as shortening, sound-
and stress-interchange which traditionally are referred, as has been
mentioned above, to minor ways of word-formation. By semantic
word-building some linguists understand any change in word-meaning,
e.g. stock
— ‘the
lower part of the trunk of a tree’; ’something lifeless or
stupid’; ‘the part of an instrument that serves as a base’,
etc.; bench
— ‘a
long seat of wood or stone’; ‘a carpenter’s table’, etc. The
majority of linguists, however, understand this process only as a
change in the meaning ³
of a word that may result in the appearance of homonyms, as is the
case with flower
— ‘a
blossom’ and flour
— ‘the
fine meal’, ‘powder made from wheat and used for making bread’;
magazine
— ‘a
publication’ and magazine
— ‘the
chamber for cartridges in a gun or rifle’, etc.

2. Minor types of word-formation (back-formation, sound-interchange, distinctive stress, sound imitation, blending, clipping, acronymy).

Apart
from these a number of minor ways of forming words such as
back-formation, sound interchange, distinctive stress, sound
imitation, blending, clipping and acronymy are traditionally referred
to Word-Formation.

Back-derivation
as a re-interpretation of the derivational structure is now growing
in productivity but it functions only within the framework of highly
productive patterns with regular and transparent derivative relations
associated formally with a certain suffix. Many new backderived verbs
are often stylistically marked as colloquial, e.g. enthuse
from
enthusiasm,
playact from
play-acting,
tongue-tie from
tongue-tied,
sight-see from
sight-seeing.

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1. Types of Forming Words. Affixation.

Lecture 10

2. 1. TYPES OF FORMING WORDS

Word-formation is the system of derivational
types of words and the process of creating new
words from the material available in the language
after certain structural and semantic formulas
and patterns.
Driver = v+-er (a verbal stem + the nounforming suffix –er).
The meaning of the derived noun driver — the
meaning of the stem drive- ‘to direct the course
of a vehicle’ and the suffix -er meaning ‘an active
agent’: a driver is ‘one who drives’ (a carriage,
motorcar, railway engine, etc.).

3. 1.1. Main Types of Forming Words

I. Word-derivation in morphology is a word-formation
process by which a new word is built from a stem with
the addition of an affix that changes the word class and
/ or basic meaning of the word.
The basic ways of forming words in word-derivation
are:
1. Affixation is the formation of a new word with the
help of affixes: pointless (from point).
2. Conversion is the formation of a new word by
bringing a stem of this word into a different formal
paradigm: a fall (from to fall), a cut (from to cut).
II. Word-composition is the formation of a new word by
combining two or more stems which occur in the
language as free forms: door-bell, house-keeper.

4. 1.2. Minor Types of Forming Words

1.
shortening is the formation of a word by
cutting off a part of the word.
a) initial (or aphesis):fend (v) < defend, phone <
telephone;
b) medial (orsyncope): specs < spectacles, fancy
< fantasy;
c) final (or apocope): lab – laboratory, exam –
examination;
d) both initial and final: flu < influenza, fridge <
refrigerator;.

5.

2.
blending is the formation of a new word
3.
broadcast.
acronymy (or graphical abbreviation) is the
by combining parts of two words:
a) additive type: smog – sm(oke) and (f)og;
b) restrictive type: telecast – television +
formation of a word from the initial letters
of a word combination. :
a) acronyms which are read as ordinary English
words:UNESCO – [ju:’neskəu] the United Nations
Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization;
b) acronyms with the alphabetic reading: BBC –
[,bi:bi:’si:] the British Broadcasting Corporation;

6.

4.
sound-interchange is the formation of a word
due to an alteration in the phonetic
composition of its root. Sound-interchange
falls into 3 groups:
a) vowel-interchange (or ablaut): full − to fill, blood −
to bleed, food – to feed. In some cases vowelinterchange is combined with suffixation: long −
length, strong − strength, broad − breadth;
b) consonant-interchange: advice – to advise.
c) combined forms: life – to live;
Particular cases of sound-interchange:
[k] — [t∫]: to speak — speech,
[s] — [d]: defence — to defend; offence — to offend;
[s] — [t]: evidence — evident, importance — important,
etc.

7.

5.
sound imitation (or onomatopoeia) is the naming
of an action or a thing by a more or less exact
reproduction of the sound associated with it, cf.:
cock-a-doodle-do (English) – ку-ка-ре-ку
(Russian).
Groups:
a) words denoting sounds produced by human
being in the process of communication or
expressing their feelings: mumble, babble;
b) words denoting sounds produced by animals,
birds, insects: mew, croak, buzz;
c) words imitation the sound of water, the noise of
metallic things, a forceful motion, movement:
splash, clink, bang.

8.

6.
back-formation is the formation of a new word
7.
distinctive stress is the formation of a new word
by subtracting a real or supposed suffix from
the existing words. The process is based on
analogy: the word to butle ‘to act or serve as a
butler’ is derived by subtraction of –er from a
supposedly verbal stem in the noun butler;
by means of the shift of the stress in the source
word, cf.: export (n) — to ex´port; ´import (n)
— to im´port; ‘

9. 2. Word-formation as the Subject of Study

is that branch of Lexicology which studies
the derivative structure of existing words
and the patterns on which the English
language, builds new words.
Word-formation can deal only with words
which are analysable both structurally and
semantically, i.e. with all types of
Complexes.

10. Word-formation may be studied:

1.
2.
Synchronically – investigation of the existing
system of the types of word-formation. The
derived word is regarded as having a more
complex structure than its correlated word
regardless of the fact whether it was derived
from a simpler base or a more complex
base;
Diachronically – chronological order of
formation of one word from some other
word that is relevant.

11.

In the history of the English language there
are cases when a word structurally more
complex served as the original element from
which a simpler word was derived =>
back-formation (or back-derivation) :
cf. beggar — to beg; editor — to edit;
chauffeur — to chauff
The fact that historically the verbs
to beg, to edit, etc. were derived from the
corresponding agent-nouns is of no
synchronous relevance.

12. 3. AFFIXATION

Affixation is the formation of words by
adding derivational affixes to different types
of bases.
An affix is not-root or a bound morpheme
that modifies the meaning and / or syntactic
category of the stem in some way.
Affixes are classified into prefixes and
suffixes.

13. Degrees of Derivation

1.
2.
3.
Zero — degree of derivation is ascribed to
simple words, i.e. words whose stem is
homonymous with a word-form and often
with a root-morpheme, e.g. atom, haste,
devote, anxious, horror, etc.
First — derived words whose bases are built
on simple stems and thus are formed by the
application of one derivational affix, e.g.
atomic, hasty, devotion, etc.
Second — derived words formed by two
consecutive stages of coining, e.g. atomical,
hastily, devotional, etc.

14. Affixation=suffixation+prefixation

Distinction is naturally made between prefixal
and suffixal derivatives according to the last
stage of derivation, which determines the
nature of the ICs of the pattern that signals
the relationship of the derived word with its
motivating source unit, cf.
unjust (un-+just),
justify, (just++ -ify),
arrangement (arrange + -ment),
non-smoker (non- + smoker).

15.

Affixation is subdivided into suffixation and
prefixation.
Distinction is naturally made between prefixal
and suffixal derivatives according to the last
stage of derivation, which determines the
nature of the ICs of the pattern that signals
the relationship of the derived word with its
motivating source unit, cf.
unjust (un-+just),
justify, (just++ -ify),
arrangement (arrange + -ment),
non-smoker (non- + smoker).

16. Prefixal-suffixal derivatives:

reappearance, unreasonable, denationalise
This qualification is relevant only in terms of
the constituent morphemes such words are
made up of, i.e. from the angle of morphemic
analysis.
From the point of view of derivational analysis
such words are mostly either suffixal or
prefixal derivatives, e.g.
sub-atomic = sub- + (atom + + -ic),
unreasonable = un- + (reason + -able),
denationalise = de- + + (national + -ize),
discouragement = (dis- + courage) + -ment.

17.

Suffixation is mostly characteristic of noun and
adjective formation.
Prefixation is mostly typical of verb formation.
The distinction also rests on the role different
types of meaning play in the semantic
structure of the suffix and the prefix.
The part-of-speech meaning has a much
greater significance in suffixes as compared
to prefixes which possess it in a lesser
degree.
A prefix may be confined to one part of speech,
e.g. enslave, encage, unbutton or may
function in more than one part of speech as,
e.g., over- in overkind a, to overfeed v,
overestimation n

18.

Suffixes as a rule function in any one part of
speech often forming a derived stem of a
different part of speech as compared with
that of the base, e.g. careless a — cf. care n;
suitable a — cf. suit v, etc.
A suffix closely knit together with a base forms
a fusion retaining less of its independence
than a prefix which is as a general rule more
independent semantically, cf. reading — ‘the
act of one who reads’; ‘ability to read’; and to
re-read — ‘to read again.’

19. 3.1. SUFFIXATION. CLASSIFICATION OF SUFFIXES

Suffixation is the formation of words with the help
of suffixes, which usually modify the lexical
meaning of the base and transfer words to a
different part of speech.
Some suffixes do not shift words from one part of
speech into another, but usually transfer a word
into a different semantic group, e.g. a concrete
noun becomes an abstract one, e.g. child —
childhood, friend — friendship, etc.
A suffix is a derivational morpheme following the
root and forming a new derivative in a different
word class (-en, -y, -less in heart-en, heart-y,
heart-less).

20. Suffixes can be classified into different types in accordance with different principles:

1.
According to the lexical-grammatical
character of the base suffixes are usually
added to, they may be:
a) deverbal suffixex (those added to the verbal
base): -er (builder); -ing (writing);
b) denominal suffixes (those added to the nominal
base): -less (timeless); -ful (hopeful); -ist
(scientist); -some (troublesome);
c) deajectival suffixes (those added to the
adjectival base): -en (widen); -ly (friendly); -ish
(whitish); -ness (brightness).

21.

2.
According to the part of speech formed
suffixes fall into several groups:
a) noun-forming suffixes: -age (breakage, bondage); ance/-ence (assistance, reference); -dom (freedom,
kingdom); -er (teacher, baker); -ess (actress,
hostess); -ing (building, wasing);
b) adjective-forming suffixes: -able/-ible/-uble
(favourable, incredible, soluble); -al (formal, official);
-ic (dynamic); -ant/-ent (repentant, dependent);
c) numeral-forming suffixes: -fold (twofold); -teen
(fourteen); -th (sixth); -ty (thirty);
d) verb-forming suffixes: -ate (activate); -er (glimmer);
-fy/-ify (terrify, specify); -ize (minimize); -ish
(establish);
e) adverb-forming suffixes: -ly (quickly, coldly); ward/-wards (backward, northwards); -wise
(likewise).

22.

3.
Semantically suffixes fall into:
a) Monosemantic:the suffix -ess has only
one meaning ‘female’ – tigress, tailoress;
b) Polysemantic: the suffix -hood has two
meanings:
1) ‘condition or quality’ – falsehood,
womanhood;
2) ‘collection or group’ – brotherhood.

23.

4.
According to their generalizing
denotational meaning suffixes may fall
into several groups. E.g., noun-suffixes
fall into those denoting:
a) the agent of the action: -er (baker); -ant
(accountant);
b) appurtenance: -an/-ian (Victorian, Russian); ese (Chinese);
c) collectivity: -dom (officialdom); -ry (pleasantry);
d) Diminutiveness:-ie (birdie); -let (cloudlet); -ling
(wolfling).

24.

5.
According to their stylistic reference
suffixes may be classified into:
a) those characterized by neutral stylistic
reference: -able (agreeable); -er (writer); -ing
(meeting);
b) those having a certain stylistic value: -oid
(asteroid); -tron (cyclotron).
These suffixes occur usually in terms and are
bookish.

25. 3.2. PREFIXATION. CLASSIFICATION OF PREFIXES.

Prefixation is the formation of words with the
help of prefixes, which are derivational
morphemes, affixed before the derivational
base.
A prefix is a derivational morpheme
preceding the root-morpheme and modifying
its meaning (understand – mis-understand,
correct – in-correct).

26. Prefixes can be classified according to different principles.

1.
According to the lexico-grammatical
character of the base prefixes are usually
added to, they may be:
a) deverbal (those added to the verbal base): re(rewrite); over- (overdo); out- (outstay);
b) denominal (those added to the nominal base): (unbutton); de- (detrain); ex- (ex-president);
c) deadjectival (those added to the adjectival
base): un- (uneasy); bi- (biannual).
d) deadverbial (those added to the adverbial base):
un- (unfortunately); in- independently).

27.

2.
According to the class of words they
preferably form prefixes are divided into:
a) verb-forming prefixes: en-/em- (enclose,
embed); be- (befriend); de- (dethrone);
b) noun-forming prefixes: non- (non-smoker);
sub- (sub-committee); ex- (ex-husband)
c) adjective-forming prefixes: un- (unfair); il(illiterate); ir- (irregular);
d) adverb-forming prefixes: un- (unfortunately);
up- (uphill).

28.

3.
Semantically prefixes fall into:
a) Monosemantic: the prefix ex- has only
one meaning ‘former’ – ex-boxer;
b) Polysemantic; the prefix dis- has four
meanings:
1) ‘not’ (disadvantage);
2) ‘reversal or absence of an action or
state’ (diseconomy, disaffirm);
3) ‘removal of’ (to disbranch);
4) ‘completeness or intensification of an
unpleasant action’ (disgruntled).

29.

4.
According to their generalizing
denotational meaning prefixes fall into:
a) negative prefixes: un- (ungrateful); non- (nonpolitical); in- (incorrect); dis- (disloyal); a(amoral);
b) reversative prefixes: un2- (untie); de(decentralize); dis2- (disconnect);
c) pejorative prefixes: mis- (mispronounce); mal(maltreat); pseudo- (pseudo-scientific);
d) prefixes of time and order: fore- (foretell); pre(pre-war); post- (post-war), ex- (ex-president);
e) prefix of repetition: re- (rebuild, rewrite);
f) locative prefixes: super- (superstructure), sub(subway), inter- (inter-continental), trans(transatlantic).

30.

5.
According to their stylistic reference
prefixes fall into:
a) those characterized by neutral stylistic
reference: over- (oversee); under(underestimate); un-(unknown);
b) those possessing quite a definite stylistic value:
pseudo- (pseudo-classical); super(superstructure); ultra- (ultraviolet); uni(unilateral); bi- (bifocal).
These prefixes are of a literary-bookish character.

31. 4. PRODUCTIVE AND NON-PRODUCTIVE AFFIXES

The word-forming activity of affixes may
change in the course of time. This raises the
question of productivity of derivational
affixes, i.e. the ability of being used to form
new, occasional or potential words, which can
be readily understood by the languagespeakers.
Thus, productive affixes are those used to
form new words in this particular period of
language development.

32. Some productive affixes

Noun-forming
suffixes
Adjective-forming
suffixes
Adverb-forming
suffixes
-er (manager), -ing (playing), -ness
(darkness),
-ism
(materialism),
-ist
(parachutist), -ism
(realism),
-ation
(automation), (impressionist),
-ancy (redundancy), -ry (gimmickry), -or
(reactor), -ics (cybernetics).
-y (tweedy), -ish (smartish), -ed (learned), able (tolerable), -less (jobless), -ic
(electronic).
-ly (equally)
Verb-forming suffixes -ize/-ise (realise), -ate (oxidate), -ify
(qualify).
un- (unhappy), re- (reconstruct), disPrefixes
(disappoint)

33. Some non-productive suffixes:

Noun-forming suffixes
Adjective-forming
suffixes
Verb-forming suffix
-th (truth),
-hood (sisterhood),
-ship (scholarship).
-ly (sickly),
-some (tiresome),
-en (golden),
-ous (courageous),
-ful (careful).
-en (strengthen).

34.

The productivity of an affix should not be
confused with its frequency of occurrence
that is understood as the existence in the
vocabulary of a great number of words
containing the affix in question.
An affix may occur in hundreds of words, but
if it is not used to form new words, it is not
productive, for instance, the adjective suffix –
ful.

35. Etymology of Derivational Affixes:

Native affixes are those in the Old English period
or were formed from Old English words.
The change a morpheme undergoes in the course
of time may be of different kinds.
A bound morpheme, e.g. may be developed from a
free one. Such are the suffixes
– dom (‘fate, power’);
hood ‘state’;
-lock ‘actions or proceedings, practice’;
-ship ‘state, conduct’, and the prefixes;
over- ‘in excess, extra, upper’;
out- ‘foreign, external’, ect.

36. Origin of Derivational Affixes

Noun-forming
affixes
-er
-ness
-ing
-dom
-hood
-ship
-th
-let
Examples
Driver, painter.
Ugliness, coldness.
Singing, playing.
Freedom, kingdom.
Brotherhood, manhood.
Leadership, friendship.
Breath, length.
Booklet, islet.

37. Adjective-forming affixes:

-ful
-less
-y
-ish
-ly
-en
-some
-like
Joyful
Harmless
Cozy
Childish
Lovely
Golden
Handsome
Ladylike

38.

Verb-forming
affixes
-en
Widen
Adverb-forming
affixes
-ly
-wise
Rarely
Clockwise
Prefixes
bemisunover-
Befriend
Misuse
Unselfish
Overdo

39. Borrowed Affixes have come to the English language from different foreign languages. The affixes of foreign origin are classified according to their source into:

Latin
-able/ -ible
-ant/-ent
extrapreultra-
Examples
Capable, divisible.
Servant, student.
Extralinguistic.
Pre-election.
Ultra-high.

40.

Greek
-ist
-ism
-ite
antisym-/ sin-
Examples
Artist
Marxism
Vulcanite
Anti-democratic
Synthesis

41.

French
-age
-ance/ -ence
-ard
-ate
-ee
-ess
en-/ em-
Examples
Percentage
Extravagance,
coherence
Wizard
Electorate
Employee
Princess
Enclose, embed

42. Hybrids

are words that are made up of elements from
two or more different languages. There are 2
basic types of forming hybrid words:
1) a foreign base is combined with a native
affix, e.g. colourless, uncertain;
2) a native base is combined with a foreign
affix, e.g. drinkable, ex-wife.
There are also many hybrid compounds, such
as blackguard (English + French); schoolboy
(greek + English).

43. VALENCY OF AFFIXES AND BASES

Valency of affixes is understood as their capability
to be combined with certain bases, e.g. adjective
forming suffixes are mostly attached to nominal
bases. They are:
-en (golden),
-ful (meaningful),
-less (careless),
-ly (soldierly),
-like (childlike).
The highly productive suffix –able, however, can be
combined with nominal and verbal bases alike
(honorable, advisable).

44. Valency of bases

is the possibility of a particular base to take a
particular affix. The valency of bases is not
unlimited, e.g., noun bases can be followed by:
1. the noun-forming suffixes, e.g. –eer (profiteer),
-ful (spoonful), -ics (linguistics), -let (cloudlet);
2. the adjective-forming suffixes, e.g. –al
3.
(doctoral), -ary (revolutionary), -ous (spacious),
-ic (historic);
the verb-forming suffixes, e.g. –en (hearten), ize (sympathize).

45. Valency

is very important semantically because the
meaning of the derivative depends not only on
the morphemes of which it is composed but also
on combinations of bases and affixes that can be
contrasted with it.
Contrast is observed in the use of the same
morphemes in different environment or in the
use of different morphemes in the same
environment, e.g., the difference in the suffixes –
ity and –ism becomes clear when comparing
them as combined with identical bases:
formality – formalism; reality – realism.
-ity – ‘the quality of being what corresponding
adjective describes, an instant or quality’;
-ism –’ a disposition to what the adjective describes,
or a corresponding type of ideology’.

46. Summary and Conclusions

1.
Word-formation is the process of
creating words from the material
available in the language after
certain structural and semantic
formulas and patterns.

47.

2.
As a subject of study English wordformation is that branch of English
Lexicology which studies the
derivative structure of words and the
patterns on which the English
language builds new words. Like any
other linguistic phenomenon, wordformation may be studied
synchronically and diachronically.

48.

3.
There are two types of wordformation in Modern English: wordderivation which is divided into
affixation and conversion and wordcomposition. Within the types further
distinction is made between the
various ways and means of wordformation.

49.

4.
There are minor types of wordformation: shortening, blending,
acronymy (graphical abbreviation),
sound-interchange, sound-imitation,
back-fomation and distinctive stress.

50.

5.
Affixation (prefixation and
suffixation) is the formation of words
by adding derivational affixes
(prefixes and suffixes) to bases. One
distinguishes between derived words
of different degrees of derivation.

51.

6.
There are quite a number of
polysemantic, homonymous and
synonymous derivational affixes in
Modern English.

52.

7.
Classifications of derivational affixes
are based on different principles
such as:
1) the lexico-grammatical character
of the stem the affix is added to,
2) the part of speech formed,
3) the meaning,
4) the generalising denotational
meaning,
5) the stylistic reference, etc.

53.

8.
The productivity of derivational
affixes is relative and conditioned by
various factors.

54.

9.
Many of the Modern English
derivational affixes were at one time
independent words. Others have
always been known as suffixes or
prefixes within the history of the
English vocabulary. Some of them are
of international currency.

55.

10. The
degree of productivity and
factors favouring it make an
important aspect of synchronic
description of every derivational
pattern within the two types of
word-formation.

56.

11.
Three degrees of productivity are
distinguished for derivational patterns and
individual derivational affixes:
l) highly-productive,
2) productive or semi-productive,
3) nоn-produсtive.

57. References

1.
2.
3.
Зыкова И.В. Практический курс английской
лексикологии. М.: Академия, 2006. – С.57-77.
Гинзбург Р.З. Лексикология английского языка.
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