The lexical definition of a term, also known as the dictionary definition, is the definition closely matching the meaning of the term in common usage. As its other name implies, this is the sort of definition one is likely to find in the dictionary. A lexical definition is usually the type expected from a request for definition, and it is generally expected that such a definition will be stated as simply as possible in order to convey information to the widest audience.
Note that a lexical definition is descriptive, reporting actual usage within speakers of a language, and changes with changing usage of the term, rather than prescriptive, which would be to stick with a version regarded as «correct», regardless of drift in accepted meaning. They tend to be inclusive, attempting to capture everything the term is used to refer to, and as such are often too vague for many purposes.
When the breadth or vagueness of a lexical definition is unacceptable, a precising definition or a stipulative definition is often used.
Words can be classified as lexical or nonlexical. Lexical words are those that have independent meaning (such as a Noun (N), verb (V), adjective (A), adverb (Adv), or preposition (P).
The definition which reports the meaning of a word or a phrase as it is actually used by people is called a lexical definition. Meanings of words given in a dictionary are lexical definitions. As a word may have more than one meaning, it may also have more than one lexical definition.
See alsoEdit
- Circular definition
- Definition
- Theoretical definition
Lexical meaning refers to the sense (or meaning) of a word (or lexeme) as it appears in a dictionary. Also known as semantic meaning, denotative meaning, and central meaning. Contrast with grammatical meaning (or structural meaning).
The branch of linguistics that’s concerned with the study of lexical meaning is called lexical semantics.
Examples and Observations
«There is no necessary congruity between the structural and lexical meanings of a word. We can observe a congruity of these meanings, for example, in the word cat, where both structural and lexical meaning refer to an object. But often the structural and lexical meanings of a word act in different or even diametrically opposite directions. For example, the structural meaning of protection refers to an object, while its lexical meaning refers to a process; and conversely, the structural meaning of (to) cage refers to a process, while its lexical meaning refers to an object.
«The tension between structural and lexical meanings I call the antinomy between grammar and the lexicon…
«The essential aspect of the interrelation between structural and lexical meanings is that lexical meanings constrain grammatical rules. Yet, in stating the laws of grammar we must abstract from the lexical constraints on the rules of grammar of individual languages. The laws of grammar cannot be stated in terms of the lexical constraints on the rules of grammar of individual languages. These requirements are captured in the following law:
Law of Autonomy of Grammar From the Lexicon
The meaning of the structure of a word or a sentence is independent of the meanings of the lexical signs that instantiate this structure.»
(Sebastian Shaumyan, Signs, Mind, and Reality. John Benjamins, 2006)
The Sense Enumeration Model
«The most orthodox model of lexical meaning is the monomorphic, sense enumeration model, according to which all the different possible meanings of a single lexical item are listed in the lexicon as part of the lexical entry for the item. Each sense in the lexical entry for a word is fully specified. On such a view, most words are ambiguous. This account is the simplest conceptually, and it is the standard way dictionaries are put together. From the perspective of a typed theory, this view posits many types for each word, one for each sense. . . .
«While conceptually simple, this approach fails to explain how some senses are intuitively related to each other and some are not. . . . Words or, perhaps more accurately, word occurrences that have closely related senses are logically polysemous, while those that do not receive the label accidentally polysemous or simply homonymous. . . . Bank is a classic example of an accidentally polysemous word . . .. On the other hand, lunch, bill, and city are classified as logically polysemous.» (Nicholas Asher, Lexical Meaning in Context: A Web of Words. Cambridge University Press, 2011)
The Encyclopedic View
«Some, though by no means all, semanticists have proposed that lexical meanings are encyclopedic in character (Haiman 1980; Langacker 1987). The encyclopedic view of lexical meaning is that there is no sharp dividing line between that part of a word’s meaning which is ‘strictly linguistic’ (the dictionary view of lexical meaning) and that part which is ‘nonlinguistic knowledge about the concept.’ While this dividing line is difficult to maintain, it is clear that some semantic properties are more central to a word’s meaning than others, particularly those properties that apply to (almost) all and only the instances of the kind, which are intrinsic to the kind, and which are conventional knowledge of (almost) all of the speech community (Langacker 1987: 158-161).» (William Croft, «Lexical and Grammatical Meaning.» Morphologie / Morphology, ed. by Geert Booij et al. Walter de Gruyter, 2000)
The Lighter Side of Lexical Meaning
Special Agent Seeley Booth: I’m glad that you apologized to the Canadian. I’m proud of you, Bones.
Dr. Temperance «Bones» Brennan: I didn’t apologize.
Special Agent Seeley Booth: I thought . . ..
Dr. Temperance «Bones» Brennan: The word «apology» derives from the Ancient Greek «apologia,» which means «a speech in defense.» When I defended what I said to him, you told me that wasn’t a real apology.
Special Agent Seeley Booth: Why don’t you think of a word that means you feel bad for making someone else feel bad?
Dr. Temperance «Bones» Brennan: Contrite.
Special Agent Seeley Booth: Ah!
Dr. Temperance «Bones» Brennan: From the Latin «contritus» meaning «crushed by a sense of sin.»
Special Agent Seeley Booth: There. That’s it. Contrite. Okay, I’m happy that you contrited to the Canadian.
(David Boreanaz and Emily Deschanel in «The Feet on the Beach.» Bones, 2011)
Generally speaking, meaning
can be more or less described as a component of the word through
which a concept is communicated, in this way endowing the word with
the ability of denoting real objects, qualities, actions and abstract
notions. The complex relationships between referent
(object,
etc. denoted by the word), concept
and word
are
traditionally represented by the following triangle:
Figure 1
Thought
or Reference
S
ymbol Referent
By the “symbol” here is
meant the word; thought or reference is concept. The dotted line
suggests that there is no immediate relation between word and
referent: it is established only through the concept.
On the other hand, there is a hypothesis that concepts can only find
their realisation through words. It seems that thought is dormant
till the word wakens it up. It is only when we hear a spoken word or
read a printed word that the corresponding concept springs into mind.
The branch of linguistics
which specialises in the study of meaning is called semantics.
As with
many terms, the term semantics is ambiguous for it can stand, as
well, for the expressive aspect of language in general and for the
meaning of one particular word in all its varied aspects and nuances
(i.e. the semantics of a word =
the meaning(s)
of a word).
The meanings of all the
utterances of a speech community include the total experience of that
community; arts, science, practical occupations, amusements, personal
and family life.
The modern approach to
semantics is based on the assumption that the inner form of the word
(i.e. its meaning) presents a structure which is called the semantic
structure
of the
word.
Thus, meaning is a certain
reflection in our mind of objects, phenomena or relations that makes
part of the linguistic sign −
its so-called
inner
facet,
whereas the sound-form functions as its outer
facet:
Within grammatical and lexical aspects of a language grammatical and
lexical meanings are distinguished.
Grammatical meaning
is defined as the expression in speech of relationships between
words. The grammatical meaning is more abstract and more generalized
than the lexical meaning. It is recurrent
in
identical sets of individual forms of different words as the meaning
of plurality in the following words students,
books, windows, compositions.
Lexical meaning.
The definitions of lexical meaning given by various authors, though
different in detail, agree in the basic principle: they all point out
that lexical meaning is the
realization of concept or emotion by means of a definite language
system.
1)
The component
of meaning proper to the word as a linguistic unit, i.e. recurrent in
all the forms of this word and in all possible distributions of these
forms. (Ginzburg R.S., Rayevskaya N.N. and others).
2) The
semantic invariant of the grammatical variation of a word (Nikitin
M.V.).
3) The
material meaning of a word, i.e. the meaning of the main material
part of the word which reflects the concept the given word expresses
and the basic properties of the thing (phenomenon, quality, state,
etc.) the word denotes. (Mednikova E.M.).
The conceptual content of a
word is expressed in its denotative meaning. To denote is to serve as
a linguistic expression for a concept or as a name for an individual
object. It is the denotational
meaning
that makes communication possible.
Connotation is
the pragmatic communicative value the word receives depending on
where, when, how, by whom, for what purpose and in what contexts it
may be used. There are four main types of connotations: stylistic,
emotional, evaluative
and
expressive/intensifying.
Stylistic connotations
is what the word conveys about the speaker’s attitude to the social
circumstances and the appropriate functional style (slay
vs kill),
evaluative
connotation may show his approval or disapproval of the object spoken
of (clique
vs
group), emotional
connotation conveys the speaker’s emotions (mummy
vs mother;
UA батько
vs
татко; відомий vs
славетний vs
сумнозвісний.),
the degree
of intensity (adore
vs love;
UA
вітер
vs
вітерець vs
вітрище
vs
вітрюга.)
is
conveyed by expressive or intensifying connotation.
The interdependence of
connotations with denotative meaning is also different for different
types of connotations. Thus, for instance, emotional connotation
comes into being on the basis of denotative meaning but in the course
of time may substitute it by other types of connotation with general
emphasis, evaluation and colloquial stylistic overtone. E.g. terrific
which
originally meant “frightening” is now a colloquialism meaning
“very, very good” or “very great”: terrific
beauty, terrific pleasure.
The orientation toward the subject-matter, characteristic of the
denotative meaning, is substituted here by pragmatic orientation
toward speaker and listener; it is not so much what is spoken about
as the attitude to it that matters.
Fulfilling the significative
and the communicative
functions
of the word the denotative meaning is present in every word and may
be regarded as the central factor in the functioning of language.
The expressive function
of the language (the speaker’s feelings) and the pragmatic
function
(the effect of words upon listeners) are rendered in connotations.
Unlike the denotative meaning, connotations are optional.
Connotation differs from the
implicational meaning
of the word. Implicational meaning is the implied information
associated with the word, with what the speakers know about the
referent. A
wolf is
known to be greedy and cruel (implicational meaning) but the
denotative meaning of this word does not include these features. The
denotative or
the intentional meaning
of the word wolf
is
“a
wild animal resembling a dog that kills sheep and sometimes even
attacks men”. Its figurative meaning is derived from implied
information, from what we know about wolves −
“a cruel
greedy person”, also the adjective wolfish means “greedy”.
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How is the lexical analysis of the word? The answer to this question you will learn from this article. In addition, your attention will be presented to several examples of such analysis.
general information
Lexical analysis of the word is carried out with the help of various linguistic dictionaries, namely, explanatory, phraseological, dictionary of antonyms, synonyms and homonyms.
It should be specially noted that such an analysis is aimed at the lexical unit of the Russian language, indicating such features as:
- uniqueness or, conversely, the ambiguity of the word;
- the type of its lexical meaning in a particular case;
- synonyms;
- the origin of the word;
- antonyms;
- the word’s belonging to lexicon, limited in its use, or common vocabulary;
- phraseological links of one or another expression.
Lexical analysis of words is an optional kind of analysis for ordinary school practice. As a rule, such an analysis is not given as a control task.
The conventional scheme
In order to correctly carry out the lexical analysis of the word, it is necessary to adhere to the following scheme:
- The definition of the lexical meaning of a word in a particular context.
- If the selected expression is multivalued, you must specify its other values (if necessary, you can use the Russian explanatory dictionary).
- Establishment of the type of lexical meaning in a particular context (direct or portable).
- In the event that the value is portable, it should be characterized by its appearance.
- Construction of a synonymic series for a word in the existing meaning.
- Selection of an antonymic couple to the chosen word.
- The definition of the word’s belonging, that is, whether it is originally Russian or was once borrowed from a completely different language.
- Establishing the belonging of the chosen word to lexicon, limited in use, or common vocabulary.
- Determining whether this expression is obsolete.
- The occurrence of this word in the composition of phraseological units.
Examples of lexical parsing of a word
In order to understand howlexical analysis of the word, it is not enough to only know the features of such an analysis and its scheme. After all, any theoretical knowledge must necessarily be supported by practical work. For this, we decided to present to your attention several examples of different words that were subjected to lexical analysis.
So, let us analyze the word «chopper», which is included in the following sentence: «Mower paced the fast mowing the steppes.»
1. A mower is a person who is engaged in mowing, that is, cutting grass or any cereals using a traditional scythe or mower.
2. The word «mower» has several meanings, namely:
- the one who carries out the mowing;
- Heavy and large knife, designed for scraping something or splitting a ray;
- one thousand monetary units (frogs).
3. The meaning of the word «mower» in which it is applied in the sentence is direct.
4. Synonyms for «mower» are «scribe» or «mower».
5. The origin of the word «mower» — originally Russian.
6. In the first and second meaning, this word is commonly used. As for the third — in this case it is used only in a conversational style.
7. The word «mower» is obsolete. Accordingly, it is not part of the active vocabulary of modern people.
Lexical analysis of the word «golden»
Let’s analyze the word «golden», which is included in the following sentence: «Golden autumn came to us».
1. Golden Autumn is the time of year when all trees and grasses turn yellow and resemble a shade of gold (metal).
2. The word «golden» has several meanings, namely:
- made of gold;
- sewn with gold;
- Calculated at the rate of gold;
- similar to the color of gold;
- beautiful, very nice and wonderful;
- favorable and happiest;
- beloved, dear (in reference to someone);
- mineralogical and botanical names.
3. The meaning is portable.
4. The kind of figurative meaning of the phrase «golden autumn» is a metaphor (denoting a color similar to gold).
5. The synonyms for the expression «golden» are the following: yellow, beautiful, wonderful, fabulous, delightful, etc.
6. The word «golden» has the following antonyms: dirty, disgusting, bad, bad.
7. Origin — originally Russian.
8. This expression is generally used. It can be used in all types of speech.
9. The word «golden» is not obsolete. Accordingly, it is part of the active vocabulary of modern people.
Lexical analysis of other words
Here are a few more examples:
- The lexical analysis of the word «fantastic» in the sentence «I’ve seen enough of fantastic films»: «
1. Fantastic film — fictional fantasy and not really existing.
2. The word «fantastic» has several meanings, namely: magical and bizarre; incredible and unrealizable; not existing and being a fantasy.
3. The value is direct.
4. The synonyms of the word are the following: incredible, stunning, not corresponding to reality.
5. Has the following antonyms: normal, banal.
7. Origin — borrowed from the English language (fantastic).
8. This expression is generally used. It can be used in all types of speech.
9. The expression is not obsolete. Accordingly, it is part of the active vocabulary of modern people.
- The lexical analysis of the word «kindness» in the sentence: «By the kindness of his soul he gave all his clothes»:
1. By kindness — spiritual quality, expressed in a caring and gentle attitude to someone.
2. The word «kindness» has only one meaning.
3. The value is direct.
4. The synonyms of the word are the following: good, good-natured, good-natured, philanthropic.
5. He has the following antonyms: wicked, cruel.
7. Origin — originally Russian.
8. This expression is generally used. It can be used in all types of speech.
9. The expression is not obsolete. Accordingly, it is part of the active vocabulary of modern people.
10. Applied in the following phraseological units: by kindness of the soul, blind kindness, etc.
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