Language as a historical phenomenon the relationship between extralinguistic reality and word

Язык историческое явление. Это не остаются неизменными для любого значительного периода времени или в течение любого времени на все, но она постоянно меняется протяжении всей своей истории.
История английского языка является одним из основных курсов, формирующих языковую фон специалиста в филологии. Это показывает место среди английском других языках и обеспечивает более широкий подход к его изучению; это показывает связей английского языка с других германских языках, а также он связывает с языками других групп.
Эволюция английского языка тесно связана с историей английского народа.
Таким образом, объектом истории английского языка язык . Сама его фонетические, грамматические и лексические аспекты
предметом курса является:
• основные изменения в фонетической структуре и орфографии языка на разных этапах развития языка;
• эволюции грамматического строя;
• рост и развитие словарного запаса. Таким образом, предметом нашего курса является изменение характера языка посредством более чем 15 столетий своего существования. Она изучает возникновение и развитие английского языка, его структуры и особенностей в старину, его сходство с другими языками и той же семьи и его уникальных особенностей. Она начинается с видом на началах языке, первоначально диалектов сравнительно небольшое число родственных племен, которые мигрировали с континента на Британские острова, диалектов индоевропейской семьи — синтетический изменяемую язык с хорошо развитой системой именных форм, довольно слабо представлены системы глагольных категорий, с бесплатным слова Порядок и словарный запас, что практически полностью состоял из слов местного происхождения. В фонологии было строгое разделение гласных в длинных и коротких, сравнительно немногих дифтонгов и неразвитая система согласных. Могучие факторы повлияли на язык преобразования его в основном аналитической языке сегодня, с нехваткой номинальных форм и словесной системе, что значительно перевешивает системах многих других европейских языках. Его система гласных богат, его словарный запас огромен. Его написание система довольно запутанной. Цель изучения истории английского языка расследование и систематическое изучение языкового развития с древнейших времен до наших дней. Кроме того изучение истории английского языка студент достигает разнообразие стремится как теоретического, так и практического. 1. Во-первых, обеспечивает студента со знанием лингвистической истории достаточной для объяснения основных черт современного английского языка. Например, через столетия писал и написание меняется на английском языке. В то время, когда латинские буквы были впервые использованы в Великобритании (7 в.) Письмо было фонетическое: буквы стоял тот же звук. После введения печати (15 в.) В письменной форме слова стали фиксированными, в то время как звуки продолжает меняться. Мы столкнулись с рядом особенностей, которые появляются непонятные от современной точки зрения. Эти особенности могут быть найдены в грамматике, фонетике и словарного: любой студент знает о трудностях на чтение и написание слов, где звуки, представленных рядом букв, например: свет, дочь, знаете, и спрашивает, почему сочетание «EA» указывает разные Звучит например: говорить, здорово, услышать, сердце, голову. В сфере лексики имеется значительный сходство между английской и немецкой, например: зимой — дер зима, лето — дер Соммер. Такие черты наблюдаются во многих языках, но мы не можем объяснить их, если мы остаемся в рамках современного английского языка, мы можем только догадываться, что они не являются предметом случайно, и что должно быть какая-то причина позади них. Эти причины относятся к более или менее отдаленное прошлое, и они могут быть обнаружены только собирается в истории английского языка. История английского языка может объяснить, почему некоторые вещества образуют множественное число их изменением корневой гласной, например: человеко-мужчин или почему слова «овец, оленей» имеют неизменным во множественном числе или почему глаголы «должен могут» не принять -s в 3-м лице единственного числа настоящего времени изъявительного. 2. Другой важной целью данного курса носит более теоретический характер. В то время как проследить эволюцию английского языка во времени, студент будет сталкиваться с рядом теоретических вопросов, таких, как отношения между статикой и динамикой в языке, роль лингвистических и экстралингвистических факторов и так далее. Эти проблемы могут быть рассмотрены на теоретическом плане в рамках общей лингвистике. В описании эволюции английского языка, они будут обсуждаться в отношении конкретных языковых фактов, которые обеспечат лучшее понимание этих фактов и демонстрируют применение общих принципов к языкового материала. 3. Еще одна цель этого курса заключается в предоставлении студентам английского языка с более широким филологического мировоззрения. История английского языка показывает место английского языка в языковой мире. Для достижения этих целей студент должен знать теоретические основы предмета и работать с текстом, чтобы применить теоретические знания для практического анализа английских текстов в разные периоды развития языка. Таким образом, основная цель изучения истории английского языка, чтобы объяснить современном этапе языка для того, чтобы студент английского языка, чтобы читать книги и говорить на языке с пониманием усложнить » Механизм «они используют.

Lecture 1

1. What are the basic elements of the relationship between a language and extralinguistic world?

The relation of language to the extralinguistic world involves three basic sets of elements: language signs, mental concepts

and parts of the extralinguistic world (not necessarily material or physically really existing) which are usually called denotata

(Singular: denotatum).

2. What is a language sign, a concept and a denotatum? Give definitions. Show the relation between them?

The LS is a sequence of sounds (in spoken language) or symbols (in written language) which is associated with a single

concept in the minds of speakers of that or another language. Те, що ми написали чи сказали.

The MC is an array of mental images and associations related to a particular part of the extralinguistic world (both really

existing and imaginary), on the one hand, and connected with a particular language sign, on the other. Тлумачення. Яка який

яке?

Denotata- parts of the extralinguistic world (not necessarily material or physically really existing)- object + concept.

Denotatum is the actual object or meaning of a word, rather than the feeling or ideas connected with the word.

The relation between words (language signs) and parts of the extralinguistic world (denotata) is only indirect and going

through the mental concepts.

The relationship between a language sign and a concept is ambiguous: it is often different even in the minds of different

people, speaking the same language, though it has much in common, hence, is recognizable by all the members of the

language speakers community.

3. What is a lexical meaning, a connotation and an association? Give definitions and examples.

LM is the general mental concept corresponding to a word or a combination of words.

noodle — 1. type of paste of flour and water or flour and eggs pre- pared in long, narrow strips and used in soups, with a sauce,

etc.; 2. fool.

Connotation is an additional, contrastive value of the basic usually designative function of the lexical meaning. (emotional

attitude). For example, blue is a color, but it is also a word used to describe a feeling of sadness, as in: “She’s feeling blue.”

Connotations can be either positive, negative, or neutral.

Compare the words to die(померти) and to peg out(здихати). It is easy to note that the former has no connotation, whereas

the latter has a definite connotation of vulgarity.

An association is a more or less regular connection established between the given and other mental concepts in the minds of

the language speakers.

A rather regular association is established between green and fresh {young) and between green and environment protection.

4. What is the range of application of a word? Give examples.

The peculiarities of conceptual fragmentation of the world by the language speakers are manifested by the range of

application of the lexical meanings (reflected in limitations in the combination of words and stylistic peculiarities). This is

yet another problem having direct relation to translation — a translator is to observe the compatibility rules of the language

signs (e. g. make mistakes, but do business).

5. What are the main sources of translation ambiguity stemming from the sign-concept relationship?

The concepts being strongly subjective and largely different in different languages for similar denotata give rise to one of the

most difficult problems of translation, the problem of ambiguity of translation equivalents(неоднозначність

еквівалентів перекладу).

Denotata — parts of the extralinguistic world (not necessarily material or physically really existing)- object + concept.

Denotatum is the actual object or meaning of a word, rather than the feeling or ideas connected with the word.

Another source of translation ambiguity is the polysemantic nature of the language signs: the relationship between the signs

and concepts is very seldom one-to-one, most frequently it is one-to-many or many-to-one, i.e. one word has several meanings

or several words have similar meanings.

Introduction. The subject matter of lexicology

Plan

1. The
   subject matter of lexicology.

2. Lexicology
   in its relations to grammar, phonology and stylistics.

/.
THE
SUBJECT MATTER OF LEXICOLOGY

Lexicology
(Gr.
Lexis
— «word»
and logos
—
«learning») is a branch of linguistics that studies the
vocabulary of a given language. Its subject matter
is words and their meaning, their etymology and structural
peculiarities, their stability and synonymic relations, their
stylistic value.

Lexicology
should be organically related to all branches of linguistics such as
phonetics, stylistics, grammar and history of the language.

Changes
of word meanings undergone by words in the course of language
development are described by semasiology.
The
semantic structure of words
is described in terms of lexico-semantic variation, distributional
value and synonymic differentiation. This part of the science of
language is the
basis of lexicology.
Lexicology
should also include information on compiling dictionaries.
This
is called lexicography.

The
general study of words and vocabulary, irrespective of the specific
features of any particular language, is known as general
lexicology. The
description of the characteristic peculiarities in the vocabulary of
a given language is the subject matter of special
lexicology. The
latter is based on the fundamental principles of general lexicology,
which forms a part of general science of language.

Language
is highly organized and systematic. The central interest in
vocabulary studies lies therefore in determining the properties of
words and different
sort of relationships existing between them in a language. The ways
in which the development of meaning is influenced by extralinguistic
reality deserve considerable attention as well. The notions rendered
in word-meanings are, in fact, generalized reflections of things and
phenomena of
the outside world, the connection of words with the elements of
objective reality and their relevance to the mental and cultural
development of human
society. Things that are connected in reality come to be naturally
connected in language too. The study of language in our day has taken
on new
vitality and interest.

The
subject matter of
historical lexicology is
the evolution of the vocabulary. Dealing with changes that occur in
time this part of linguistics treats of origin of words and their
development, investigates the linguistic and extralinguistic forces
modifying the structure of words, their meaning and usage. Historical
lexicology must survey the vocabulary as a system in its evolution,
describing its change and development in the course of time.

The
study of the vocabulary in its synchronic aspect, i.e. at a given
stage of its development (in its modern state), is the subject matter
of descriptive
lexicology.

As
any science, lexicology directs upon its subject matter a close
scrutiny attempting to produce careful objective descriptions of
linguistic facts and refine the results of its observations.

All
the words in a language make up what is generally called the
vocabulary of the language.

The
volume and the character of the vocabulary are determined by the
social-economic and cultural history of the people speaking the
language. Social, political and cultural changes in human society
cause changes in the vocabulary of the language. The vocabulary grows
and changes together with
the development of human society. Language as a whole in all its
aspects, its words and idioms, its peculiarities of constitution, its
pronunciation, and the very tones of voice, language in its
completeness, is the most perfect mirror of the manners of the age.
Words are the necessary tools with which we convey thoughts and
feelings. When a new product, a new conception comes into the thought
of a people, it inevitably
finds a name in their language. A vocabulary is a kind of mirror,
reflecting the character, the mentality and the activity of the
people who use it; it is most sensible to changes and never remains
stable. Like all other forms of life, living languages are in a
constant state of evolution.

The
rapid advances which are being made in scientific knowledge, the
extension of sciences and arts to many new purposes and objects
create a continual demand for the formation of new words to express
new ideas, new agencies and new wants.

The
history of a community must be reflected in changes of the
vocabulary; as objects and ideas are forgotten, the corresponding
words or phrases
must be out of use, and as new knowledge is gained linguistic forms
to match it appear.

A
major interest is presented by linguistic relationships of lexical
units within the vocabulary. Distinction must be made at this point
between syntagmatic
and
paradigmatic
relations;
the former are based on the linear character of speech and are
studied by means of contextual, transformational
and other types of analysis, the latter reveal themselves in the
morphemic structure of words and are described in terms of morphemes
and their arrangement.

In
paradigmatic relationships we naturally distinguish:

(a)
the interdependence of elements within words,

(b)
the interdependence of words within
the vocabulary,

(c)
the influence of other aspects of the same language.

2.
LEXICOLOGY IN ITS RELATION TO GRAMMAR, PHONOLOGY AND STYLISTICS

As
a branch of linguistics lexicology has its own aims and methods of
scientific research; its main task is the study of the vocabulary of
a given language.
It must be borne in mind that the language system is so complex that
when we come to consider the best way in which one should arrange
linguistic
facts we are always confronted with the problem of the proper
distinction between all levels of linguistic organization.

The
affinities between these levels will always remind us that one level
of linguistic structure cannot well be treated in isolation from each
other.

No
part of a language can be adequately described without reference to
all other parts.

Internal
relations of elements within complex wholes are of the essence of
language with its many interdependent structures and systems at all
levels, the functions of every linguistic element and abstraction
being dependent on its relative place therein. This is, in fact, one
of the fundamental features of language and of the treatment of
language in modern linguistics.

Syntagmatic
and paradigmatic relations are nearly as important in vocabulary
studies as they are at the levels of grammar and phonology.

Different
ways of word-making, for instance, give sufficient evidence to say
that word-making can be assigned equally well to the provinces of
lexis
and grammar. The categories and types of word-formation, which
characterize the present-day English linguistic system, are largely
dependent upon
its grammatical structure.

Take
such examples as nouns used in the plural in a special sense:

ach’ice
=
counsel,
advices =
information

colour
=
tint,
colours — 1)
plural of tint, 2) flag

custom
=
habit,
customs= 1)
plural of habit, 2) duties

spectacle
= sight, spectacles = 1)
plural of sight, 2) eyeglasses

damage
= injury, damages =
compensation for injury

Sometimes,
when two kinds of pluralization, have produced two plurals of a word,
different uses and meanings have resulted, and as a consequence
the older form has not been ousted by the -s
form.
This can be seen in such pairs as:

brother-
brethren, brothers

cloth-cloths,
clothes

cow-kine,
cows

fish-fish,
fishes

die-
dice, dies

penny-pence,
pennies

No
right line of demarcation can be drawn between grammatical and
lexical meanings.

Some
concrete nouns may be used both as mass-nouns and as thing-nouns.

In
the latter meaning they may form s-plural;
fruit is used in the singular,
the plural fruits
is
used only when meaning «different kinds of fruit», the
plural form may also be used figuratively, as in fruits
of labour; fish is
generally used in the singular, the plural
fishes means
«different kinds of fish».

We
should distinguish grammar and vocabulary in terms of different kind
of generality.

Some
linguistic facts on the lexical level are no less general than those
in grammar, word-making, in particular. And with this comes the
realization
that there is a system in vocabulary, and lexicology must reasonably
treat not only of specific but also of general facts.

The
interrelation between vocabulary
and
grammar
is
not less characteristic in making new words through conversion, which
has existed at all stages
of the language and has flourished most in Modern English. A
converted word

develops
a meaning of its own and diverges so far from its original
function that it is felt to be an independent word, a homonym.

The
constant reciprocal action of vocabulary and
grammar
will be exemplified by different processes of compounding, most
productive in various languages, English including.

Contextual
restrictions of word-meanings deserve special attention.

A
single unambiguous word meaning is not always automatically assured.
Compare the following;

1. to
   smoke a cigarette;

2. to
   smoke fish, meat, etc
   (=
   to care meat, fish, etc.).

1. The
   table is round (table =
   an article of furniture);

2. The
   fruit was unfit for table (table =
   meal);

3. The
   table of contents (table +
   a condensed tabulated statement, a schedule).

   Examples
   like these may be given in numbers.

Mention
must be made at this point about the language basis for ambiguities
and their resolution. There are different types of ambiguity. The
first and
most familiar is a matter of vocabulary. Many words, including almost
all the common ones, are known to have two or more distinct meanings.
The combinations taking any of the available meanings for each word
in a sentence may be extremely numerous.

In
the resolution of vocabulary ambiguities one factor primary in
importance is grammatical structure. And this must always be taken
account of in the study of language or of any single system within
language.

The
meaning of the word is very often signalled by the «grammatical»
context in which it occurs.

Compare
the variant lexical meanings of the verb take
in
the following sentences:

She
took a book from the table.

She
took to thinking.

She
took me to be asleep.

He
took to the life of travelling.

You
were late, 1 take it (/
take
it =
I suppose).

The
verb to
mean + infinitive
means “to
intend»,
to
mean + gerund
means «to signify», «to have as a consequence»,
«to result in something». Compare
the following:

1. He
   had never really meant to write that letter —
   He
   had never intended to write that letter.

2. This
   means changing all my plans —
   This
   resulted in changing all my plans.

To
remember+gerund
refers to the past and means «not to need to be reminded»,
to
remember +
infinitive refers to the future and means «not to omit
to do something».

The
construction verb + gerund can also be compared with one consisting
of verb + adverbial infinitive, e.g.:

1. The
   horse stopped to drink;

2. The
   horse stopped drinking.

Further
examples of the so-called «grammatical» context, which
operates to convey the necessary meaning, will be found in cases
when, for instance, the passive form of the verb gives a clue
concerning its particular lexical meaning. For example, the verb to
succeed, as
registered in dictionaries,
can mean:

1. слідувати
   за чимось, кимсь, бути наступником,
   змінювати;

2. мати
   успіх, досягати успіху, досягати мети,
   удаватись.

As
is known, the passive form of this verb excludes the secondary range
of its meaning.

That
lexicology should be viewed in relation to other parts of linguistic
learning, such as phonetics and style, is also quite obvious.

The
phonetic
interpretation of
the linguistic material is of undoubted interest in modern language
learning.

This
dimension in phonetic analysis appears when sounds that have a
recognized status when considered as individual segments are strung
together
in a sustained flow of talk. When a single phoneme, for instance, is
examined in relation to a total constellation of sounds in which it
may appear, the factors of pitch, loudness, rhythm, duration and
juncture are at once observed. These five factors are also phonemes.
In phonemic terms, they are called prosodic
or
suprasegmental
(in
contrast to segmental phonemes). All these are of primary importance
in talk as it appears in action.

The
meaning of a word may sometimes rely on the situation of the accent
expressed mainly in terms of pitch (where there are no associated
changes
of quality), e.g.:

rebel
[‘
rebl] (n) — [ri ‘ bel] (v)

Further
examples are such words as: anyone,
anything, anybody following
a negative which may have a different meaning according to their
pitch
pattern, e.g.:

/
‘can
t ‘eat anything -1 can eat nothing.

I
‘can’t eat anything -1 can eat some things.

Even
more subtle distinctions fairly common in English, can be observed in
such cases, as for instance, green
house and greenhouse, big black snake and
big
blacksnake, blue bottle and
bluebottle.
In
each of these pairs there is a difference in meaning and it is
indicated not by individual phonemes but by overall pattern
they produce. The same phenomenon may be observed in other
structures.

In
cases when the lexical meaning of the words admits either
interpretation without lexico-grammatical incongruity, ambiguity is
presented in actual speech by contrast in intonation patterns. Thus,
for instance, a
dancing girl with
rise in pitch and primary stress both on the head-word girl
marks
dancing
as
a present participle: a
girl performing the act of dancing.
But a
dancing girl,
with primary stress and rise in pitch both on the head-word
and the modifier dancing,
identifies
dancing
as
a verbal noun and signals the meaning a
dancer – танцівниця.

That
there is a close relationship between lexicology
and
stylistics
is
also obvious.

Stylistics
treats
of selection among the linguistic forms described by grammar and
lexicology. For its great part it treats of the artistic modification
of
speech for the sake of securing a particular effect of emotional
colouring in pictorial language.

The
study of the vocabulary leads us to the observation that many words
suggest more that they literally mean, and sometimes words which have
the same literal or actual meaning (denotation) differ widely in
their suggested meaning (connotation). Some words are more general,
colourless and neutral
in tone. But other words have a distinctly literary or poetic
flavour, or suggestion, which may be colloquial (informal), formal,
humorous, vulgar,
slangy, childish, stilted, learned, technical and so on through the
various labels by which we may indicate the standing level of a word.

Multiformity
of synonymic forms of expression, and transpositions on the lexical
level, which we study in lexicology, are closely connected with the
stylistic
differentiation of a national language.

It
is obvious from what has been said above that it is quite impossible
to learn a foreign language on a lexical basis alone. Nevertheless
the knowledge
of lexicology provides us with a clear understanding of the laws of
vocabulary development and helps to master the language.

REVISION
MATERIAL

Suggested
Assignments on Lecture 1

1. Be
   ready to discuss the subject matter of lexicology.

2. Discuss
   the statement that lexicology must be viewed in relation to other
   aspects of language learning.

3. Give
   illustrative examples to show that the lexical meaning of the word
   is very often signalled by the “grammatical” context in which it
   occurs.

4. Give
   examples to show that the phonetic interpretation of the linguistic
   units is of undoubted interest in vocabulary studies.

5. Be
   ready to discuss the relationship between lexicology and stylistics.

6. Give
   comment on the diachronic and synchronic approach in vocabulary
   studies.

7. Comment
   on the fundamental principles of structural linguistics.

8. Be
   ready to discuss the basic concepts of the descriptive theory.

9. Give
   a few examples of contrastive, non-contrastive and complementary
   distribution.

10. How
    can we illustrate the influence of linguistic context on
    word-meanings?

11.Comment
on the difference between syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations
between words.

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Практические расчеты на срез и смятие При изучении темы обратите внимание на основные расчетные предпосылки и условности расчета…

Функция спроса населения на данный товар Функция спроса населения на данный товар: Qd=7-Р. Функция предложения: Qs= -5+2Р,где…

Аальтернативная стоимость. Кривая производственных возможностей В экономике Буридании есть 100 ед. труда с производительностью 4 м ткани или 2 кг мяса…

Вычисление основной дактилоскопической формулы Вычислением основной дактоформулы обычно занимается следователь. Для этого все десять пальцев разбиваются на пять пар…