Latin and greek word origins

In English grammar, a root is a word or portion of a word from which other words grow, usually through the addition of prefixes and suffixes. By learning root words, you can decipher unfamiliar words, expand your vocabulary, and become a better English speaker. 

The Roots of Words

Most words in the English language are based on words from ancient Greek and Latin. The root of the word «vocabulary,» for example, is ​voc, a Latin root meaning «word» or «name.» This root also appears in such words as «advocacy,» «convocation,» «evocative,» «vocal,» and «vowel.» By dissecting words such as these, etymologists can study how a word has evolved over time and tell us about the cultures they came from.

In some cases, root words might be slightly transformed en route to becoming part of words that we’re familiar with. In the above example, «vowel» is a word that’s clearly related to the voc root and its family of derivative words, and yet the «c» in «voc» is not present. There are several reasons for this sort of pattern, and the changes often depend on what language each individual word comes from, but it serves as a reminder that not every word with the same root will look exactly the same.

Root words are also useful for creating new words, especially in technology and medicine, where new innovations occur frequently. Think of the Greek root word tele, which means «far,» and inventions that traverse long distances, such as the telegraph, telephone, and television. The word «technology» itself is a combination of two other Greek root words, techne, meaning «skill» or «art,» and logos, or «study.»

Because several modern languages share some of the same ancestor languages, it’s not entirely uncommon for several related languages to share root words. For instance, the Latin root voc, described above, is shared by several Romance languages. Connections between languages can be found in the shared roots between them, although one always has to be wary of false cognates — that is, words that sound like they have the same roots (and thus related meanings) but actually don’t.

Greek Root Words

The table below defines and illustrates 25 of the most common Greek roots.

Latin Root Words

The table below defines and illustrates 25 of the most common Latin roots.

​Understanding the meanings of the common word roots can help us deduce the meanings of new words that we encounter. But be careful: root words can have more than one meaning as well as various shades of meaning. In addition, words that look similar may derive from different roots.

In addition, a handful of root words can stand on their own as whole words in and of themselves. This list includes words such as photo, kinesis, chrome, port, and script. Words like this tend to have related meanings on their own, then can also act as roots for longer, more complex words.

Sources

• Bryant, Alice, and Robbins, Jill. «Grow Your Vocabulary by Learning Root Words.» VOANews.com, 28 November 2017.
• Grammarly staff. «Why You Should Learn Roots.» Grammarly.com, 6 February 2016.
• McCammon, Ellen. «50 GRE Words You Should Know.» PrepScholar.com, 8 February 2017.

This graph gives you a decent picture of the evolution of Indo-European languages:

The first line under Proto-Indo-European would benefit from a «Proto-» prefix, though (Proto-Indo-Iranian, Proto-Hellenic, etc.)

Derivation and borrowing are two different phenomena. Kernel English words derive from Proto-Indo-European, via Proto-Germanic, West-Germanic, Anglo-Frisian, Old English and Middle English. Words that come from Latin and Greek (or French, Old Norse, Celtic, Arabic or Nahuatl) are borrowings. You can spot the difference because the normal transformations that apply to derived words do not apply to borrowings. For instance, initial Latin /p/ corresponds to English initial /f/:

Pater — Father

Pisces — Fish

But English paternal, with an initial /p/ — which means it was borrowed from Latin, at a time when the transformation p->f was no longer taking place.

Most countable nouns form the plural by adding the ending s/es. (The rules of adding s/es and the peculiarities of adding s/es to the final letters Y, O, F, FE and to compound nouns are described in the material Adding the Ending s/es to Nouns and Verbs in the section Writing.)

A limited number of nouns have irregular plural forms, for example, names of some animals, some words of Latin or Greek origin.

Irregular plural forms

Some nouns form their plural not by adding the ending s/es, but by changing the letters in the root of the word.

man – men;

woman – women;

child – children;

ox – oxen;

mouse – mice;

louse – lice;

foot – feet;

tooth – teeth;

goose – geese.

Note: The noun «brother» (a member of a family) has a regular plural form: brother – brothers. If the noun «brother» is used in the meaning «a fellow member», it may have the archaic irregular plural form «brethren» (fellow members).

The same singular and plural form

Some nouns have the same singular and plural form.

one sheep – two sheep;

a deer – two deer;

a bison – five bison;

a moose – three moose;

a swine – several swine;

a fish – two fish;

a dozen – two dozen;

an aircraft – two aircraft;

a means – means;

a series – two series;

a species – different species;

a corps [ko:r] – corps [ko:rz];

a headquarters – headquarters;

a crossroads – crossroads;

an alms – alms;

a gallows – gallows;

a barracks – barracks.

Singular or plural verb form

If a noun with the same singular and plural form is used as the subject of a sentence, the choice of the singular or plural verb form depends on the meaning of the noun.

If the noun is singular in meaning, the singular form of the verb is used. For example:

A deer is a graceful animal.

The aircraft is ready for the flight.

The UN headquarters is in New York.

If the noun is plural in meaning, the plural form of the verb is used. For example:

Three sheep were missing.

Deer are rare in these places.

Modern aircraft are powerful machines.

Note: Different kinds

The word «fish» and the names of some fish, for example, «cod, flatfish, salmon, trout», usually have the same singular and plural form, especially in ordinary speech and writing. For example: She bought several fish, including a trout and two salmon. He caught three trout. They had fish for dinner.

In scientific literature, the plural form of such nouns is also often the same as the singular form. For example: Numerous varieties of fish are found in tropical waters. Tropical fish are usually brightly colored. Bass, cod, salmon, sturgeon and trout abound in these rivers and lakes.

When referring to different kinds, species and varieties, such nouns in the plural often have the plural ending s/es in scientific literature: freshwater fishes; aquarium fishes; cods, flatfishes, salmons, trouts, etc. For example: Tropical fishes are usually brightly colored. All fishes have fins.

Some uncountable mass nouns may also be used in the plural when referring to different kinds and varieties, usually in scientific literature. For example: the teas of India; soft cheeses; stainless steels. (See Articles: Uncountable Nouns in the section Grammar.)

Note: Names of animals (birds, fish, etc.) may be used as a notion representing the whole class of such species; in such cases, the noun is used in the singular with the definite article «the». For example: The leopard lives in forests. The blue whale is the largest of all mammals. (See Specific Use of THE in the section Grammar.)

Only in the plural

Nouns that denote an indivisible pair of things are used in the plural and with a plural verb. Such nouns are often used with the phrase «a pair of».

jeans; trousers, pants, slacks;

shorts, tights, breeches;

pajamas, briefs, panties;

scissors, pliers, tongs, pincers, forceps;

glasses, spectacles.

Examples:

These jeans are too long for me.

Your trousers are in the bedroom closet.

Where are my glasses?

Where are my gym tights?

She bought two pairs of jeans and a pair of shorts.

There is a pair of scissors in the kitchen.

Note: The word «pantyhose» is used in the singular.

Where is my new pantyhose?

She bought four pairs of pantyhose.

Some other plural nouns

There are some other nouns with the ending s/es that are used only in the plural, take a plural verb, and have no singular form in the given meaning.

For example: clothes, arms (weapons), goods, troops, remains, savings, belongings. In some of such cases there is a singular form, but its meaning is different (for example: a troop; troops).

These clothes need washing.

He lost all his savings.

Various consumer goods are sold in this store.

Only in the singular

Some uncountable nouns have the ending «s» in their form but are used only in the singular. For example: news; names of some games (billiards, dominoes, checkers, cards); names of some diseases (measles, mumps). Scientific subjects are also singular: mathematics, physics, phonetics, linguistics, economics, politics.

If such nouns are in the function of the subject, the verb is used in the singular form. For example:

No news is good news. (proverb)

Billiards is an interesting game.

Measles is a serious disease.

Mathematics is his favorite subject.

Note: The word «money» is used in the singular: Where is my money? This money is mine. Money makes money. Money talks. Money is the root of all evil. The plural forms «moneys, monies» are used mostly in law terminology in the meaning «sums of money».

Note: Nouns ending in «ics»

As described above, uncountable nouns ending in «ics» are used only in the singular. But some of them have meanings in which they are used in the plural, though such use is not very common.

For example, «statistics» as a science is used in the singular (Statistics is a science); «statistics» as numerical data is used in the plural (These statistics are not correct).

Other nouns that may be used in the same way: acoustics, economics, politics, gymnastics. For example:

Acoustics is a branch of physics. The acoustics of this concert hall are excellent.

She studied economics in college. What are the economics of this project?

He is studying politics. What are his politics?

Latin and Greek plural forms

Some nouns of Latin or Greek origin have kept their Latin or Greek plural endings. The plural ending «es» as in the word «analyses» is pronounced [i:z]; the ending «i» as in the word «alumni» is pronounced [ai]; the ending «ae» as in «vertebrae» is pronounced [i:].

Nouns with Latin and Greek plural endings in the list below are divided into groups according to the ending in the singular. The English plural ending s/es is also used with some of these nouns; in such cases, two variants are given, and the variant with the English ending s/es is marked with the letter (E).

Generally (but not always), English variants of plural forms are more common in ordinary speech and writing, and Latin and Greek variants are more common in scientific and academic texts.

The first variant of the plural forms in the list below is the variant that is usually listed first in American dictionaries. In some cases dictionaries differ on which of the two variants is more common.

In a few cases, English and Latin plural forms are different in meaning. For example: radio antennas, an insect’s antennae; mass media (radio, TV, newspapers), spiritualistic mediums (people regarded as mediums).

Note: The noun «data», the plural of «datum», can be used as singular or plural in meaning: this data; these data; there is no data. The noun «agenda», originally the plural of «agendum», is generally used as a singular noun: today’s agenda; a lengthy agenda.

Group 1

analysis – analyses

axis – axes

basis – bases

crisis – crises

diagnosis – diagnoses

ellipsis – ellipses

emphasis – emphases

genesis – geneses

hypothesis – hypotheses

oasis – oases

parenthesis – parentheses

synopsis – synopses

synthesis – syntheses

thesis – theses

Group 2

abacus – abacuses (E), abaci

alumnus – alumni

apparatus – apparatus, apparatuses (E)

cactus – cactuses (E), cacti

calculus – calculi, calculuses (E)

corpus – corpora

eucalyptus – eucalyptuses (E), eucalypti

focus – focuses (E), foci

fungus – fungi, funguses (E)

genus – genera, genuses (E)

hippopotamus – hippopotamuses (E), hippopotami

nucleus – nuclei, nucleuses (E)

octopus – octopuses (E), octopi

papyrus – papyri, papyruses (E)

platypus – platypuses (E), platypi

radius – radii, radiuses (E)

rhombus – rhombuses (E), rhombi

stimulus – stimuli

stylus – styluses (E), styli

syllabus – syllabuses (E), syllabi

terminus – termini, terminuses (E)

Group 3

automaton – automatons (E), automata

criterion – criteria

phenomenon – phenomena

polyhedron – polyhedrons (E), polyhedra

octahedron – octahedrons (E), octahedra

tetrahedron – tetrahedrons (E), tetrahedra

Group 4

addendum – addenda

aquarium – aquariums (E), aquaria

arboretum – arboretums (E), arboreta

atrium – atria, atriums (E)

bacterium – bacteria

compendium – compendiums (E), compendia

curriculum – curriculums (E), curricula

datum – data

emporium – emporiums (E), emporia

equilibrium – equilibriums (E), equilibria

erratum – errata

forum – forums (E), fora

maximum – maximums (E), maxima

medium – media

medium – mediums

memorandum – memorandums (E), memoranda

millennium – millenniums (E), millennia

planetarium – planetariums (E), planetaria

podium – podiums (E), podia

spectrum – spectra, spectrums (E)

stadium – stadiums (E), stadia

sternum – sterna, sternums (E)

stratum – strata, stratums (E)

symposium – symposiums (E), symposia

terrarium – terrariums (E), terraria

vacuum – vacuums (E), vacua

vivarium – vivariums (E), vivaria

Group 5

alumna – alumnae

antenna – (radio) antennas

antenna – (insects’) antennae

charisma – charismata

dogma – dogmas (E), dogmata

enigma – enigmas (E), enigmata

formula – formulas (E), formulae

stigma – stigmata, stigmas (E)

vertebra – vertebrae, vertebras (E)

Group 6

apex – apexes (E), apices

appendix – appendixes (E), appendices

index – indexes (E), indices

matrix – matrices, matrixes (E)

vertex – vertexes (E), vertices

vortex – vortexes (E), vortices.

Существительные с неправильной формой множественного числа

Большинство исчисляемых существительных образуют множественное число прибавлением окончания s/es. (Правила прибавления s/es и особенности прибавления s/es к конечным буквам Y, O, F, FE и к сложным существительным описаны в материале Adding the Ending s/es to Nouns and Verbs в разделе Writing.)

Ограниченное число существительных имеют неправильные формы мн. числа, например, названия некоторых животных, некоторые слова латинского или греческого происхождения.

Неправильные формы мн. числа

Некоторые существительные образуют множественное число не прибавлением окончания s/es, а изменением букв в корне слова.

мужчина – мужчины;

женщина – женщины;

ребенок – дети;

бык – быки, рогатый скот;

мышь – мыши;

вошь – вши;

ступня – ступни;

зуб – зубы;

гусь – гуси.

Примечание: Существительное «brother» (член семьи) имеет правильную форму мн. числа: brother (брат) – brothers (братья). Если существительное «brother» употреблено в значении «собрат, сотоварищ», оно может иметь устаревшую неправильную форму мн. числа «brethren» (собратья).

Одна и та же форма ед. и мн. числа

Некоторые существительные имеют одну и ту же форму ед. и мн. числа.

одна овца – две овцы;

один олень – два оленя;

бизон – пять бизонов;

лось – три лося;

свинья – несколько свиней;

рыба – две рыбы;

дюжина – две дюжины;

воздушное судно – два воздушных судна;

средство – средства;

серия – две серии;

вид, род – разные виды;

корпус, организация – корпусы, организации;

штаб – штабы;

перекрёсток, пересечение дорог – перекрёстки;

подаяние – подаяния;

виселица – виселицы;

казарма, барак – казармы, бараки.

Форма глагола в ед. или мн. числе

Если существительное с одинаковой формой ед. и мн. числа употреблено как подлежащее, выбор формы ед. или мн. числа глагола зависит от значения существительного.

Если существительное в ед. числе по значению, употребляется форма ед. числа глагола. Например:

Олень – грациозное животное.

Самолет готов к полёту.

Штаб-квартира ООН находится в Нью-Йорке.

Если существительное во мн. числе по значению, употребляется форма мн. числа глагола. Например:

Три овцы исчезли.

Олени редки в этих местах.

Современные самолёты – мощные машины.

Примечание: Различные виды

Слово «fish» и названия некоторых рыб, например, «cod, flatfish, salmon, trout», обычно имеют одну и ту же форму ед. и мн. числа, особенно в обычной устной и письменной речи. Например: Она купила несколько рыб, включая (одну) форель и двух лососей. Он поймал три форели. У них была рыба на обед.

В научной литературе, форма мн. числа таких существительных часто тоже одинакова с формой ед. числа. Например: Многочисленные виды рыб встречаются в тропических водах. Тропические рыбы обычно ярко окрашены. Окунь, треска, лосось, осётр и форель в изобилии встречаются в этих реках и озёрах.

Если имеются в виду различные виды и разновидности, такие существительные во мн. числе часто имеют окончание мн. числа s/es в научной литературе: freshwater fishes (виды пресноводных рыб); aquarium fishes (виды аквариумных рыб); cods, flatfishes, salmons, trouts и т.д. Например: Тропические рыбы обычно ярко окрашены. Все рыбы имеют плавники.

Некоторые неисчисляемые существительные массы могут тоже употребляться во мн. числе, когда имеются в виду различные виды, сорта, разновидности, обычно в научной литературе. Например: the teas of India (виды индийского чая); soft cheeses (мягкие сыры); stainless steels (виды нержавеющей стали). (См. Articles: Uncountable Nouns в разделе Grammar.)

Примечание: Названия животных (птиц, рыб и т.д.) могут употребляться как понятие, представляющее целый класс такого вида; в таких случаях, это существительное употребляется в ед. числе с определённым артиклем «the». Например: Леопард живёт в лесах. Голубой кит – самое крупное из всех млекопитающих. (См. Specific Use of THE в разделе Grammar.)

Только во мн. числе

Существительные, которые обозначают нераздельную пару, употребляются во мн. числе и с глаголом мн. числа. Такие существительные часто употребляются с фразой «a pair of» (пара).

джинсы; брюки;

шорты, колготки / трико, бриджи;

пижама, трусы, трусики;

ножницы, плоскогубцы, щипцы, щипчики, хирургические щипцы / пинцет;

очки.

Примеры:

Эти джинсы слишком длинные для меня.

Твои брюки во встроенном шкафу в спальне.

Где мои очки?

Где мои спортивные колготки / трико?

Она купила две пары джинсов и пару шортов.

На кухне есть пара ножниц.

Примечание: Слово «pantyhose» (колготки) употребляется в ед. числе.

Где мои новые колготки?

Она купила четыре пары колготок.

Некоторые другие существительные мн. числа

Есть некоторые другие существительные с окончанием s/es, которые употребляются только во мн. числе, принимают глагол во мн. числе и не имеют формы ед. числа в данном значении.

Например: clothes, arms (оружие), goods, troops, remains, savings, belongings. В некоторых таких случаях есть форма ед. числа, но её значение другое (например: группа людей; войска).

Эту одежду нужно постирать.

Он потерял все свои сбережения.

Различные потребительские товары продаются в этом магазине.

Только в ед. числе

Некоторые неисчисляемые существительные имеют окончание «s» по форме, но употребляются только в ед. числе. Например: news (новость); названия некоторых игр (бильярд, домино, шашки, карты); названия некоторых болезней (корь, свинка). Научные предметы тоже в ед. числе: математика, физика, фонетика, лингвистика, экономика, политика.

Если такие существительные в функции подлежащего, глагол употребляется в форме ед. числа. Например:

Отсутствие новостей – хорошая новость. (пословица)

Бильярд – интересная игра.

Корь – серьёзная болезнь.

Математика – его любимый предмет.

Примечание: Слово «money» употребляется в ед. числе: Where is my money? (Где мои деньги?) This money is mine. (Эти деньги мои.) Money makes money. (Деньги к деньгам идут.) Money talks. (С деньгами легче добиться.) Money is the root of all evil. (Деньги корень зла.) Формы мн. числа «moneys, monies» употребляются в основном в юридической терминологии в значении «денежные суммы».

Примечание: Существительные с окончанием «ics»

Как описано выше, неисчисляемые существительные, оканчивающиеся на «ics», употребляются только в ед. числе. Но некоторые из них имеют значения, в которых они употребляются во мн. числе, хотя такое употребление не очень распространено.

Например, «statistics» как наука употребляется в ед. числе (Statistics is a science); «statistics» как численные данные – во мн. числе (These statistics are not correct).

Другие существительные, которые могут употребляться таким же образом: acoustics, economics, politics, gymnastics. Например:

Акустика – это один из разделов физики. Акустические свойства этого концертного зала отличные.

Она изучала экономику в колледже. Каковы экономические характеристики этого проекта?

Он изучает политику. Каковы его политические взгляды?

Латинские и греческие формы мн. числа

Некоторые существительные латинского или греческого происхождения сохранили свои латинские или греческие окончания мн. числа. Окончание мн. числа «es» как в слове «analyses» произносится [i:z]; окончание «i» как в слове «alumni» произносится [ai]; окончание «ae» как в слове «vertebrae» произносится [i:].

Существительные с латинскими и греческими окончаниями мн. числа в списке ниже разделены на группы по окончанию ед. числа. Английское окончание мн. числа s/es также употребляется с некоторыми из этих существительных; в таких случаях даны два варианта, а вариант с английским окончанием s/es отмечен буквой (E).

Обычно (но не всегда), английские варианты форм мн. числа более употребительны в обычной устной и письменной речи, а латинские и греческие варианты более употребительны в научных и академических текстах.

Первый вариант форм мн. числа в списке ниже – это вариант, который обычно указывается первым в американских словарях. В некоторых случаях словари расходятся во мнениях, который из двух вариантов более употребителен.

В некоторых случаях, английская и латинская формы мн. числа различны по значению. Например: radio antennas, an insect’s antennae; mass media (радио, ТВ, газеты), spiritualistic mediums (люди, рассматриваемые как медиумы).

Примечание: Существительное «data» (данные), мн. число от «datum», может употребляться как ед. или мн. число по значению: this data; these data; there is no data. Существительное «agenda» (повестка дня), изначально мн. число от «agendum», обычно употребляется как существительное ед. числа: today’s agenda; a lengthy agenda.

Группа 1

анализ – анализы

ось – оси

базис, основа – основы

кризис – кризисы

диагноз – диагнозы

эллипсис, многоточие – многоточия

эмфаза, подчёркивание, выделение

происхождение, генезис

гипотеза – гипотезы

оазис – оазисы

круглая скобка – круглые скобки

синопсис, краткий обзор – краткие обзоры

синтез – синтезы

тезис, диссертация – тезисы, диссертации

Группа 2

счёты (как один предмет) – счёты (мн.ч.)

выпускник, бывший студент – выпускники

аппарат – аппараты

кактус – кактусы

исчисление – исчисления

корпус, свод, тело – корпусы

эвкалипт – эвкалипты

фокус – фокусы

грибок, плесень – грибки

род, вид, сорт – виды, сорта

гиппопотам – гиппопотамы

ядро – ядра

осьминог – осьминоги

папирус – папирусы

утконос – утконосы

радиус – радиусы

ромб – ромбы

стимул – стимулы

(техн.) игла, перо, щуп – иглы, щупы

учебный план – учебные планы

конец, конечный пункт – конечные пункты

Группа 3

автомат, робот – автоматы, роботы

критерий – критерии

феномен – феномены

многогранник – многогранники

октаэдр, восьмигранник – октаэдры

тетраэдр, четырёхгранник – тетраэдры

Группа 4

приложение – приложения

аквариум – аквариумы

дендрарий – дендрарии

атрий, атриум – атриумы

бактерия – бактерии

компендиум – компендиумы

программа (обучения) – программы (обучения)

данное – данные

торговый центр – торговые центры

равновесие, уравновешенность

опечатка – опечатки

форум – форумы

максимум – максимумы

способ, средство (связи) – средства (связи)

медиум – медиумы

меморандум – меморандумы

тысячелетие – тысячелетия

планетарий – планетарии

подиум – подиумы

спектр – спектры

стадион – стадионы

грудина – грудины

слой, пласт – слои, пласты

симпозиум – симпозиумы

террарий, террариум – террарии, террариумы

вакуум – вакуумы

виварий – виварии

Группа 5

выпускница – выпускницы

антенна – (радио) антенны

усик – усики (насекомых)

харизма

догма – догмы

загадка, необъяснимое явление – загадки

формула – формулы

клеймо, пятно – стигмы, стигматы, пятна

позвонок – позвонки

Группа 6

высшая точка, вершина – вершины

приложение – приложения

индекс – индексы

матрица, форма – матрицы, формы

вершина, макушка – вершины

водоворот, вихрь – водовороты.

Introduction

In dealing with the etymology, Greek and Latin being the dominant languages since ancient times when the art and sciences started to provide importance to the way people live were inherently used. Today, most scientific terms are based on Greek and Latin as these have provided classic as well as unchanging form and structure that supports what scientists and researchers need. Words have always been considered a part of human culture and social life so that these also grown, evolve, and even go extinct.

Etymology, the study of the history of words provides the stage when they entered a language, provide a source, as well as how their form and meaning have changed over time. At most, etymology made use of philology or the study of how words change from culture to culture. The method of comparative linguistics is also applied by etymologists to reconstruct information about words that are too old for direct information. Related languages are analyzed through the comparative method wherein linguists make inferences, about shared parent language or vocabulary. Word roots are found this way and maybe traced back to their origin (Lieberman, 2005).

The etymological theory recognizes that words originated through limited ways with basic mechanisms as follows:

• Borrowing or the adoption of loanwords from other languages.
• Word formation as derivation and compounding.
• Onomatopoeia and sound symbolism or the creation of imitative words.

In addition, new words tend to become obscured through time due to sound change, and semantic change. In most cases, combinations of etymological mechanisms were applied.

Hence, the combination of sound change and semantic change usually created etymological connections that are difficult to detect by merely looking at the modern word forms. Components of compounded words further yielded modern languages loaf and ward (Lieberman, 2005).

This paper shall focus on the etymology of 15-25 words selected to form this passage “What Killed the Woolly Mammoth?” conducted by Sedwick (2008).

Discussion

Biology is from the Greek word Βιολογία – βίος, broken down as bio, or “life”; and λόγος, logos or “speech” which literally would mean “to talk about life.” Biology is generally understood as the scientific study of life which examines in detail the structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, and distribution of living things. Furthermore, Biology classifies and describes organisms, their functions, how species come into existence, and the interactions they have with each other as well as with their natural environments. The unifying principles form the foundation of modern biology which is cell theory, evolution, genetics, and homeostasis (King and Roberts, 1986).

The cell is a Latin word that may mean a “small room,” and originally cella or “small hut.”

Evolution is another Latin word that means “to unfold, open out, expand.” It is from the Latin evolve that means “unroll”, and from ex which means “out” added with volvere meaning “to roll”. (OED, 2008). The word was first used in the modern scientific sense in 1832 by Scottish geologist Charles Lyell.

About the article, this paper proceeds to the summary of the paper which provides a glimpse on the background of the wooly mammoth believed to have walked through the frozen steppes of the Eurasian continents in the last glacial advance. Glacial is basically from the Latin word glacialis which means “icy, frozen or full of ice” or glacies which also means “ice.” The article proceeded to claim that the huge beasts also thrive in the arid tundra, with arid meaning “dry, parched” from the Latin aridus and from arere meaning “to be dry.” (OED, 2008).

By 6,000, the mammoth was almost extinct during the Holocene epoch. While holocene is French, it originally came from the Greek terms holo meaning “hole” and kainos, meaning “new” or “recent”. However, the mammoths, according to David Nogués-Bravo and colleagues were finally erased on the face of the earth due to climate change. Climate is from the Greek word climatis meaning “region, zone”. Mikhail Admas who retrieved the first fossilized woolly mammoth remains from Russia in 1806 stoked the interest of scientists in this ancient relative of the Asian elephant. Since, they had speculated on habitat disappearance, warmed planet, vegetation and precipitation, and human hunters as causes. Habitat is believed to have been used since 1762 as a technical term in Latin texts on English flora and fauna which means “it inhabits”. It is also related to habitare meaning “to live, dwell,” and frequently of habere which means “to have, to hold, possess.” Planet, on the other hand, comes from the Latin planeta or Greek’s asteres planetai or “wandering stars.” Vegetation comes from the Latin vegetatus, or vegetare meaning “to enliven, to animate.”

In a study of Nogués-Bravo et al. as mentioned by Sedwick (2008), it attempted to generate quantitative estimates of the interplay between the mammoth’s disappearing range and warming versus hunting. The authors performed quantitative modeling of the climatic conditions inhabited by the mammoth in several periods of the last ice age with the model relating the fossil record and showing the distribution and age of mammoth remains. Model in this way is originally traced from the Latin modulus meaning to “measure, standard.” Condition originates from the Latin condicionem which means “agreement, situation.”

The study found that mammoths experienced a catastrophic loss of habitat: as the last glaciers retreated and the planet warmed, 90% of the animals’ former habitat disappeared. Catastrophe is to be understood as from the Greek word katastrephein menaing “to overturn” and from kata menaing “down” added to strephein meaning “turn.” About 126,000 years ago, only 0.3 million square kilometers of prime habitat existed and the animal is believed to have teetered on the brink of extinction since they are geographically isolated groups experienced declines in genetic diversity and fitness. Isolate is believed to come from the Latin insulatus meaning “made into an island” and in turn originating from insula meaning “island.”

But even if some mammoths managed to survive that catastrophe, the remaining mammoth herds had to face another threat: human hunters that drove them to extinction by 126,000 years ago. By the study’s estimate at that time, each human killed just one mammoth every 3 years to drive them to extinction. Extinct comes from the Latin extinctus or of extinguere meaning “of fires” or the sense of “dying out”.

The words used in this article which are basically Latin or Greek of origins are Glacial Arid, Holocene, Climate, Planet, Habitat, Vegetation, Catastrophe, Isolate, and Extinct. The terms are mostly describing an existing period or place such as glacial, arid, Holocene, planet, and habitat. Vegetation on the other is a noun that describes or refers to existing plant life of a region although it may also refer to the ground cover life forms, structure, spatial extent or any other specific botanical or geographic characteristics. Extinction on the other hand is another biological and ecological word referring to the cessation of presence of a species or group of taxa which is directly linked to reduction of biodiversity.

These terms were important in the article as the article describes a certain passage or event that transpired on the extinct mammoths. They provided the exact backdrop to make a certain scene clear and understandable for the readers or those who would be interested about the study with regards to the cause of the extinction of the huge beast. At most and more specifically, the terms glacial, arid and catastrophe refer to climate and climate change while the word isolate may scientifically refer to speciation or separation of two populations of a species. Other supportive terms biology, condition, model, cell, evolution, among others used by this paper were equally important as basis for the understanding of the topic.

Conclusion

Through the use and understanding of the origins of words in the field of biology, certain aspects or conditions of terms embody that which specifically denote an idea or certain character and event.

Using the article that provided a synopsis of the extinction of mammoths, this paper was able to indicate the relevance of biological terms with regards to history and denotation. It provided a clearer as well as authority on the events and biological words mentioned in this study. Mammoths are no longer a part of the modern planet although research has indicated their existence or presence in a given period. These were further analyzed and given a deeper understanding so as to clear issues about animal species extinction. While humans may be an specie that is difficult to predict as extinct in the imagination, science fiction and science provides valid details on how species may become extinct sooner or later.

It is therefore concluded that Greek and Latin etymological terms in most fields of the sciences are important and gives credence to their uses. Studies in the filed of biology uses a lot of Greek and Latin originated terms that were used a long, long time ago, and would still be useful now and in the years to come. It is therefore necessary that classical roots be determined in order to provide a continuing validity for words of ancient as well as modern times.

Reference

Sedwick C (2008) “What Killed the Woolly Mammoth?” PLoS Biol 6(4): e99.

King, TJ & Roberts, MBV (1986). Biology: A Functional Approach. Thomas Nelson and Sons.

Online Etymology Dictionary (2008). Web.

Liberman, Anatoly (2005) “Word Origins…and How We Know Them: Etymology for Everyone.”