Japanese word zen means

Japanese Zen refers to the Japanese forms of Zen Buddhism, an originally Chinese Mahāyāna school of Buddhism that strongly emphasizes dhyāna, the meditative training of awareness and equanimity. This practice, according to Zen proponents, gives insight into one’s true nature, or the emptiness of inherent existence, which opens the way to a liberated way of living.

Kamakura Daibutsu of Kōtoku-in temple in Kamakura, Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan

Japanese Zen
Chinese name
Simplified Chinese	禅
Traditional Chinese	禪
Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Chán Yue: Cantonese Jyutping Sim4
Vietnamese name
Vietnamese alphabet	Thiền
Chữ Hán	禪
Korean name
Hangul	선
Hanja	禪
Transcriptions Revised Romanization Seon
Japanese name
Kanji	禅
Transcriptions Romanization Zen

See also Zen for an overview of Zen, Chan Buddhism for the Chinese origins, and Sōtō, Rinzai and Ōbaku for the three main schools of Zen in Japan

HistoryEdit

OriginsEdit

According to tradition, Zen originated in India, when Gautama Buddha held up a flower and Mahākāśyapa smiled. With this smile he showed that he had understood the wordless essence of the dharma. This way the dharma was transmitted to Mahākāśyapa, the second patriarch of Zen.^[1]

The term Zen is derived from the Japanese pronunciation of the Middle Chinese word 禪 (chán), an abbreviation of 禪那 (chánnà), which is a Chinese transliteration of the Sanskrit word of dhyāna («meditation»). Buddhism was introduced from India to China in the first century AD. According to tradition, Chan was introduced around 500 C.E. by Bodhidharma, an Indian monk teaching dhyāna. He was the 28th Indian patriarch of Zen and the first Chinese patriarch.^[1]

Early Japanese ZenEdit

Zen was first introduced into Japan as early as 653-656 C.E. in the Asuka period (538–710 C.E.), at the time when the set of Zen monastic regulations was still nonexistent and Chan masters were willing to instruct anyone regardless of buddhist ordination. Dōshō (道昭, 629–700 C.E.) went over to China in 653 C.E., where he learned Chan from the famed Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang (玄奘, 602 – 664 C.E.), and he studied more fully with a disciple of the second Chinese patriarch, Huike (慧可, 487–593 C.E.) . After returning home, Dōshō established the Hossō school, basing it on Yogācāra philosophy and built a Meditation Hall for the purpose of practising Zen in the Gangō-ji in Nara. In the Nara period (710 to 794 C.E.), the Chan master, Dao-xuan (道璿, 702-760 C.E.), arrived in Japan, he taught meditation techniques to the monk Gyōhyō (行表, 720–797 C.E.), who in turn was to instruct Saichō (最澄, 767-822 C.E.), founder of the Japanese Tendai sect of Buddhism. Saicho visited Tang China in 804 C.E. as part of an official embassy sent by Emperor Kammu (桓武天皇, 781-806 C.E.). There he studied four branches of Buddhism including Chan and Tiantai, which he was, by that time, already familiar with.

The first attempt of establishing Zen as an independent doctrine was in 815, when the Chinese monk Yikong (義空) visited Japan as the representative of Chan’s Southern-school lineage, based on the teachings of the master Mazu Daoyi (馬祖道一, 709–788 C.E.), who was the mentor of Baizhang (百丈懐海, 720–814 C.E.), the supposed author of the initial set of Zen monastic regulations. Yikong arrived in 815 C.E. and tried unsuccessfully to transmit Zen systematically to the eastern nation. It is recorded in an inscription left at the famous Rashõmon gate protecting the southern entryway to Kyoto that, on leaving to return to China, Yikong said he was aware of the futility of his efforts due to hostility and opposition he experienced from the dominant Tendai Buddhist school. What existed of Zen in the Heian period (794-1185 C.E.) was incorporated into and subordinate to the Tendai tradition . The early phase of Japanese Zen has been labeled «syncretic» because Chan teachings and practices were initially combined with familiar Tendai and Shingon forms.^{[2][3][4][5][6][7]}

Kamakura (1185–1333 C.E.)Edit

Zen found difficulties in establishing itself as a separate school in Japan until the 12th century, largely because of opposition, influence, power and criticism by the Tendai school. During the Kamakura period (1185–1333 C.E.), Nōnin established the first independent Zen school on Japanese soil, known as the short-lived and disapproved Daruma school.^[7][6] In 1189 Nōnin^[8] sent two students to China, to meet with Cho-an Te-kuang (1121–1203 C.E.), and ask for the recognition of Nōnin as a Zen-master. This recognition was granted.^[9]

In 1168 C.E., Eisai traveled to China, whereafter he studied Tendai for twenty years.^[10] In 1187 C.E. he went to China again, and returned to establish a local branch of the Linji school, which is known in Japan as the Rinzai school.^[11] Decades later, Nampo Jōmyō (南浦紹明) (1235–1308 C.E.) also studied Linji teachings in China before founding the Japanese Ōtōkan lineage, the most influential branch of Rinzai.

In 1215 C.E., Dōgen, a younger contemporary of Eisai’s, journeyed to China himself, where he became a disciple of the Caodong master Rujing. After his return, Dōgen established the Sōtō school, the Japanese branch of Caodong.^[11]

Zen fit the way of life of the samurai: confronting death without fear, and acting in a spontaneous and intuitive way.^[11]

During this period the Five Mountain System was established, which institutionalized an influential part of the Rinzai school. It consisted of the five most famous Zen temples of Kamakura: Kenchō-ji, Engaku-ji, Jufuku-ji, Jōmyō-ji and Jōchi-ji.^[12]

Muromachi (or Ashikaga) (1336–1573 C.E.)Edit

During the Muromachi period the Rinzai school was the most successful of the schools, since it was favoured by the shōgun.

Gozan-systemEdit

In the beginning of the Muromachi period the Gozan system was fully worked out. The final version contained five temples of both Kyoto and Kamakura. A second tier of the system consisted of Ten Temples. This system was extended throughout Japan, effectively giving control to the central government, which administered this system.^[13] The monks, often well educated and skilled, were employed by the shōgun for the governing of state affairs.^[14]

Gozan system
	Kyoto	Kamakura
First Rank	Tenryū-ji	Kenchō-ji
Second Rank	Shōkoku-ji	Engaku-ji
Third Rank	Kennin-ji	Jufuku-ji
Fourth Rank	Tōfuku-ji	Jōchi-ji
Fifth Rank	Manju-ji	Jōmyō-ji

Rinka-monasteriesEdit

Not all Rinzai Zen organisations were under such strict state control. The Rinka monasteries, which were primarily located in rural areas rather than cities, had a greater degree of independence.^[15] The O-to-kan lineage, that centered on Daitoku-ji, also had a greater degree of freedom. It was founded by Nampo Jomyo, Shuho Myocho, and Kanzan Egen.^[16] A well-known teacher from Daitoku-ji was Ikkyū.^[11]

Another Rinka lineage was the Hotto lineage, of which Bassui Tokushō is the best-known teacher.^[17]

Azuchi-Momoyama (1573–1600 C.E.) and Edo (or Tokugawa) (1600–1868 C.E.)Edit

After a period of war Japan was re-united in the Azuchi–Momoyama period. This decreased the power of Buddhism, which had become a strong political and military force in Japan. Neo-Confucianism gained influence at the expense of Buddhism, which came under strict state control. Japan closed the gates to the rest of the world. The only traders to be allowed were Dutchmen admitted to the island of Dejima.^[11] New doctrines and methods were not to be introduced, nor were new temples and schools. The only exception was the Ōbaku lineage, which was introduced in the 17th century during the Edo period by Ingen, a Chinese monk. Ingen had been a member of the Linji school, the Chinese equivalent of Rinzai, which had developed separately from the Japanese branch for hundreds of years. Thus, when Ingen journeyed to Japan following the fall of the Ming dynasty to the Manchu people, his teachings were seen as a separate school. The Ōbaku school was named after Mount Huangbo (黄檗山, Ōbaku-sān), which had been Ingen’s home in China.

Well-known Zen masters from this period are Bankei, Bashō and Hakuin.^[11] Bankei Yōtaku (盤珪永琢?, 1622–1693 C.E.) became a classic example of a man driven by the «great doubt». Matsuo Bashō (松尾 芭蕉?, 1644 – November 28, 1694) became a great Zen poet. In the 18th century Hakuin Ekaku (白隠 慧鶴?, 1686–1768) revived the Rinzai school. His influence was so immense that almost all contemporary Rinzai lineages are traced back to him.

Meiji Restoration (1868–1912 C.E.) and Imperial expansionism (1912–1945 C.E.)Edit

The Meiji period (1868–1912 C.E.) saw the Emperor’s power reinstated after a coup in 1868 C.E.. At that time Japan was forced to open to Western trade which brought influence and, eventually, a restructuring of all government and commercial structures to Western standards. Shinto became the officiated state religion and Buddhism was coerced to adapt to the new regime. The Buddhist establishment saw the Western world as a threat, but also as a challenge to stand up to.^[18][19]

Buddhist institutions had a simple choice: adapt or perish. Rinzai and Soto Zen chose to adapt, trying to modernize Zen in accord with Western insights, while simultaneously maintaining a Japanese identity. This Japanese identity was being articulated in the Nihonjinron philosophy, the «Japanese uniqueness» theory. A broad range of subjects was taken as typical of Japanese culture. D.T. Suzuki contributed to the Nihonjinron-philosophy by taking Zen as the distinctive token of Asian spirituality, showing its unique character in the Japanese culture^[20]

This resulted in support for the war activities of the Japanese imperial system by the Japanese Zen establishment—including the Sōtō sect, the major branches of Rinzai, and several renowned teachers. According to Sharf,

They became willing accomplices in the promulgation of the kokutai (national polity) ideology—the attempt to render Japan a culturally homogeneous and spiritually evolved nation politically unified under the divine rule of the emperor.^[20]

War endeavours against Russia, China and finally during the Pacific War were supported by the Zen establishment.^[19][21]

A notable work on this subject was Zen at War (1998) by Brian Victoria,^[19] an American-born Sōtō priest. One of his assertions was that some Zen masters known for their post-war internationalism and promotion of «world peace» were open Japanese nationalists in the inter-war years.^{[web 1]} Among them as an example Hakuun Yasutani, the founder of the Sanbo Kyodan School, even voiced antisemitic and nationalistic opinions after World War II. Only after international protests in the 1990s, following the publication of Victoria’s ‘Zen at war’, did the Sanbo Kyodan express apologies for this support^{[web 2]} This involvement was not limited to the Zen schools, as all orthodox Japanese schools of Buddhism supported the militarist state. Victoria’s particular claims about D. T. Suzuki’s involvement in militarism have been much disputed by other scholars.

Criticisms of post-WWII ZenEdit

Some contemporary Japanese Zen teachers, such as Harada Daiun Sogaku and Shunryū Suzuki, have criticized Japanese Zen as being a formalized system of empty rituals in which very few Zen practitioners ever actually attained realization. They assert that almost all Japanese temples have become family businesses handed down from father to son, and the Zen priest’s function has largely been reduced to officiating at funerals, a practice sardonically referred to in Japan as sōshiki bukkyō (葬式仏教, funeral Buddhism).^{[citation needed]} For example, the Sōtō school published statistics stating that 80 percent of laity visited temples only for reasons having to do with funerals and death.^[22]

TeachingsEdit

Buddha-nature and sunyataEdit

Ensō (c. 2000) by Kanjuro Shibata XX. Some artists draw ensō with an opening in the circle, while others close the circle

The Japanese term 悟り satori, made up of the kanji 悟 (pronounced wù in Mandarin and meaning «understand») and the hiragana syllable り ri.

Mahayana Buddhism teaches śūnyatā, «emptiness», which is also emphasized by Zen. But another important doctrine is the buddha-nature, the idea that all human beings have the possibility to awaken. All living creatures are supposed to have the Buddha-nature, but don’t realize this as long as they are not awakened. The doctrine of an essential nature can easily lead to the idea that there is an unchanging essential nature or reality behind the changing world of appearances.^[23]

The difference and reconciliation of these two doctrines is the central theme of the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra.^[23]

Kensho: seeing one’s true natureEdit

The primary goal of Rinzai Zen is kensho, seeing one’s true nature, and mujodo no taigen, expression of this insight in daily life.^[24]

Seeing one’s true nature means seeing that there is no essential ‘I’ or ‘self’, that our true nature is empty.

Expression in daily life means that this is not only a contemplative insight, but that our lives are expressions of this selfless existence.^{[web 3]}

Zen meditationEdit

Zen emphasizes zazen, meditation c.q. dhyana in a sitting position. In Soto, the emphasis is on shikantaza, ‘just sitting’, while Rinzai also uses koans to train the mind. In alternation with zazen, there is walking meditation, kinhin, in which one walks with full attention.

To facilitate insight, a Zen teacher can assign a kōan. This is a short anecdote, which seems irrational, but contains subtle references to the Buddhist teachings.^[25] An example of a kōan is Joshu’s ‘Mu’:^[26]

A monk asked: «Does a dog have buddha-nature?» Joshu responded: «Mu!»

Zen-meditation aims at «non-thinking,» in Japanese fu shiryō and hi shiryō. According to Zhu, the two terms negate two different cognitive functions both called manas in Yogacara, namely «intentionality»^[27] or self-centered thinking,^[28] and «discriminative thinking» (vikalpa).^[27] The usage of two different terms for «non-thinking» points to a crucial difference between Sōtō and Rinzai in their interpretation of the negation of these two cognitive functions.^[27] According to Rui, Rinzai Zen starts with hi shiryō, negating discriminative thinking, and culminates in fu shiryō, negating intentional or self-centered thinking; Sōtō starts with fu shiryō, which is displaced and absorbed by hi shiryō.^{[29][note 1]}

Contemporary Zen organizationsEdit

The traditional institutional traditions (su) of Zen in contemporary Japan are Sōtō (曹洞), Rinzai (臨済), and Ōbaku (黃檗). Sōtō and Rinzai dominate, while Ōbaku is smaller. Besides these there are modern Zen organizations which have especially attracted Western lay followers, namely the Sanbo Kyodan and the FAS Society.

SōtōEdit

Sōtō emphasizes meditation and the inseparable nature of practice and insight. Its founder Dogen is still highly revered. Soto is characterized by its flexibility and openness. No commitment to study is expected and practice can be resumed voluntarily.

RinzaiEdit

Rinzai emphasizes kōan study and kensho. The Rinzai organisation includes fifteen subschools based on temple affiliation. The best known of these main temples are Myoshin-ji, Nanzen-ji, Tenryū-ji, Daitoku-ji, and Tofuku-ji. Rinzai is characterized by its stringent regiments of meditation through every second of life. Whether a practitioner is practicing seated meditation, walking meditation, working, or even out in public, meditation can be applied to each instance of a Rinzai student’s life.

ObakuEdit

Ōbaku is a small branch, which organizationally, is part of the Rinzai school.

Sanbo KyodanEdit

Haku’un Yasutani and Phillip Kapleau

The Sanbo Kyodan is a small Japanese school, established by Hakuun Yasutani, which has been very influential in the West. Well-known teachers from this school are Philip Kapleau and Taizan Maezumi. Maezumi’s influence stretches further through his dharma heirs, such as Joko Beck, Tetsugen Bernard Glassman, and especially Dennis Merzel, who has appointed more than a dozen dharma heirs.

FAS SocietyEdit

The FAS Society is a non-sectarian organization, founded by Shin’ichi Hisamatsu. Its aim is to modernize Zen and adapt it to the modern world. In Europe it is influential through such teachers as Jeff Shore and Ton Lathouwers.

Zen in the Western worldEdit

Early influencesEdit

Although it is difficult to trace when the West first became aware of Zen as a distinct form of Buddhism, the visit of Soyen Shaku, a Japanese Zen monk, to Chicago during the World Parliament of Religions in 1893 is often pointed to as an event that enhanced its profile in the Western world. It was during the late 1950s and the early 1960s that the number of Westerners pursuing a serious interest in Zen, other than descendants of Asian immigrants, reached a significant level.

Eugen Herrigel’s book Zen in the Art of Archery^[32] describing his training in the Zen-influenced martial art of Kyūdō, inspired many of the Western world’s early Zen practitioners. However, many scholars, such as Yamada Shoji, are quick to criticize this book.^[33]

D.T. SuzukiEdit

The single most influential person for the spread of Zen Buddhism was D. T. Suzuki.^[18][20] A lay student of Zen, he became acquainted with Western culture at a young age. He wrote many books on Zen which became widely read in the Western world, but he has been criticised for giving a one-sided and overly romanticized vision of Zen.^[18][20][34]

Reginald Horace Blyth (1898–1964) was an Englishman who went to Japan in 1940 to further his study of Zen. He was interned during World War II and started writing in prison. While imprisoned he met Robert Aitken, who was later to become a roshi in the Sanbo Kyodan lineage. Blyth was tutor to the Crown Prince after the war. His greatest work is the 5-volume «Zen and Zen Classics», published in the 1960s. Here he discusses Zen themes from a philosophical standpoint, often in conjunction with Christian elements in a comparative spirit. His essays include «God, Buddha, and Buddhahood» and «Zen, Sin, and Death».

Beat ZenEdit

The British philosopher Alan Watts took a close interest in Zen Buddhism and wrote and lectured extensively on it during the 1950s. He understood Zen as a vehicle for a mystical transformation of consciousness, and also as a historical example of a non-Western, non-Christian way of life that had fostered both the practical and fine arts.

The Dharma Bums, a novel written by Jack Kerouac and published in 1959, gave its readers a look at how a fascination with Buddhism and Zen was being absorbed into the bohemian lifestyles of a small group of American youths, primarily on the West Coast. Beside the narrator, the main character in this novel was «Japhy Ryder», a thinly veiled depiction of Gary Snyder. The story was based on actual events taking place while Snyder prepared, in California, for the formal Zen studies that he would pursue in Japanese monasteries between 1956 and 1968.^[35]

Christian ZenEdit

Thomas Merton (1915–1968) was a Catholic Trappist monk and priest.^{[web 4]} Like his friend, the late D.T. Suzuki, Merton believed that there must be a little of Zen in all authentic creative and spiritual experience. The dialogue between Merton and Suzuki^[36] explores the many congruencies of Christian mysticism and Zen.^{[37][38][non-primary source needed]}

Father Hugo Enomiya-Lassalle

Hugo Enomiya-Lassalle (1898–1990) was a Jesuit who became a missionary in Japan in 1929. In 1956 he started to study Zen with Harada Daiun Sogaku. He was the superior of Heinrich Dumoulin, the well-known author on the history of Zen. Enomiya-lassalle introduced Westerners to Zen meditation.

Robert Kennedy (roshi), a Catholic Jesuit priest, professor, psychotherapist and Zen roshi in the White Plum lineage has written a number of books about what he labels as the benefits of Zen practice to Christianity. He was ordained a Catholic priest in Japan in 1965, and studied with Yamada Koun in Japan in the 1970s. He was installed as a Zen teacher of the White Plum Asanga lineage in 1991 and was given the title ‘Roshi’ in 1997.

In 1989, the Vatican released a document which states some Catholic appreciation of the use of Zen in Christian prayer. According to the text none of the methods proposed by non-Christian religions should be rejected out of hand simply because they are not Christian:

On the contrary, one can take from them what is useful so long as the Christian concept of prayer, its logic and requirements are never obscured.^{[web 5]}

Zen and the art of…Edit

While Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance, by Robert M. Pirsig, was a 1974 bestseller, it in fact has little to do with Zen as a religious practice, nor with motorcycle maintenance for that matter. Rather it deals with the notion of the metaphysics of «quality» from the point of view of the main character. Pirsig was attending the Minnesota Zen Center at the time of writing the book. He has stated that, despite its title, the book «should in no way be associated with that great body of factual information relating to orthodox Zen Buddhist practice». Though it may not deal with orthodox Zen Buddhist practice, Pirsig’s book in fact deals with many of the more subtle facets of Zen living and Zen mentality without drawing attention to any religion or religious organization.

A number of contemporary authors have explored the relationship between Zen and a number of other disciplines, including parenting, teaching, and leadership. This typically involves the use of Zen stories to explain leadership strategies.^[39]

ArtEdit

In Europe, the Expressionist and Dada movements in art tend to have much in common thematically with the study of kōans and actual Zen. The early French surrealist René Daumal translated D.T. Suzuki as well as Sanskrit Buddhist texts.

Western Zen lineages derived from JapanEdit

Over the last fifty years mainstream forms of Zen, led by teachers who trained in East Asia and their successors, have begun to take root in the West.

United StatesEdit

Sanbo KyodanEdit

In North America, the Zen lineages derived from the Sanbo Kyodan school are the most numerous. The Sanbo Kyodan is a Japan-based reformist Zen group, founded in 1954 by Yasutani Hakuun, which has had a significant influence on Zen in the West. Sanbo Kyodan Zen is based primarily on the Soto tradition, but also incorporates Rinzai-style kōan practice. Yasutani’s approach to Zen first became prominent in the English-speaking world through Philip Kapleau’s book The Three Pillars of Zen (1965), which was one of the first books to introduce Western audiences to Zen as a practice rather than simply a philosophy. Among the Zen groups in North America, Hawaii, Europe, and New Zealand which derive from Sanbo Kyodan are those associated with Kapleau, Robert Aitken, and John Tarrant.

The most widespread are the lineages founded by Hakuyu Taizan Maezumi and the White Plum Asanga. Maezumi’s successors include Susan Myoyu Andersen, John Daido Loori, Chozen Bays, Tetsugen Bernard Glassman, Dennis Merzel, Nicolee Jikyo McMahon, Joan Hogetsu Hoeberichts, and Charlotte Joko Beck.

SotoEdit

Soto has gained prominence via Shunryu Suzuki, who established the San Francisco Zen Center. In 1967 the Center established Tassajara, the first Zen Monastery in America, in the mountains near Big Sur.

The Katagiri lineage, founded by Dainin Katagiri, has a significant presence in the Midwest. Note that both Taizan Maezumi and Dainin Katagiri served as priests at Zenshuji Soto Mission in the 1960s.

Taisen Deshimaru, a student of Kodo Sawaki, was a Soto Zen priest from Japan who taught in France. The International Zen Association, which he founded, remains influential. The American Zen Association, headquartered at the New Orleans Zen Temple, is one of the North American organizations practicing in the Deshimaru tradition.

Soyu Matsuoka established the Long Beach Zen Buddhist Temple and Zen Center in 1971, where he resided until his death in 1998. The Temple was headquarters to Zen centers in Atlanta, Chicago, Los Angeles, Seattle, and Everett, Washington.
Matsuoka created several dharma heirs, three of whom are still alive and leading Zen teachers within the lineage: Hogaku ShoZen McGuire, Zenkai Taiun Michael Elliston Sensei, and Kaiten John Dennis Govert.

Brad Warner is a Soto priest appointed by Gudo Wafu Nishijima. He is not a traditional Zen teacher, but is influential via his blogs on Zen.

RinzaiEdit

Rinzai gained prominence in the West via D.T. Suzuki and the lineage of Soen Nakagawa and his student Eido Shimano. Soen Nakagawa had personal ties to Yamada Koun, the dharma heir of Hakuun Yasutani, who founded the Sanbo Kyodan.^[40] They established Dai Bosatsu Zendo Kongo-ji in New York. In Europe there is Havredal Zendo established by a Dharma Heir of Eido Shimano, Egmund Sommer (Denko Mortensen).

Some of the more prominent Rinzai Zen centers in North America include Rinzai-ji founded by Kyozan Joshu Sasaki Roshi in California, Chozen-ji founded by Omori Sogen Roshi in Hawaii, Daiyuzenji founded by Dogen Hosokawa Roshi (a student of Omori Sogen Roshi) in Chicago, Illinois, and Chobo-Ji founded by Genki Takabayshi Roshi in Seattle, Washington.

United KingdomEdit

The lineage of Hakuyu Taizan Maezumi Roshi is represented in the UK by the White Plum Sangha UK.

Throssel Hole Buddhist Abbey was founded as a sister monastery to Shasta Abbey in California by Master Reverend Jiyu Kennett Roshi. It has a number of dispersed priories and centres.^{[citation needed]} Jiyu Kennett, an Englishwoman, was ordained as a priest and Zen master in Shoji-ji, one of the two main Soto Zen temples in Japan.^{[note 2]} The Order is called the Order of Buddhist Contemplatives.^{[citation needed]} There are several affiliated temples across the UK, including the Norwich Zen Buddhist Priory.^[41]

Taisen Deshimaru Roshi’s lineage is known in the UK as IZAUK (International Zen Association UK).^{[citation needed]}

The Zen Centre in London is connected to the Buddhist Society.

Zenways^[42] is a Rinzai school organisation in South London. It is led by Daizan Roshi a British teacher who received Dharma transmission from Shinzan Miyamae Roshi.

The Western Chan Fellowship is an association of lay Chán practitioners based in the UK.^{[citation needed]} They are registered as a charity in England and Wales, but also have contacts in Europe, principally in Norway, Poland, Germany, Croatia, Switzerland and the US.

See alsoEdit

• Buddhism
• Outline of Buddhism
• Timeline of Buddhism
• List of Buddhists
• Buddhism in Japan
• Buddhist modernism
• Chinese Chán

NotesEdit

ReferencesEdit

SourcesEdit

Printed sourcesEdit

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• Polak, Grzegorz (2011), Reexamining Jhana: Towards a Critical Reconstruction of Early Buddhist Soteriology, UMCS
• Sato, Kemmyō Taira, D.T. Suzuki and the Question of War (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-10-25
• Scaligero, Massimo (1960). «The Doctrine of the «Void» and the Logic of the Essence». East and West. 11 (4): 249–257.
• Sharf, Robert H. (August 1993), «The Zen of Japanese Nationalism», History of Religions, 33 (1): 1–43, doi:10.1086/463354, S2CID 161535877, archived from the original on 2020-12-29, retrieved 2011-12-13
• Sharf, Robert H. (1995), Whose Zen? Zen Nationalism Revisited (PDF), archived (PDF) from the original on 2019-02-02, retrieved 2011-12-13
• Shoji, Yamada (n.d.), The Myth of Zen in the Art of Archery (PDF), archived (PDF) from the original on 2007-06-14, retrieved 2007-01-03
• Snelling, John (1987), The Buddhist handbook. A Complete Guide to Buddhist Teaching and Practice, London: Century Paperbacks
• Suzuki, Shunryu (2011), Zen Mind, Beginner’s Mind
• Tanahashi, Kazuaki; Chayat, Roko Sherry (1996), Endless Vow. The Zen Path of Soen Nakagawa, Boston, Massachusetts: Shambhala Publications
• Tweed, Thomas A. (2005), «American Occultism and Japanese Buddhism. Albert J. Edmunds, D. T. Suzuki, and Translocative History» (PDF), Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 32 (2): 249–281, archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-05-22, retrieved 2011-12-14
• Victoria, Brian Daizen (2006), Zen at war (Second ed.), Lanham e.a.: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
• Victoria, Brian Daizen (2010), «The «Negative Side» of D. T. Suzuki’s Relationship to War» (PDF), The Eastern Buddhist, 41 (2): 97–138, archived (PDF) from the original on 2012-01-20, retrieved 2011-12-13
• Warneka, Timothy H. (2006), Leading People the Black Belt Way: Conquering the Five Core Problems Facing Leaders Today, Asogomi Publishing International, ISBN 978-0-9768627-0-3
• Wetering, Janwillem van de (1999), The Empty Mirror: Experiences in a Japanese Zen Monastery
• Zhu, Rui (2005), «Distinguishing Sōtō and Rinzai Zen: Manas and the Mental Mechanics of Meditation» (PDF), East and West, 55 (3): 426–446, archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-12-14, retrieved 2018-12-14

Web-sourcesEdit

1. ^ Jalon, Allan M. (11 January 2003). «Meditating On War And Guilt, Zen Says It’s Sorry». The New York Times. Archived from the original on 16 August 2017. Retrieved 1 September 2017.
2. ^ Apology for What the Founder of the Sanbo-Kyodan, Haku’un Yasutani Roshi, Said and Did During World War II
3. ^ Jeff Shore: The constant practice of right effort^{[permanent dead link]}
4. ^ A Chronology of Thomas Merton’s Life Archived 2016-05-13 at the Wayback Machine. The Thomas Merton Center at Bellarmine University. Retrieved 26 March 2008.
5. ^ «Vatican discernments on the use of Zen and Yoga in christian prayer». Archived from the original on 2010-05-02. Retrieved 2011-12-13.

Further readingEdit

Modern classics

• Paul Reps & Nyogen Senzaki, Zen Flesh, Zen Bones
• Philip Kapleau, The Three Pillars of Zen
• Shunryu Suzuki, Zen Mind, Beginner’s Mind

Classic historiography

• Dumoulin, Heinrich (2005), Zen Buddhism: A History. Volume 1: India and China. World Wisdom Books. ISBN 978-0-941532-89-1
• Dumoulin, Heinrich (2005), Zen Buddhism: A History. Volume 2: Japan. World Wisdom Books. ISBN 978-0-941532-90-7

Critical historiography

• Sharf, Robert H. (1995a), Whose Zen? Zen Nationalism Revisited (PDF)
• Victoria, Brian Daizen (2006), Zen at War. Lanham e.a.: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. (Second Edition)
• Borup, Jorn (n.d.), Zen and the Art of inverting Orientalism: religious studies and genealogical networks
• Mcrae, John (2003), Seeing through Zen. Encounter, Transformation, and Genealogy in Chinese Chan Buddhism. The University Press Group Ltd . ISBN 978-0-520-23798-8
• McMahan, David L. (2008), The Making of Buddhist Modernism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518327-6

(Japanese) Zen as living religious institution and practice

• Borup, Jørn (2008), Japanese Rinzai Zen Buddhism: Myōshinji, a Living Religion, Brill
• Hori, Victor Sogen (1994), Teaching and Learning in the Zen Rinzai Monastery. In: Journal of Japanese Studies, Vol.20, No. 1, (Winter, 1994), 5-35 (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-10-25

External linksEdit

Overview

• Zen Buddhism WWW Virtual Library
• The Zen Site

Rinzai-zen

• Joint Council for Rinzai and Obaku Zen
• The International Research Institute for Zen Buddhism

Soto-zen

• Website on Soto Zen

Sanbo Kyodan

• Sanbo Kyodan Homepage

Critical Zen-practice

• David Chapman
• Brad Warner
• Against the stream

Zen-centers

• Zen Centers at Curlie
• Zen centers of the world
• Zen centers

Texts

• Sacred-text.com’s collection of Zen texts
• Buddhanet’s collection of Zen texts
• Shambhala Sun Zen Articles Archived 2008-09-24 at the Wayback Machine
• Kyoto and Japanese Buddhism by Tokushi Yusho. Introduction to Zen culture in Kyoto.

Critical Zen Research

• Steven Heine (2007), A Critical Survey of Works on Zen since Yampolsky
• Homepage of Robert H. Sharf

Zen
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese	禪
Simplified Chinese	禅
Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Chán Wade–Giles Ch’an2 IPA [ʈʂʰǎn] Hakka Pha̍k-fa-sṳ Sàm Yue: Cantonese Jyutping Sim4 Southern Min Hokkien POJ Siân Middle Chinese Middle Chinese dʑjen
Vietnamese name
Vietnamese alphabet	Thiền
Chữ Hán	禪
Korean name
Hangul	선
Hanja	禪
Transcriptions Revised Romanization Seon
Japanese name
Kanji	禅
Kana	ぜん
Transcriptions Romanization Zen
Filipino name
Tagalog	Zen

Zen (Chinese: 禪; pinyin: Chán; Japanese: 禅, romanized: zen; Korean: 선, romanized: Seon; Vietnamese: Thiền) is a school of Mahayana Buddhism that originated in China during the Tang dynasty, known as the Chan School (Chánzong 禪宗), and later developed into various sub-schools and branches. From China, Chán spread south to Vietnam and became Vietnamese Thiền, northeast to Korea to become Seon Buddhism, and east to Japan, becoming Japanese Zen.^[1]

The term Zen is derived from the Japanese pronunciation of the Middle Chinese word 禪 (chán), an abbreviation of 禪那 (chánnà), which is a Chinese transliteration of the Sanskrit word ध्यान dhyāna («meditation»).^{[note 1]} Zen emphasizes rigorous self-restraint, meditation-practice and the subsequent insight into nature of mind (見性, Ch. jiànxìng, Jp. kensho, «perceiving the true nature») and nature of things (without arrogance or egotism), and the personal expression of this insight in daily life, especially for the benefit of others.^[3][4] As such, it de-emphasizes knowledge alone of sutras and doctrine,^[5][6] and favors direct understanding through spiritual practice and interaction with an accomplished teacher^[7] or Master.

Zen teaching draws from numerous sources of Sarvastivada meditation practice and Mahāyāna thought, especially Yogachara, the Tathāgatagarbha sūtras, the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, and the Huayan school, with their emphasis on Buddha-nature, totality, and the Bodhisattva-ideal.^[8][9] The Prajñāpāramitā literature,^[10] as well as Madhyamaka thought, have also been influential in the shaping of the apophatic and sometimes iconoclastic nature of Zen rhetoric.^[11]

Furthermore, the Chan School was also influenced by Taoist philosophy, especially Neo-Daoist thought.^[12]

Etymology[edit]

The word Zen is derived from the Japanese pronunciation (kana: ぜん) of the Middle Chinese word 禪 (Middle Chinese: [dʑian]; pinyin: Chán), which in turn is derived from the Sanskrit word dhyāna (ध्यान),^[2] which can be approximately translated as «contemplation», «absorption», or «meditative state».^[13]

The actual Chinese term for the «Zen school» is 禪宗 (pinyin: Chánzōng), while «Chan» just refers to the practice of meditation itself (Chinese: 習禪; pinyin: xíchán) or the study of meditation (Chinese: 禪學; pinyin: chánxué) though it is often used as an abbreviated form of Chánzong.^[14]

«Zen» is traditionally a proper noun as it usually describes a particular Buddhist sect. In more recent times, the lowercase «zen» is used when discussing the philosophy and was officially added to the Merriam-Webster dictionary in 2018.^[15]

Practice[edit]

Dhyāna[edit]

The practice of dhyana or meditation, especially sitting meditation (坐禪，Chinese: zuòchán, Japanese: zazen / ざぜん) is a central part of Zen Buddhism.^[16]

Chinese Buddhism[edit]

The practice of Buddhist meditation first entered China through the translations of An Shigao (fl. c. 148–180 CE), and Kumārajīva (334–413 CE), who both translated Dhyāna sutras, which were influential early meditation texts mostly based on the Yogacara (yoga praxis) teachings of the Kashmiri Sarvāstivāda circa 1st–4th centuries CE.^[17] Among the most influential early Chinese meditation texts include the Anban Shouyi Jing (安般守意經, Sutra on ānāpānasmṛti), the Zuochan Sanmei Jing (坐禪三昧經，Sutra of sitting dhyāna samādhi) and the Damoduoluo Chan Jing (達摩多羅禪經,^[18] Dharmatrata dhyāna sutra).^[19] These early Chinese meditation works continued to exert influence on Zen practice well into the modern era. For example, the 18th century Rinzai Zen master Tōrei Enji wrote a commentary on the Damoduoluo Chan Jing and used the Zuochan Sanmei Jing as source in the writing of this commentary. Tōrei believed that the Damoduoluo Chan Jing had been authored by Bodhidharma.^[20]

While dhyāna in a strict sense refers to the four dhyānas, in Chinese Buddhism, dhyāna may refer to various kinds of meditation techniques and their preparatory practices, which are necessary to practice dhyāna.^[21] The five main types of meditation in the Dhyāna sutras are ānāpānasmṛti (mindfulness of breathing); paṭikūlamanasikāra meditation (mindfulness of the impurities of the body); maitrī meditation (loving-kindness); the contemplation on the twelve links of pratītyasamutpāda; and contemplation on the Buddha.^[22] According to the modern Chan master Sheng Yen, these practices are termed the «five methods for stilling or pacifying the mind» and serve to focus and purify the mind, and support the development of the stages of dhyana.^[23] Chan also shares the practice of the four foundations of mindfulness and the Three Gates of Liberation (emptyness or śūnyatā, signlessness or animitta, and wishlessness or apraṇihita) with early Buddhism and classic Mahayana.^[24]

Pointing to the nature of the mind[edit]

According to Charles Luk, in the earliest traditions of Chán, there was no fixed method or formula for teaching meditation, and all instructions were simply heuristic methods, to point to the true nature of the mind, also known as Buddha-nature.^[25] According to Luk, this method is referred to as the «Mind Dharma», and exemplified in the story (in the Flower Sermon) of Śākyamuni Buddha holding up a flower silently, and Mahākāśyapa smiling as he understood.^[25] A traditional formula of this is, «Chán points directly to the human mind, to enable people to see their true nature and become buddhas.»^[26]

Observing the mind[edit]

According to John McRae, «one of the most important issues in the development of early Ch’an doctrine is the rejection of traditional meditation techniques,» that is, gradual self-perfection and the practices of contemplation on the body impurities and the four foundations of mindfulness.^[27] According to John R. McRae the «first explicit statement of the sudden and direct approach that was to become the hallmark of Ch’an religious practice» is associated with the East Mountain School.^[28] It is a method named «Maintaining the one without wavering» (shou-i pu i, 守一不移),^[28] the one being the nature of mind, which is equated with Buddha-nature.^[29] According to Sharf, in this practice, one turns the attention from the objects of experience, to the nature of mind, the perceiving subject itself, which is equated with Buddha-nature.^[30] According to McRae, this type of meditation resembles the methods of «virtually all schools of Mahāyāna Buddhism,» but differs in that «no preparatory requirements, no moral prerequisites or preliminary exercises are given,» and is «without steps or gradations. One concentrates, understands, and is enlightened, all in one undifferentiated practice.»^{[28][note 2]} Sharf notes that the notion of «Mind» came to be criticised by radical subitists, and was replaced by «No Mind,» to avoid any reifications.^{[32][note 3]}

Meditation manuals[edit]

Early Chan texts also teach forms of meditation that are unique to Mahāyāna Buddhism, for example, the Treatise on the Essentials of Cultivating the Mind, which depicts the teachings of the 7th-century East Mountain school teaches a visualization of a sun disk, similar to that taught in the Sutra of the Contemplation of the Buddha Amitáyus.^[34]

Later Chinese Buddhists developed their own meditation manuals and texts, one of the most influential being the works of the Tiantai patriarch, Zhiyi. His works seemed to have exerted some influence on the earliest meditation manuals of the Chán school proper, an early work being the widely imitated and influential Tso-chan-i (Principles of sitting meditation, c. 11th century), which doesn’t outline a vipassana practice which leads to wisdom (prajña), but only recommends practicing samadhi which will lead to the discovery of inherent wisdom already present in the mind.^[35]

Common contemporary meditation forms[edit]

Mindfulness of breathing[edit]

During sitting meditation (坐禅, Ch. zuòchán, Jp. zazen, Ko. jwaseon), practitioners usually assume a position such as the lotus position, half-lotus, Burmese, or seiza, often using the dhyāna mudrā. Often, a square or round cushion placed on a padded mat is used to sit on; in some other cases, a chair may be used.

To regulate the mind, Zen students are often directed towards counting breaths. Either both exhalations and inhalations are counted, or one of them only. The count can be up to ten, and then this process is repeated until the mind is calmed.^[36] Zen teachers like Omori Sogen teach a series of long and deep exhalations and inhalations as a way to prepare for regular breath meditation.^[37] Attention is usually placed on the energy center (dantian) below the navel.^[38] Zen teachers often promote diaphragmatic breathing, stating that the breath must come from the lower abdomen (known as hara or tanden in Japanese), and that this part of the body should expand forward slightly as one breathes.^[39] Over time the breathing should become smoother, deeper and slower.^[40] When the counting becomes an encumbrance, the practice of simply following the natural rhythm of breathing with concentrated attention is recommended.^[41][42]

Silent Illumination and shikantaza[edit]

A common form of sitting meditation is called «Silent illumination» (Ch. mòzhào, Jp. mokushō). This practice was traditionally promoted by the Caodong school of Chinese Chan and is associated with Hongzhi Zhengjue (1091—1157) who wrote various works on the practice.^[43] This method derives from the Indian Buddhist practice of the union (Skt. yuganaddha) of śamatha and vipaśyanā.^[44]

In Hongzhi’s practice of «nondual objectless meditation» the mediator strives to be aware of the totality of phenomena instead of focusing on a single object, without any interference, conceptualizing, grasping, goal seeking, or subject-object duality.^[45]

This practice is also popular in the major schools of Japanese Zen, but especially Sōtō, where it is more widely known as Shikantaza (Ch. zhǐguǎn dǎzuò, «Just sitting»). Considerable textual, philosophical, and phenomenological justification of the practice can be found throughout the work of the Japanese Sōtō Zen thinker Dōgen, especially in his Shōbōgenzō, for example in the «Principles of Zazen»^[46] and the «Universally Recommended Instructions for Zazen».^[47] While the Japanese and the Chinese forms are similar, they are distinct approaches.^[48]

Hua Tou and Kōan contemplation[edit]

Main article: Kōan

During the Tang dynasty, gōng’àn (Jp. kōan) literature became popular. Literally meaning «public case», they were stories or dialogues, describing teachings and interactions between Zen masters and their students. These anecdotes give a demonstration of the master’s insight. Kōan are meant to illustrate the non-conceptual insight (prajña) that the Buddhist teachings point to. During the Sòng dynasty, a new meditation method was popularized by figures such as Dahui, which was called kanhua chan («observing the phrase» meditation), which referred to contemplation on a single word or phrase (called the huatou, «critical phrase») of a gōng’àn.^[49] In Chinese Chan and Korean Seon, this practice of «observing the huatou» (hwadu in Korean) is a widely practiced method.^[50] It was taught by the influential Seon master Chinul (1158–1210), and modern Chinese masters like Sheng Yen and Xuyun. Yet, while Dahui famously criticised «silent illumination,»^[51][52] he nevertheless «did not completely condemn quiet-sitting; in fact, he seems to have recommended it, at least to his monastic disciples.»^[51]

In the Japanese Rinzai school, kōan introspection developed its own formalized style, with a standardized curriculum of kōans, which must be studied and «passed» in sequence. This process includes standardized «checking questions» (sassho) and common sets of «capping phrases» (jakugo) or poetry citations that are memorized by students as answers.^[53] The Zen student’s mastery of a given kōan is presented to the teacher in a private interview (referred to in Japanese as dokusan, daisan, or sanzen). While there is no unique answer to a kōan, practitioners are expected to demonstrate their spiritual understanding through their responses. The teacher may approve or disapprove of the answer and guide the student in the right direction. The interaction with a teacher is central in Zen, but makes Zen practice also vulnerable to misunderstanding and exploitation.^[54] Kōan-inquiry may be practiced during zazen (sitting meditation), kinhin (walking meditation), and throughout all the activities of daily life. The goal of the practice is often termed kensho (seeing one’s true nature), and is to be followed by further practice to attain a natural, effortless, down-to-earth state of being, the «ultimate liberation», «knowing without any kind of defilement».^[55]

Kōan practice is particularly emphasized in Rinzai, but it also occurs in other schools or branches of Zen depending on the teaching line.^[56]

Nianfo chan[edit]

Nianfo (Jp. nembutsu, from Skt. buddhānusmṛti «recollection of the Buddha») refers to the recitation of the Buddha’s name, in most cases the Buddha Amitabha. In Chinese Chan, the Pure Land practice of nianfo based on the phrase Nāmó Āmítuófó (Homage to Amitabha) is a widely practiced form of Zen meditation which came to be known as «Nianfo Chan» (念佛禪). Nianfo was practiced and taught by early Chan masters, like Daoxin (580-651), who taught that one should «bind the mind to one buddha and exclusively invoke his name».^[57] The practice is also taught in Shenxiu’s Kuan-hsin lun (觀心論).^[57]

The Ch’uan fa-pao chi (傳法寶紀, Taisho # 2838, ca. 713), one of the earliest Chan histories, also shows this practice was widespread in early Chan:

Coming to the generation of [Hung-]jen, [Fa-]ju and Ta-tung, the dharma-door was wide open to followers, regardless of their capacities. All immediately invoked the name of the Buddha so as to purify the mind.^[57]

Evidence for the practice of nianfo chan can also be found in Changlu Zongze’s (died c. 1107) Chanyuan qinggui (The Rules of Purity in the Chan Monastery), perhaps the most influential Ch’an monastic code in East Asia.^[57]

Nianfo continued to be taught as a form of Chan meditation by later Chinese figures such as Yongming Yanshou, Zhongfen Mingben, and Tianru Weize. During the late Ming, the tradition of Nianfo Chan meditation was continued by figures such as Yunqi Zhuhong and Hanshan Deqing.^[58] Chan figures like Yongming Yanshou generally advocated a view called “mind-only Pure Land” (wei-hsin ching-t’u), which held that the Buddha and the Pure Land are just mind.^[57]

This practice, as well as its adaptation into the «nembutsu kōan» was also used by the Japanese Ōbaku school of Zen. Nianfo chan is also practiced in Vietnamese Thien.

Bodhisattva virtues and vows[edit]

Since Zen is a form of Mahayana Buddhism, it is grounded on the schema of the bodhisattva path, which is based on the practice of the «transcendent virtues» or «perfections» (Skt. pāramitā, Ch. bōluómì, Jp. baramitsu) as well as the taking of the bodhisattva vows.^[59][60] The most widely used list of six virtues is: generosity, moral training (incl. five precepts), patient endurance, energy or effort, meditation (dhyana), wisdom. An important source for these teachings is the Avatamsaka sutra, which also outlines the grounds (bhumis) or levels of the bodhisattva path.^[61] The pāramitās are mentioned in early Chan works such as Bodhidharma’s Two entrances and four practices and are seen as an important part of gradual cultivation (jianxiu) by later Chan figures like Zongmi.^[62][63]

An important element of this practice is the formal and ceremonial taking of refuge in the three jewels, bodhisattva vows and precepts. Various sets of precepts are taken in Zen including the five precepts, «ten essential precepts», and the sixteen bodhisattva precepts.^{[64][65][66][67]} This is commonly done in an initiation ritual (Ch. shòu jiè, Jp. Jukai, Ko. sugye, «receiving the precepts»), which is also undertaken by lay followers and marks a layperson as a formal Buddhist.^[68]

The Chinese Buddhist practice of fasting (zhai), especially during the uposatha days (Ch. zhairi, «days of fasting») can also be an element of Chan training.^[69] Chan masters may go on extended absolute fasts, as exemplified by master Hsuan Hua’s 35 day fast, which he undertook during the Cuban missile crisis for the generation of merit.^[70]

Physical cultivation[edit]

Traditional martial arts, like Japanese archery, other forms of Japanese budō and Chinese martial arts (gōngfu) have also been seen as forms of zen praxis. This tradition goes back to the influential Shaolin Monastery in Henan, which developed the first institutionalized form of gōngfu.^[71] By the late Ming, Shaolin gōngfu was very popular and widespread, as evidenced by mentions in various forms of Ming literature (featuring staff wielding fighting monks like Sun Wukong) and historical sources, which also speak of Shaolin’s impressive monastic army that rendered military service to the state in return for patronage.^[72] These Shaolin practices, which began to develop around the 12th century, were also traditionally seen as a form of Chan Buddhist inner cultivation (today called wuchan, «martial chan»). The Shaolin arts also made use of Taoist physical exercises (taoyin) breathing and energy cultivation (qìgōng) practices.^[73] They were seen as therapeutic practices, which improved «internal strength» (neili), health and longevity (lit. «nourishing life» yangsheng), as well as means to spiritual liberation.^[74]

The influence of these Taoist practices can be seen in the work of Wang Zuyuan (ca. 1820–after 1882), a scholar and minor bureaucrat who studied at Shaolin. Wang’s Illustrated Exposition of Internal Techniques (Neigong tushuo) shows how Shaolin exercises were drawn from Taoist methods like those of the Yi jin jing and Eight pieces of brocade, possibly influenced by the Ming dynasty’s spirit of religious syncretism.^[75] According to the modern Chan master Sheng Yen, Chinese Buddhism has adopted internal cultivation exercises from the Shaolin tradition as ways to «harmonize the body and develop concentration in the midst of activity.» This is because, «techniques for harmonizing the vital energy are powerful assistants to the cultivation of samadhi and spiritual insight.»^[76] Korean Seon also has developed a similar form of active physical training, termed Sunmudo.

In Japan, the classic combat arts (budō) and zen practice have been in contact since the embrace of Rinzai Zen by the Hōjō clan in the 13th century, who applied zen discipline to their martial practice.^[78] One influential figure in this relationship was the Rinzai priest Takuan Sōhō who was well known for his writings on zen and budō addressed to the samurai class (especially his The Unfettered Mind) .^[79]

The Rinzai school also adopted certain Chinese practices which work with qi (which are also common in Taoism). They were introduced by Hakuin (1686–1769) who learned various techniques from a hermit named Hakuyu who helped Hakuin cure his «Zen sickness» (a condition of physical and mental exhaustion).^[80] These energetic practices, known as naikan, are based on focusing the mind and one’s vital energy (ki) on the tanden (a spot slightly below the navel).^[81][82]

The arts[edit]

Certain arts such as painting, calligraphy, poetry, gardening, flower arrangement, tea ceremony and others have also been used as part of zen training and practice. Classical Chinese arts like brush painting and calligraphy were used by Chan monk painters such as Guanxiu and Muqi Fachang to communicate their spiritual understanding in unique ways to their students.^[83] Zen paintings are sometimes termed zenga in Japanese.^[84] Hakuin is one Japanese Zen master who was known to create a large corpus of unique sumi-e (ink and wash paintings) and Japanese calligraphy to communicate zen in a visual way. His work and that of his disciples were widely influential in Japanese Zen.^[85] Another example of Zen arts can be seen in the short lived Fuke sect of Japanese Zen, which practiced a unique form of «blowing zen» (suizen) by playing the shakuhachi bamboo flute.

Intensive group practice[edit]

Intensive group meditation may be practiced by serious Zen practitioners. In the Japanese language, this practice is called sesshin. While the daily routine may require monks to meditate for several hours each day, during the intensive period they devote themselves almost exclusively to zen practice. The numerous 30–50 minute long sitting meditation (zazen) periods are interwoven with rest breaks, ritualized formal meals (Jp. oryoki), and short periods of work (Jp. samu) that are to be performed with the same state of mindfulness. In modern Buddhist practice in Japan, Taiwan, and the West, lay students often attend these intensive practice sessions or retreats. These are held at many Zen centers or temples.

Chanting and rituals[edit]

Most Zen monasteries, temples and centers perform various rituals, services and ceremonies (such as initiation ceremonies and funerals), which are always accompanied by the chanting of verses, poems or sutras.^[86] There are also ceremonies that are specifically for the purpose of sutra recitation (Ch. niansong, Jp. nenju) itself.^[87]

Zen schools may have an official sutra book that collects these writings (in Japanese, these are called kyohon).^[86] Practitioners may chant major Mahayana sutras such as the Heart Sutra and chapter 25 of the Lotus Sutra (often called the «Avalokiteśvara Sutra»). Dhāraṇīs and Zen poems may also be part of a Zen temple liturgy, including texts like the Song of the Precious Mirror Samadhi, the Sandokai, the Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī, and the Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra.

The butsudan is the altar in a monastery, temple or a lay person’s home, where offerings are made to the images of the Buddha, bodhisattvas and deceased family members and ancestors. Rituals usually center on major Buddhas or bodhisattvas like Avalokiteśvara (see Guanyin), Kṣitigarbha and Manjushri.

An important element in Zen ritual practice is the performance of ritual prostrations (Jp. raihai) or bows.^[88]

One popular form of ritual in Japanese Zen is Mizuko kuyō (Water child) ceremonies, which are performed for those who have had a miscarriage, stillbirth, or abortion. These ceremonies are also performed in American Zen Buddhism.^[89]

A widely practiced ritual in Chinese Chan is variously called the «Rite for releasing the hungry ghosts» or the «Releasing flaming mouth». The ritual might date back to the Tang dynasty, and was very popular during the Ming and Qing dynasties, when Chinese Esoteric Buddhist practices became diffused throughout Chinese Buddhism.^[90] The Chinese holiday of the Ghost Festival might also be celebrated with similar rituals for the dead. These ghost rituals are a source of contention in modern Chinese Chan, and masters such as Sheng Yen criticize the practice for not having «any basis in Buddhist teachings».^[91]

Another important type of ritual practiced in Zen are various repentance or confession rituals (Jp. zange) that were widely practiced in all forms of Chinese Mahayana Buddhism. One popular Chan text on this is known as the Emperor Liang Repentance Ritual, composed by Chan master Baozhi.^[92] Dogen also wrote a treatise on repentance, the Shushogi.^[93] Other rituals could include rites dealing with local deities (kami in Japan), and ceremonies on Buddhist holidays such as Buddha’s Birthday.^[94]

Funerals are also an important ritual and are a common point of contact between Zen monastics and the laity. Statistics published by the Sōtō school state that 80 percent of Sōtō laymen visit their temple only for reasons having to do with funerals and death. Seventeen percent visit for spiritual reasons and 3 percent visit a Zen priest at a time of personal trouble or crisis.^[95]

Esoteric practices[edit]

Depending on the tradition, esoteric methods such as mantra and dhāraṇī are also used for different purposes including meditation practice, protection from evil, invoking great compassion, invoking the power of certain bodhisattvas, and are chanted during ceremonies and rituals.^[96][97] In the Kwan Um school of Zen for example, a mantra of Guanyin («Kwanseum Bosal«) is used during sitting meditation.^[98] The Heart Sutra Mantra is also another mantra that is used in Zen during various rituals.^[99] Another example is the Mantra of Light (kōmyō shingon), which is common in Japanese Soto Zen and was derived from the Shingon sect.^[100]

In Chinese Chan, the usage of esoteric mantras in Zen goes back to the Tang dynasty. There is evidence that Chan Buddhists adopted practices from Chinese Esoteric Buddhism in findings from Dunhuang.^[101] According to Henrik Sørensen, several successors of Shenxiu (such as Jingxian and Yixing) were also students of the Zhenyan (Mantra) school.^[102] Influential esoteric dhāraṇī, such as the Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra and the Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī, also begin to be cited in the literature of the Baotang school during the Tang dynasty.^[103] Many mantras have been preserved since the Tang period and continue to be practiced in modern Chan monasteries. One common example is the Śūraṅgama Mantra,which has been heavily propagated by various prominent Chan monks, such as Venerable Hsuan Hua who founded the City of Ten Thousand Buddhas.^[104] Another example of esoteric rituals practiced by the Chan school is the Mengshan Rite for Feeding Hungry Ghosts, which is practiced by both monks and laypeople during the Hungry Ghost Festival.^{[105][106][107]} Chan repentance rituals, such as the Liberation Rite of Water and Land, also involve various esoteric aspects, including the invocation of esoteric deities such as the Five Wisdom Buddhas and the Ten Wisdom Kings.^[108][109]

There is documentation that monks living at Shaolin temple during the eighth century performed esoteric practices there such as mantra and dharani, and that these also influenced Korean Seon Buddhism.^[110] During the Joseon dynasty, the Seon school was not only the dominant tradition in Korea, but it was also highly inclusive and ecumenical in its doctrine and practices, and this included Esoteric Buddhist lore and rituals (that appear in Seon literature from the 15th century onwards). According to Sørensen, the writings of several Seon masters (such as Hyujeong) reveal they were esoteric adepts.^[111]

In Japanese Zen, the use of esoteric practices within Zen is sometimes termed «mixed Zen» (kenshū zen 兼修禪), and the figure of Keizan Jōkin (1264–1325) is seen as introducing this into the Soto school.^[112][113] The Japanese founder of the Rinzai school, Myōan Eisai (1141–1215) was also a well known practitioner of esoteric Buddhism and wrote various works on the subject.^[114]

According to William Bodiford, a very common dhāraṇī in Japanese Zen is the Śūraṅgama spell (Ryōgon shu 楞嚴呪; T. 944A), which is repeatedly chanted during summer training retreats as well as at «every important monastic ceremony throughout the year» in Zen monasteries.^[115] Some Zen temples also perform esoteric rituals, such as the homa ritual, which is performed at the Soto temple of Eigen-ji (in Saitama prefecture). As Bodiford writes, «perhaps the most notable examples of this phenomenon is the ambrosia gate (kanro mon 甘露門) ritual performed at every Sōtō Zen temple», which is associated feeding hungry ghosts, ancestor memorial rites and the ghost festival.^[116] Bodiford also notes that formal Zen rituals of Dharma transmission often involve esoteric initiations.

Doctrine[edit]

Zen teachings can be likened to «the finger pointing at the moon».^[117] Zen teachings point to the moon, awakening, «a realization of the unimpeded interpenetration of the dharmadhatu».^[118] But the Zen-tradition also warns against taking its teachings, the pointing finger, to be this insight itself.^{[119][120][121][122]}

Buddhist Mahayana influences[edit]

Though Zen-narrative states that it is a «special transmission outside scriptures», which «did not stand upon words»,^[123] Zen does have a rich doctrinal background that is firmly grounded in the Buddhist tradition.^[124] It was thoroughly influenced by Mahayana teachings on the bodhisattva path, Chinese Madhyamaka (Sānlùn), Yogacara (Wéishí), Prajñaparamita, the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, and other Buddha nature texts.^{[125][126][127]} The influence of Madhyamaka and Prajñaparamita can be discerned in the stress on non-conceptual wisdom (prajña) and the apophatic language of Zen literature.^{[125][128][129][note 4]}

The philosophy of the Huayan school also had an influence on Chinese Chan. One example is the Huayan doctrine of the interpenetration of phenomena, which also makes use of native Chinese philosophical concepts such as principle (li) and phenomena (shi).^[130] The Huayan theory of the Fourfold Dharmadhatu also influenced the Five Ranks of Dongshan Liangjie (806–869), the founder of the Caodong Chan lineage.^[131]

Buddha-nature and subitism[edit]

Central in the doctrinal development of Chan Buddhism was the notion of Buddha-nature, the idea that the awakened mind of a Buddha is already present in each sentient being^[132] (pen chueh in Chinese Buddhism, hongaku in Japanese Zen).^[133] This Buddha-nature was initially equated with the nature of mind, while later Chan-teachings evaded any reification by rejecting any positivist terminology.^{[134][note 3]} The idea of the immanent character of the Buddha-nature took shape in a characteristic emphasis on direct insight into, and expression of this Buddha-nature.^[135][136] It led to a reinterpretation and Sinification of Indian meditation terminology, and an emphasis on subitism, the idea that the Buddhist teachings and practices are comprehended and expressed «sudden,»^[137] c.q. «in one glance,» «uncovered all together,» or «together, completely, simultaneously,» in contrast to gradualism, «successively or being uncovered one after the other.»^[138] The emphasis on subitism led to the idea that «enlightenment occurs in a single transformation that is both total and instantaneous»^[139] (Ch. shih-chueh).^[140]

While the attribution of gradualism, attributed by Shenhui to a concurring faction, was a rhetoric device, it led to a conceptual dominance in the Chan-tradition of subitism, in which any charge of gradualism was to be avoided.^{[135][note 5]} This «rhetorical purity» was hard to reconcile conceptually with the actual practice of meditation,^[142][135] and left little place in Zen texts for the description of actual meditation practices, apparently rejecting any form of practice.^{[143][135][134][note 6]} Instead, those texts directly pointed to and expressed this awakened nature, giving way to the paradoxically nature of encounter dialogue and koans.^[135][134]

Caodong/Sōtō/Tào Động[edit]

Main article: Sōtō

Sōtō is the Japanese line of the Chinese Caodong school, which was founded during the Tang Dynasty by Dongshan Liangjie. The Sōtō-school has de-emphasized kōans since Gentō Sokuchū (circa 1800), and instead emphasized shikantaza.^[145] Dogen, the founder of Soto in Japan, emphasized that practice and awakening cannot be separated. By practicing shikantaza, attainment and Buddhahood are already being expressed.^[146] For Dogen, zazen, or shikantaza, is the essence of Buddhist practice.^[147] Gradual cultivation was also recognized by Dongshan Liangjie.^[148]

A lineage also exists in Vietnam, founded by 17th-century Chan master Thông Giác Đạo Nam. In Vietnamese, the school is known as «Tào Động.»^[149]

Linji/Rinzai[edit]

The Rinzai school is the Japanese lineage of the Chinese Linji school, which was founded during the Tang dynasty by Linji Yixuan. The Rinzai school emphasizes kensho, insight into one’s true nature.^[150] This is followed by so-called post-satori practice, further practice to attain Buddhahood.^{[151][152][153]}

Other Zen-teachers have also expressed sudden insight followed by gradual cultivation. Jinul, a 12th-century Korean Seon master, followed Zongmi, and also emphasized that insight into our true nature is sudden, but is to be followed by practice to ripen the insight and attain full buddhahood. This is also the standpoint of the contemporary Sanbo Kyodan, according to whom kenshō is at the start of the path to full enlightenment.^[154]

To attain this primary insight and to deepen it, zazen and kōan-study is deemed essential. This trajectory of initial insight followed by a gradual deepening and ripening is expressed by Linji in his Three Mysterious Gates and Hakuin Ekaku’s Four Ways of Knowing.^[155] Another example of depiction of stages on the path are the Ten Bulls, which detail the steps on the path.

Scripture[edit]

The role of the scripture[edit]

Zen is deeply rooted in the teachings and doctrines of Mahāyāna Buddhism.^[156] Classic Zen texts, such as the Platform sutra, contain numerous references to Buddhist canonical sutras.^[157] According to Sharf, Zen monastics «are expected to become familiar with the classics of the Zen canon».^[158] A review of the early historical documents and literature of early Zen masters clearly reveals that they were well versed in numerous Mahāyāna sūtras,^{[5][note 7][note 8][5][note 9]} as well as Mahayana Buddhist philosophy such as Madhyamaka.^[125]

Nevertheless, Zen is often pictured as anti-intellectual.^[156] This picture of Zen emerged during the Song Dynasty (960–1297), when Chán became the dominant form of Buddhism in China, and gained great popularity among the educated and literary classes of Chinese society. The use of koans, which are highly stylized literary texts, reflects this popularity among the higher classes.^[135] The famous saying «do not establish words and letters», attributed in this period to Bodhidharma,^[161]

…was taken not as a denial of the recorded words of the Buddha or the doctrinal elaborations by learned monks, but as a warning to those who had become confused about the relationship between Buddhist teaching as a guide to the truth and mistook it for the truth itself.^[162]

What the Zen tradition emphasizes is that the enlightenment of the Buddha came not through conceptualization but rather through direct insight.^[163] But direct insight has to be supported by study and understanding (hori^[164]) of the Buddhist teachings and texts.^{[165][note 10]} Intellectual understanding without practice is called yako-zen, «wild fox Zen», but «one who has only experience without intellectual understanding is a zen temma, ‘Zen devil‘«.^[167]

Grounding Chán in scripture[edit]

The early Buddhist schools in China were each based on a specific sutra. At the beginning of the Tang Dynasty, by the time of the Fifth Patriarch Hongren (601–674), the Zen school became established as a separate school of Buddhism.^[168] It had to develop a doctrinal tradition of its own to ascertain its position^[135] and to ground its teachings in a specific sutra. Various sutras were used for this even before the time of Hongren: the Śrīmālādevī Sūtra (Huike),^[169] Awakening of Faith (Daoxin),^[169] the Lankavatara Sutra (East Mountain School),^[169][5] the Diamond Sutra^[170] (Shenhui),^[169] and the Platform Sutra.^[5][170] The Chan tradition drew inspiration from a variety of sources and thus did not follow any single scripture over the others.^[171] Subsequently, the Zen tradition produced a rich corpus of written literature, which has become a part of its practice and teaching. Other influential sutras are the Vimalakirti Sutra,^{[172][173][174]} Avatamsaka Sutra,^[175] the Shurangama Sutra,^[176] and the Mahaparinirvana Sutra.^[177]

In his analysis of the works of the influential Hongzhou school of Chan, Mario Poceski notes that they cite the following Mahayana sutras: the Lotus Sutra 法華經, the Huayan 華嚴經, the Nirvana 涅盤經, the Laṅkāvatāra 楞伽經, the Prajñāpāramitās 般若經, the Mahāratnakūta 大寶積經, the Mahāsamnipāta 大集經, and the Vimalakīrti 維摩經.^[178]

Literature[edit]

The Zen-tradition developed a rich textual tradition, based on the interpretation of the Buddhist teachings and the recorded sayings of Zen-masters. Important texts are the Platform Sutra (8th century), attributed to Huineng ;^[135] the Chán transmission records, teng-lu,^[179] such as The Records of the Transmission of the Lamp (Ching-te ch’uan-teng lu), compiled by Tao-yün and published in 1004;^[180] the «yü-lü» genre^[181] consisting of the recorded sayings of the masters, and the encounter dialogues; the koan-collections, such as The Gateless Barrier and the Blue Cliff Record.

Organization and institutions[edit]

Religion is not only an individual matter, but «also a collective endeavour».^[182] Though individual experience^[183] and the iconoclastic picture of Zen^[184] are emphasised in the Western world, the Zen-tradition is maintained and transferred by a high degree of institutionalisation and hierarchy.^[185][186] In Japan, modernity has led to criticism of the formal system and the commencement of lay-oriented Zen-schools such as the Sanbo Kyodan^[187] and the Ningen Zen Kyodan.^[188] How to organize the continuity of the Zen-tradition in the West, constraining charismatic authority and the derailment it may bring on the one hand,^{[189][190][54]} and maintaining the legitimacy and authority by limiting the number of authorized teachers on the other hand,^[182] is a challenge for the developing Zen-communities in the West.

Narratives[edit]

The Chán of the Tang Dynasty, especially that of Mazu and Linji with its emphasis on «shock techniques», in retrospect was seen as a golden age of Chán.^[135] It became dominant during the Song Dynasty, when Chán was the dominant form of Buddhism in China, due to support from the Imperial Court.^[135] This picture has gained great popularity in the West in the 20th century, especially due to the influence of D.T. Suzuki,^[191] and further popularized by Hakuun Yasutani and the Sanbo Kyodan.^[183] This picture has been challenged, and complemented, since the 1970s by modern scientific research on Zen.^{[135][192][193][194][195][196]}

Modern scientific research on the history of Zen discerns three main narratives concerning Zen, its history and its teachings: Traditional Zen Narrative (TZN),^[197][198] Buddhist Modernism (BM),^[191] Historical and Cultural Criticism (HCC).^[197] An external narrative is Nondualism, which claims Zen to be a token of a universal nondualist essence of religions.^[199][200]

History[edit]

Chinese Chán[edit]

Zen (Chinese: Chán 禪) Buddhism, as we know it today, is the result of a long history, with many changes and contingent factors. Each period had different types of Zen, some of which remained influential, while others vanished.^[135] The history of Chán in China is divided into various periods by different scholars, who generally distinguish a classical phase and a post-classical period.

Ferguson distinguishes three periods from the 5th century into the 13th century:

1. The Legendary period, from Bodhidharma in the late 5th century to the An Lushan Rebellion around 765 CE, in the middle of the Tang Dynasty. Little written information is left from this period.^[201] It is the time of the Six Patriarchs, including Bodhidharma and Huineng, and the legendary «split» between the Northern and the Southern School of Chán.^[135]
2. The Classical period, from the end of the An Lushan Rebellion around 765 CE to the beginning of the Song Dynasty around 950 CE.^[201] This is the time of the great masters of Chán, such as Mazu Daoyi and Linji Yixuan, and the creation of the yü-lü genre, the recordings of the sayings and teachings of these great masters.
3. The Literary period, from around 950 to 1250,^[201] which spans the era of the Song Dynasty (960–1279). In this time the gongan-collections were compiled, collections of sayings and deeds by the famous masters, appended with poetry and commentary. This genre reflects the influence of literati on the development of Chán. This period idealized the previous period as the «golden age» of Chán, producing the literature in which the spontaneity of the celebrated masters was portrayed.

Although McRae has reservations about the division of Chán-history in phases or periods,^[202] he nevertheless distinguishes four phases in the history of Chán:^[203]

1. Proto-Chán (c. 500–600) (Southern and Northern Dynasties (420 to 589) and Sui Dynasty (589–618 CE)). In this phase, Chán developed in multiple locations in northern China. It was based on the practice of dhyana and is connected to the figures of Bodhidharma and Huike. Its principal text is the Two Entrances and Four Practices, attributed to Bodhidharma.^[204]
2. Early Chán (c. 600–900) (Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE)). In this phase Chán took its first clear contours. Prime figures are the fifth patriarch Daman Hongren (601–674), his dharma-heir Yuquan Shenxiu (606?–706), the sixth patriarch Huineng (638–713), protagonist of the quintessential Platform Sutra, and Shenhui (670–762), whose propaganda elevated Huineng to the status of sixth patriarch. Prime factions are the Northern School, Southern School and Oxhead school.^[205]
3. Middle Chán (c. 750–1000) (from An Lushan Rebellion (755–763) till Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907–960/979)). In this phase developed the well-known Chán of the iconoclastic zen-masters. Prime figures are Mazu Daoyi (709–788), Shitou Xiqian (710–790), Linji Yixuan (died 867), and Xuefeng Yicun (822–908). Prime factions are the Hongzhou school and the Hubei faction^{[note 11]} An important text is the Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall (952), which gives a great amount of «encounter-stories», and the well-known genealogy of the Chán-school.^[208]
4. Song Dynasty Chán (c. 950–1300). In this phase Chán took its definitive shape including the picture of the «golden age» of the Chán of the Tang-Dynasty, and the use of koans for individual study and meditation. Prime figures are Dahui Zonggao (1089–1163) who introduced the Hua Tou practice and Hongzhi Zhengjue (1091–1157) who emphasized Shikantaza. Prime factions are the Linji school and the Caodong school. The classic koan-collections, such as the Blue Cliff Record were assembled in this period,^[209] which reflect the influence of the «literati» on the development of Chán.^[210][161] In this phase Chán is transported to Japan, and exerts a great influence on Korean Seon via Jinul.

Neither Ferguson nor McRae give a periodisation for Chinese Chán following the Song-dynasty, though McRae mentions «at least a post-classical phase or perhaps multiple phases».^[211] According to David McMahan:

During the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) and the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912) Chán was part of a larger, syncretic Buddhist culture. A final phase can be distinguished from the 19th century onward, when western imperialism had a growing influence in South-East Asia, including China. A side effect of this imperial influence was the modernisation of Asian religions, adapting them to western ideas and rhetorical strategies.^[191]

Origins[edit]

Before the arrival of the «founder» of Chan, Bodhidharma, various Buddhist masters of meditation or dhyana (i.e. Chan) had taught in China. These figures also brought with them various meditation texts, called the Dhyāna sutras (Chinese: 禪經 chan jing). These early meditation works mainly drew from the teachings of the Sarvāstivāda school of Kashmir.^[17] These texts include the translations of the Parthian An Shigao (147–168 CE) like the Anban shouyi jing (Sanskrit: Ānāpānasmṛti-sūtra), the numerous translations of Kumārajīva (334–413 CE, such as the Zuochan sanmei jing (Sutra of Sitting Dhyāna samādhi) and those of Buddhabhadra (like the Damoduoluo chan jing, Dharmatrāta Dhyāna sūtra).^{[212][213][214]} These early meditation texts laid the groundwork for the practices of Chan Buddhism (Zen) and the works of the Tiantai meditation master Zhiyi.^[215]

The translation work of Kumārajīva (especially his Prajñāpāramitā translations and his Vimalakirti Sutra), Buddhabhadra (Avatamsaka Sutra) and Gunabhadra (Lankāvatāra sūtra) were also key formative influences on the origins of Chan. These Buddhist texts are some of the key sources for later Chan masters.^[216] Indeed, in some early Chan texts (like the Masters of the Lankāvatāra), it is Gunabhadra, not Bodhidharma, which is seen as the first patriarch who transmits the Chan lineage (here seen as synonymous with the Lankāvatāra tradition) from India.^[217] The meditation works of the fourth Tiantai patriarch Zhiyi, such as his monumental Mohezhiguan, were also important sources on later Chan meditation manuals, like the Tso-chan-i.^[35]

A further possible influence on the origin of Chan Buddhism is Taoism. Some of the earliest Chinese Buddhists were influenced by Daoist thought and terminology and this has led some scholars to see a Taoist influence on Chan.^{[218][219][220][221]} In his history of Zen, Heinrich Dumoulin argued that Chan Buddhist developed out of the confluence of Indian Mahayana and Chinese Taoism.^[222] Two Chinese disciples of Kumārajīva, Sengzhao and Tao Sheng were influenced by Taoist works like the Laozi and Zhuangzi.^[221] These Sanlun figures in turn had an influence on some early Chan masters.^[223]

Proto-Chán[edit]

Proto-Chán (c. 500–600) encompasses the Southern and Northern Dynasties period (420 to 589) and Sui Dynasty (589–618 CE). In this phase, Chán developed in multiple locations in northern China. It was based on the practice of dhyana and is connected to the figures of Bodhidharma, Seng-fu and Huike, though there is little actual historical information about these early figures and most legendary stories about their life come from later, mostly Tang sources. What is known is that they were considered Mahayana meditation masters.^[224][135]

An important text from this period is the Two Entrances and Four Practices, found in Dunhuang, and attributed to Bodhidharma.^[204] Later sources mention that these figures taught using the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra though there is no direct evidence of this from the earliest sources.^[225][226] According to John McRae, the earliest Chan sources on these masters show considerable influence from Madhyamaka thought, while the influence from the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra is actually much less pronounced and it is questionable if it was there at all with regards to the earliest figures like Bodhidharma and Huike.^[224]

Early Chán[edit]

Early Chán refers to early Tang Dynasty (618–750) Chán. The fifth patriarch Daman Hongren (601–674), and his dharma-heir Yuquan Shenxiu (606?–706) were influential in founding the first Chan institution in Chinese history, known as the «East Mountain school» (Dongshan famen).^[227] Hongren taught the practice of shou-hsin, «maintaining (guarding) the mind,» in which «an awareness of True Mind or Buddha-nature within» is maintained, «[exhorting] the practitioners to
unremittingly apply themselves to the practice of meditation.»^[228]

Shenxiu was the most influential and charismatic student of Hongren, he was even invited to the Imperial Court by Empress Wu.^[229] Shenxiu also became the target of much criticism by Shenhui (670–762), for his «gradualist» teachings. Shenhui instead promoted the «sudden» teachings of his teacher Huineng (638–713) as well as what later became a very influential Chán classic called the Platform Sutra.^[230] Shenhui’s propaganda campaign eventually succeeded in elevating Huineng to the status of sixth patriarch of Chinese Chán.^[231][135] The sudden vs. gradual debate that developed in this era came to define later forms of Chan Buddhism.^[232]

Middle Chán[edit]

The Middle Chán (c. 750–1000) period runs from the An Lushan Rebellion (755–763) to the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907–960/979). This phase saw the development new schools of Chan. The most important of these schools is the Hongzhou school of Mazu Daoyi (709–788), to which also belong Shitou, Baizhang, and Huangbo. This school is sometimes seen as the archetypal expression of Chán, with its emphasis on the personal expression of insight, and its rejection of positive statements, as well as the importance it placed on spontaneous and unconventional «questions and answers during an encounter» (linji wenda) between master and disciple.^[126][233]

However, modern scholars have seen much of the literature that presents these «iconoclastic» encounters as being later revisions during the Song era, and instead see the Hongzhou masters as not being very radical, instead promoting pretty conservative ideas, such as keeping precepts, accumulating good karma and practicing meditation.^[233] The school did produce innovative teachings and perspectives such as Mazu’s views that «this mind is Buddha» and that «ordinary mind is the way», which were also critiqued by later figures, such as the influential Guifeng Zongmi (780–841), for failing to differentiate between ignorance and enlightenment.^[234]

By the end of the late Tang, the Hongzhou school was gradually superseded by various regional traditions, which became known as the Five Houses of Chán. Shitou Xiqian (710–790) is regarded as the Patriarch of Cáodòng (Jp. Sōtō) school, while Linji Yixuan (died 867) is regarded as the founder of Línjì (Jp. Rinzai) school. Both of these traditions were quite influential both in and outside of China. Another influential Chán master of the late Tang was Xuefeng Yicun. During the later Tang, the practice of the «encounter dialogue» reached its full maturity. These formal dialogues between master and disciple may have used absurd, illogical and iconoclastic language as well as non-verbal forms of communication such as the drawing of circles and physical gestures like shouting and hitting.^[235]

It was also common to write fictional encounter dialogues and attribute them to previous Chán figures.^[235] An important text from this period is the Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall (952), which gives many «encounter-stories», as well as establishing a genealogy of the Chán school.^[208] The Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution in 845 was devastating for metropolitan Chan, but the Chan school of Mazu survived, and took a leading role in the Chan of the later Tang.^[236]

Song Dynasty Chán[edit]

During Song Dynasty Chán (c. 950–1300), Chán Buddhism took its definitive shape, through the development of the use of koans for individual study and meditation. It was also during the Song that Chan literati developed their own idealized history of Chan, particularly promoting the idea of a Tang «golden age» of Chan.^[238] During the Song, Chán became the largest sect of Chinese Buddhism and had strong ties to the imperial government, which led to the development of a highly organized system of temple rank and administration.^[239]

The dominant form of Song Chán was the Linji school due to support from the scholar-official class and the imperial court.^[240] This school developed the study of gong’an («public case») literature, which depicted stories of master-student encounters that were seen as demonstrations of the awakened mind. Most of these stories depicted the idealized encounters of past Chan masters, particularly from the Tang era, and show the influence of the Chinese literati class.^{[241][238][210][161]} The most influential of these works are the Blue Cliff Record, the Book of Equanimity and The Gateless Gate.^[209]

During the 12th century, a rivalry emerged between the Linji and the Caodong schools for the support of the scholar-official class. Hongzhi Zhengjue (1091–1157) of the Caodong school emphasized silent illumination or serene reflection (mòzhào) as a means for solitary practice, which could be undertaken by lay-followers. The Linji school’s Dahui Zonggao (1089–1163) meanwhile, introduced k’an-hua chan («observing the word-head» chan), which involved meditation on the crucial phrase or «punch line» (hua-tou) of a gong’an.^[242][243]

The Song also saw the syncretism of Chán and Pure Land Buddhism by Yongming Yanshou (904–975), which would later become extremely influential.^[244] Yongming also echoed Zongmi’s work in indicating that the values of Taoism and Confucianism could also be embraced and integrated into Buddhism. Chán also influenced Neo-Confucianism as well as certain forms of Taoism, such as the Quanzhen school.^[245][246]

During the Song, Chán was also transported to Japan by figures like Eisai and exerted a great influence on Korean Seon via Jinul.

Post-Classical Chán[edit]

During the Ming Dynasty, the Chán school was so dominant that all Chinese monks were affiliated with either the Linji school or the Caodong school.^[247]

Some scholars see the post-classical phase as being an «age of syncretism.»^[248] The post-classical period saw the increasing popularity of the dual practice of Chán and Pure Land Buddhism (known as nianfo Chan), as seen in the teachings of Zhongfeng Mingben (1263–1323) and the great reformer Hanshan Deqing (1546–1623). This became a widespread phenomenon and in time much of the distinction between them was lost, with many monasteries teaching both Chán meditation and the Pure Land practice of nianfo.^{[249][250][58]}

The Ming dynasty also saw the efforts of figures such as Yunqi Zhuhong (1535–1615) and Daguan Zhenke (1543–1603) to revive and reconcile Chan Buddhism with the practice of Buddhist scriptural study and writing.^[248]

In the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, Chán was «reinvented», by the «revival of beating and shouting practices» by Miyun Yuanwu (1566–1642), and the publication of the Wudeng yantong («The strict transmission of the five Chan schools») by Feiyin Tongrong’s (1593–1662), a dharma heir of Miyun Yuanwu. The book placed self-proclaimed Chan monks without proper Dharma transmission in the category of «lineage unknown» (sifa weixiang), thereby excluding several prominent Caodong monks.^[251]

Modern era[edit]

After further centuries of decline during the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912), Chán activity was revived again in the 19th and 20th centuries by a flurry of modernist activity. This period saw the rise of worldly Chan activism, what is sometimes called Humanistic Buddhism (or more literally «Buddhism for human life», rensheng fojiao), promoted by figures like Jing’an (1851–1912), Yuanying (1878–1953), Taixu (1890–1947), Xuyun (1840–1959) and Yinshun (1906–2005). These figures promoted social activism to address issues such as poverty and social injustice, as well as participation in political movements. They also promoted modern science and scholarship, including the use of the methods of modern critical scholarship to study the history of Chan.^[253]

Many Chán teachers today trace their lineage back to Xuyun, including Sheng-yen and Hsuan Hua, who have propagated Chán in the West where it has grown steadily through the 20th and 21st centuries. Chán Buddhism was repressed in China during the 1960s in the Cultural Revolution, but in the subsequent reform and opening up period in the 1970s, a revival of Chinese Buddhism has been taking place on the mainland, while Buddhism has a significant following in Taiwan and Hong Kong as well as among Overseas Chinese.

Spread outside of China[edit]

Vietnamese Thiền[edit]

Chan was introduced to Vietnam during the early Chinese occupation periods (111 BCE to 939 CE) as Thiền. During the Lý (1009–1225) and Trần (1225 to 1400) dynasties, Thiền rose to prominence among the elites and the royal court and a new native tradition was founded, the Trúc Lâm («Bamboo Grove») school, which also contained Confucian and Taoist influences. In the 17th century, the Linji school was brought to Vietnam as the Lâm Tế, which also mixed Chan and Pure land. Lâm Tế remains the largest monastic order in the country today.^[254]

Modern Vietnamese Thiền is influenced by Buddhist modernism.^[255] Important figures include Thiền master Thích Thanh Từ (1924–), the activist and popularizer Thích Nhất Hạnh (1926–2022) and the philosopher Thích Thiên-Ân. Vietnamese Thiền is eclectic and inclusive, bringing in many practices such as breath meditation, nianfo, mantra, Theravada influences, chanting, sutra recitation and engaged Buddhism activism.

Korean Seon[edit]

Seon (선) was gradually transmitted into Korea during the late Silla period (7th through 9th centuries) as Korean monks began to travel to China to learn the newly developing Chan tradition of Mazu Daoyi and returned home to establish the Chan school. They established the initial Seon schools of Korea, which were known as the «nine mountain schools» (九山, gusan).

Seon received its most significant impetus and consolidation from the Goryeo monk Jinul (1158–1210), who is considered the most influential figure in the formation of the mature Seon school. He founded the Jogye Order, which remains the largest Seon tradition in Korea today. Jinul founded the Songgwangsa temple as a new center of Seon study and practice. Jinul also wrote extensive works on Seon, developing a comprehensive system of thought and practice. From Dahui Zonggao, Jinul adopted the hwadu method, which remains the main meditation form taught in Seon today.

Buddhism was mostly suppressed during the strictly Confucian Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910), and the number of monasteries and clergy sharply declined. The period of Japanese occupation also brought numerous modernist ideas and changes to Korean Seon. Some monks began to adopt the Japanese practice of marrying and having families, while others such as Yongseong, worked to resist the Japanese occupation. Today, the largest Seon school, the Jogye, enforces celibacy, while the second largest, the Taego Order, allows for married priests. Important modernist figures that influenced contemporary Seon include Seongcheol and Gyeongheo. Seon has also been transmitted to West, with new traditions such as the Kwan Um School of Zen.

Japanese Zen[edit]

Zen was not introduced as a separate school until the 12th century, when Myōan Eisai traveled to China and returned to establish a Linji lineage, which eventually perished.^[256] Decades later, Nanpo Shōmyō (南浦紹明) (1235–1308) also studied Linji teachings in China before founding the Japanese Otokan lineage, the most influential and only surviving lineage of Rinzai in Japan.^[256] In 1215, Dōgen, a younger contemporary of Eisai’s, journeyed to China himself, where he became a disciple of the Caodong master Tiantong Rujing. After his return, Dōgen established the Sōtō school, the Japanese branch of Caodong.

The three traditional schools of Zen in contemporary Japan are the Sōtō (曹洞), Rinzai (臨済), and Ōbaku (黃檗). Of these, Sōtō is the largest, and Ōbaku the smallest, with Rinzai in the middle. These schools are further divided into subschools by head temple, with two head temples for Sōtō (Sōji-ji and Eihei-ji, with Sōji-ji having a much larger network), fourteen head temples for Rinzai, and one head temple (Manpuku-ji) for Ōbaku, for a total of 17 head temples. The Rinzai head temples, which are most numerous, have substantial overlap with the traditional Five Mountain System, and include Myoshin-ji, Nanzen-ji, Tenryū-ji, Daitoku-ji, and Tofuku-ji, among others.

Besides these traditional organizations, there are modern Zen organizations that have especially attracted Western lay followers, namely the Sanbo Kyodan and the FAS Society.

Zen in the West[edit]

Although it is difficult to trace the precise moment when the West first became aware of Zen as a distinct form of Buddhism, the visit of Soyen Shaku, a Japanese Zen monk, to Chicago during the World Parliament of Religions in 1893 is often pointed to as an event that enhanced the profile of Zen in the Western world. It was during the late 1950s and the early 1960s that the number of Westerners other than the descendants of Asian immigrants who were pursuing a serious interest in Zen began to reach a significant level. Japanese Zen has gained the greatest popularity in the West. The various books on Zen by Reginald Horace Blyth, Alan Watts, Philip Kapleau and D. T. Suzuki^{[citation needed]} published between 1950 and 1975, contributed to this growing interest in Zen in the West, as did the interest on the part of beat poets such as Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg and Gary Snyder.^[257] In 1958, the literary magazine Chicago Review played a significant role in introducing Zen to the American literary community^[258] when it published a special issue^[259] on Zen featuring the aforementioned beat poets and works in translation. Erich Fromm quotes D. T. Suzuki in his 1960 book Psychoanalysis and Zen Buddhism.^[260]

The publication in 1974 of Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance by American writer Robert Pirsig brought the application of Zen thinking into a way of understanding non dualism in a practical sense. Drawing on a wide range of philosophical and logical sources, the book became the biggest selling work on philosophy ever published.

See also[edit]

• List of Buddhists
• Outline of Buddhism
• Timeline of Buddhism
• Chinese Chán
• 101 Zen Stories
• Chinso
• Shussan Shaka
• Katsu

Notes[edit]

References[edit]

Sources[edit]

Printed sources

Further reading[edit]

Modern popular works

• D.T. Suzuki, Essays in Zen Buddhism, First Series (1927), Second Series (1933), Third Series (1934)
• R. H. Blyth, Zen and Zen Classics, 5 volumes (1960–1970; reprints of works from 1942 into the 1960s)
• Alan Watts, The Way of Zen (1957)
• Lu K’uan Yu (Charles Luk), Ch’an and Zen Teachings, 3 vols (1960, 1971, 1974), The Transmission of the Mind: Outside the Teaching (1974)
• Paul Reps & Nyogen Senzaki, Zen Flesh, Zen Bones (1957)
• Philip Kapleau, The Three Pillars of Zen (1966)
• Shunryu Suzuki, Zen Mind, Beginner’s Mind (1970)
• Katsuki Sekida, Zen Training: Methods & Philosophy (1975)

Classic historiography

• Dumoulin, Heinrich (2005), Zen Buddhism: A History. Volume 1: India and China. World Wisdom Books.ISBN 978-0-941532-89-1
• Dumoulin, Heinrich (2005), Zen Buddhism: A History. Volume 2: Japan. World Wisdom Books.ISBN 978-0-941532-90-7

Critical historiography

Overview

• Heine, Steven (2007), «A Critical Survey of Works on Zen since Yampolsky» (PDF), Philosophy East & West, 57 (4): 577–592, doi:10.1353/pew.2007.0047, S2CID 170450246

Formation of Chán in Tang & Song China

• McRae, John (2004), The Sutra of Queen Śrīmālā of the Lion’s Roar and the Vimalakīrti Sutra (PDF), Berkeley, CA: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, ISBN 1886439311, archived from the original (PDF) on 12 September 2014
• Welter, Albert (2000), «Mahakasyapa’s smile. Silent Transmission and the Kung-an (Koan) Tradition», in Steven Heine; Dale S. Wright (eds.), The Koan: Texts and Contexts in Zen Buddhism, Oxford: Oxford University Press
• Schlütter, Morten (2008), How Zen became Zen. The Dispute over Enlightenment and the Formation of Chan Buddhism in Song-Dynasty China, Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, ISBN 978-0-8248-3508-8

Japan

• Bodiford, William M. (1993), Sōtō Zen in Medieval Japan, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 0-8248-1482-7

Modern times

• Victoria, Brian Daizen (2006), Zen at war (Second ed.), Lanham e.a.: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.

Orientalism and East-West interchange

• Borup, Jorn (n.d.), Zen and the Art of inverting Orientalism: religious studies and genealogical networks
• King, Richard (2002), Orientalism and Religion: Post-Colonial Theory, India and «The Mystic East», Routledge
• McMahan, David L. (2008), The Making of Buddhist Modernism. Oxford University Press.ISBN 978-0-19-518327-6

Contemporary practice

• Borup, Jørn (2008), Japanese Rinzai Zen Buddhism: Myōshinji, a Living Religion, Brill
• Hori, Victor Sogen (1994), «Teaching and Learning in the Zen Rinzai Monastery» (PDF), Journal of Japanese Studies (1): 5–35, doi:10.2307/132782, JSTOR 132782
• Buswell, Robert E. (1993a), The Zen Monastic Experience: Buddhist Practice in Contemporary Korea, Princeton University Press

External links[edit]

• thezensite
• Zen Buddhism WWW Virtual Library
• Chart of (Asian) Zen schools
• Glossary of Japanese Zen terms
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: entry on Japanese Zen Buddhism
• What is Zen Buddhism?

What does Zen mean in Japan?

The term Zen is derived from the Japanese pronunciation of the Middle Chinese word 禪 (chán), an abbreviation of 禪那 (chánnà), which is a Chinese transliteration of the Sanskrit word dhyāna (“meditation”). Zen emphasizes rigorous self-restraint, meditation-practice, insight into the nature of mind (見性, Ch. jiànxìng, Jp.

Is Zen a boy or girl name?

The name Zen is a boy’s name of Japanese origin.

How popular is the name Zen?

How Popular is the name Zen? Zen is the 7,589th most popular name of all time.

Is Zen Japanese or Chinese?

Zen, Chinese Chan, Korean Sŏn, also spelled Seon, Vietnamese Thien, important school of East Asian Buddhism that constitutes the mainstream monastic form of Mahayana Buddhism in China, Korea, and Vietnam and accounts for approximately 20 percent of the Buddhist temples in Japan.

Is Zen and Buddhism the same?

Zen Buddhism is a mixture of Indian Mahayana Buddhism and Taoism. It began in China, spread to Korea and Japan, and became very popular in the West from the mid 20th century. The essence of Zen is attempting to understand the meaning of life directly, without being misled by logical thought or language.

What does Zen mean in English?

The definition of zen is slang for feeling peaceful and relaxed. An example of zen as an adjective is to have a zen experience, how you feel during a day at the spa.

What is a Zen lifestyle?

Zen: simple, easy, tranquil. Adding a bit more “zen” to our life is beneficial to both our brain and our body. In the past we’ve explored some mindfulness exercises that can alleviate stress and anxiety, which are great to include in your zen routine.

What’s another word for Zen?

What is another word for Zen?

meditation	contemplation
introspection	reflection

What is the true meaning of Zen?

2 or zen : a state of calm attentiveness in which one’s actions are guided by intuition rather than by conscious effort Perhaps that is the zen of gardening—you become one with the plants, lost in the rhythm of the tasks at hand.—

What is Zen state of mind?

Zen meditation mainly involves perceiving your thoughts and understanding your mind and body. The Zen state of mind is the same as the mood of a beginner: there are no assumptions, expectations nor prejudices. A neophyte is receptive and open.

What is Zen in simple words?

Zen is a Japanese word translated from the Chinese word Chán, which means “meditation”. Zen uses meditation to help practitioners go beyond simply thinking about Zen. The goal in Zen is to attain satori. This Japanese word translates as “enlightenment”. The practice also includes using riddles, called Koans.

What does zealous mean?

: marked by fervent partisanship for a person, a cause, or an ideal : filled with or characterized by zeal zealous missionaries.

Who is a zealous person?

Someone who is zealous spends a lot of time or energy in supporting something that they believe in very strongly, especially a political or religious ideal. She was a zealous worker for charity. Synonyms: enthusiastic, passionate, earnest, burning More Synonyms of zealous.

Is zeal positive or negative?

“Zeal” is usually positive, meaning energetic enthusiasm. However, a “zealot” would be a person who takes zeal too far, someone blindly devoted to a cause or a cult.

Is zealous and jealous the same thing?

Jealousy is a word we have all used, or rather, an emotion most of us have felt at some point of time. Jealous characterizes a person who is overly possessive or envious. Zealous, on the other hand, is a super-positive word implying passions, enthusiasm and dedication for something or someone.

Is jealousy is a sign of love?

Many people glamourize jealousy by saying it’s a sign of love. It’s not! It’s a sign of insecurity and reflective of seeing your partner as an object to be possessed. It’s a negative emotion stemming from both desire and insecurity, but not love.

What rhymes jealous?

What rhymes with jealous?

• 1 syllable. Plus. Jus. Bus. Cus. Us. Fuss. Was. Brush.
• 2 syllables. Reckless. Endless. Menace. Precious. Texas’ Senseless. Necklace.
• 3 syllables. Defenseless. Embarrass. Infectious. Rebellious. Tremendous. Pretentious. Apprentice.
• 4 syllables. Overzealous. Consequences. Ridiculous. Delirious. Anonymous. Instrumentals.

Is God a zealous God?

Ephesians encourages us to “put on the whole armour of God” (Ephesians 6:13-18). God is a zealous God and he wears zeal as his mantle. He expects us to do the same.

Do God get angry?

Yes, God gets angry but he also loves you perfectly. God’s anger is righteous, under control and never petty. Human anger often is filled with pride, hate or other sinful motives. God opposes the wicked and his anger is meant to turn them from evil and towards the forgiveness and freedom found in Jesus.

Is God’s name jealous?

In some of my recent studies, I was led to the Bible scripture Exodus 34:14. The scripture reads as follows… “For thou shalt worship no other god: for the Lord, whose name is Jealous, is a jealous God”.

What is the world’s oldest religion?

The word Hindu is an exonym, and while Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, many practitioners refer to their religion as Sanātana Dharma (Sanskrit: सनातनधर्म:, lit.

Is Zen a Japanese word?

1. The term Zen is derived from the Japanese pronunciation of the Middle Chinese word 禪 (chán), an abbreviation of 禪那 (chánnà), which is a Chinese transliteration of the Sanskrit word ध्यान dhyāna (“meditation”).
2. Zen emphasizes rigorous self-restraint, meditation-practice, insight into the nature of mind (見性, Ch.

Consequently, What is Zen Master synonym? “Sensei” (simply “teacher”) is often applied in addressing the Zen teacher or “master”. “Oshō”, “virtuous monk/priest” is used for trainees who have acquired a basic level of priesthood.

Does Zen mean peace? Zen is a term that describes a feeling of peace, oneness, and enlightenment. It also describes a type of Buddhism in which meditation is used to stay present and non-judgmental. Zen is practiced diligently over a lifetime.

in the same way, What is the opposite of Zen? Opposite of in a relaxed or collected state. agitated. burdened. disturbed. perturbed.

What are the 4 Zen principles? Some main principles of Zen philosophy are the denial of the ego, the focus on interconnectedness in the universe, the recognition of attachment as a source of suffering, and the realization that human perception is faulty.

Is Zen a philosophy?

Zen is a philosophy that was born out of Mahayana Buddhism in the 11th century. Zen puts less emphasis on ancient religious practices and focuses on meditation, selflessness, and unity in the universe.

What is the Japanese term for Zen meditation?

Zen is closely associated with many Japanese arts. Nowadays, this word is known all over the world. However, its real meaning is often misunderstood. Recently, it became easier to discover in Japan this branch of Mahayana Buddhism, including the sitting meditation that comes with it, known as zazen.

What is a Buddhist student called?

A bhikkhu (Pali: भिक्खु, Sanskrit: भिक्षु, bhikṣu) is an ordained male in Buddhist monasticism. Male and female monastics (“nun”, bhikkhunī, Sanskrit bhikṣuṇī) are members of the Sangha (Buddhist community). Bhikkhu.

What does zen mean in Japanese?

The Japanese word zen is a borrowing of a medieval Chinese word (now pronounced chán, in modern Mandarin Chinese) meaning “meditation, contemplation.” Chán is one of the many Buddhist terms in Chinese that originate in India, the homeland of Buddhism.

What is the opposite of zen?

Opposite of in a relaxed or collected state. agitated. burdened. disturbed. perturbed.

What is Zen in Chinese?

The term Zen is derived from the Japanese pronunciation of the Middle Chinese word 禪 (chán), an abbreviation of 禪那 (chánnà), which is a Chinese transliteration of the Sanskrit word ध्यान dhyāna (“meditation”). Zen emphasizes rigorous self-restraint, meditation-practice, insight into the nature of mind (見性, Ch.

What is the symbol of Zen?

The Ensō Circle is a sacred symbol in Zen Buddhism and is very frequently seen in Japanese calligraphy, even though it’s not an actual calligraphy character. It’s also called The Circle of Enlightenment and The Infinity Circle. You can also see it called The Lost Symbol of Reiki.

What is the philosophy of Zen?

Zen is a philosophy that was born out of Mahayana Buddhism in the 11th century. Zen puts less emphasis on ancient religious practices and focuses on meditation, selflessness, and unity in the universe.

What is the symbol for Zen?

The classic symbol for Zen is the enso. It is known as the circle of enlightenment. There are two common symbol for zen enso’s. One is a brushstroke of a closed circle.

What is the color of Zen?

One hallmark of traditional zen spaces is that they tend to be dominated by neutral and earthy colors, especially beiges and browns. More contemporary zen styles may veer towards white and black color schemes. Since zen is all about relaxation, the soothing tones of neutral colors typically dominate.

What is the name of the Zen circle?

Derived from Zen Buddhism, the Enso (Zen Circle) simply means a circle or circle of togetherness. Traditionally, the circle is drawn with only one brushstroke and is one of the most common subjects in Japanese calligraphy.

What is the most peaceful color?

Blue is the Most Relaxing Colour, Scientists Say.

What are good zen colors?

There are certain colors that are perfect for a calming zen creation.

• Lilac Purple. Purples exude great serene energy in any space. …
• Icy Blues. Blue communicates a calm presence, often seen as calming and peaceful. …
• Lights Pinks and Beige. …
• Khaki Green. …
• Soft Browns and Blacks. …
• Decorate the Room.

What is zen style house?

Bringing Zen principles and philosophy into your home décor is associated with calm and neutral colours, minimalist and simple furniture and decorations, and features that bring balance and clean lines. It is also all about letting the energy flow positively around the space. Done well, the look can be simply stunning.

Does zen mean peace?

Zen is a term that describes a feeling of peace, oneness, and enlightenment. It also describes a type of Buddhism in which meditation is used to stay present and non-judgmental. Zen is practiced diligently over a lifetime.

What is Zen state of mind called?

Mushin in Japanese and Wuxin in Chinese (無心 “no mind”) is a mental state. Zen and Daoist meditators attempt to reach this state, as well as artists and trained martial artists. They also practice this mental state during everyday activities.

What is the Zen way of life?

The zen lifestyle is one of clarity. It involves looking beyond our materialism and learning to value our individual selves. It all sounds a bit airy-fairy, but take a look at the science of a clean environment.

By Ryoko Ward

Zen, shinrin-yoku, ikigai— you may have heard of these words. Although each one is used differently, what’s common is the fact that they are all Japanese terms that have become widely accepted in the west. They also all share an underlying ‘spiritual’ or ‘mindful’ sentiment. In their original Japanese context, however, they don’t necessarily signify spirituality, at least not to the same extent as they’ve come to do in the west.

Zen: a form of Buddhism the Japanese don’t really talk about

The word zen gained popularity in the west more than five years ago, at least in business scenes, including Google who invited Zen Master Thich Nhat Hanh to seek mindfulness, sustainability and happiness in their workplace. Zen has been widely used in the consumer market in the west as well — for example, the OnePlus 7 Pro smartphone has an inbuilt ‘Zen Mode’, which enables users to turn off notifications in twenty minute chunks, and they’re not allowed to cancel the session except to make emergency calls.

The term has also been applied to other industries such as F&B (i.e. ‘Zen Metro’, a restaurant in Birmingham), Health (i.e. ‘Micro Zen’, a supplement by Biocyte) and Design/Architecture (i.e. the ‘Zen inspired’ residence by DP Architects).

This tells us that, at least in the west, the word zen has wide ranging meanings — from ‘spiritual’ and ‘mindfulness’, to ‘relaxing’ and ‘healthy’, ‘quiet’ or even at a more fundamental level, ‘Asian’.

So what exactly does zen mean to Japanese people?

According to the Cambridge Dictionary, the primary definition given for zen is: ‘relaxed and not worrying about things that you cannot change’, followed by ‘a form of Buddhism, originally developed in Japan.’ The Cambridge Dictionary is not wrong, but technically the definitions shouldn’t be listed in that order if we’re referring to a general perspective. Among Japanese people, only the latter definition is considered to be correct, and it’s quite unlikely that they would associate the word with the first meaning, which is closer to how it’s commonly used in the west.

In fact, the word zen is rarely used as an adjective or verb in Japan. Examples of this might include; ‘(to) get zen’, ‘(to) zen out’ and ‘(to) feel zen’. In this way, the word zen can be used in casual day-to-day conversations in a western context. But in Japan, on the other hand, the word simply isn’t heard as frequently. Because zen carries the sole definition of being a form of Buddhism, unless they’re specifically making reference to the religion itself, it’s simply rare to hear Japanese people using it at all.

The fact that Japanese people tend to shy away from talking about religion helps the situation, particularly when it comes to one’s personal beliefs. Overall, Japanese people consider themselves to be rather secular. Declaring oneself to be religious (not only Buddhist) is perceived as a rarity and can even be deemed as being dogmatic and strange to others. It’s also considered inappropriate to talk about religious beliefs in business situations.

For this reason, the fact that zen has now taken on so many meanings and has become so deeply integrated into the western consumer market might come across as rather bizarre to Japanese people.

Shinrin-yoku: nothing more than a ‘walk in nature’

It can be said that shinrin-yoku is almost like an update of the zen phenomenon in that it has a similar usage within a western context.

Shinrin-yoku can literally be translated as ‘forest bathing’, but it shouldn’t be taken to mean anything other than ‘walking in the woods to relax’, at least from a Japanese perspective. A Guardian article notes that, ‘Forest bathing has become a national pastime in Japan. It can reduce stress and even heal our bodies — maybe it’s time us Brits tried it as well’, and encourages the readers to ‘turn off your phone, and make the most of your five senses’.

It’s easy to imagine Japanese people taking selfies while engaging in shinrin-yoku, uploading photos to their social media accounts while walking in the woods, and still claiming that it falls under the definition of shinrin-yoku. The point is that in a Japanese context, the word shinrin-yoku doesn’t hold the same special meaning as it does in the west. Therefore, it really might be too much to exclaim that ‘it’s time us Brits tried it as well’; saying that seems to suggest that it never existed in Britain prior to the word gaining popularity. But this isn’t strictly true.

Because shinrin-yoku only has a basic, surface level meaning among Japanese consumers, products such as the Shinrin-yoku Candle by Earl of East (below), which describes shinrin-yoku as ‘a Japanese ritual that involves taking in the forest atmosphere’ is likely to come across as especially comical to Japanese people, for whom shinrin-yoku is not a ritual unique to their culture, but refers simply to the act of walking in the woods to relax.

In fact, some online articles and videos in Japanese have discussed the western trend of focusing on shinrin-yoku, stating how they’re often surprised by the fact that the concept is perceived as being so unique to a non-Japanese audience.

Not that Japanese people are necessarily aware of this fact, but shinrin-yoku was first coined by the former Minister of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Tomohide Akiyama as recently as 1982. So considering that the term only has thirty-seven years of history, associating it with the ‘traditional’ culture of Japan in the same light as Shinto or Buddhism is rather odd to begin with. In a book about shinrin-yoku by Oliver Luke Deloire, he notes that, ‘the ancient Japanese philosophy of shinrin-yoku’ is definitely based on the ‘western’ interpretation.

The way in which shinrin-yoku is over-spiritualised in the west compared to how it’s used in Japan is one example of how concepts from one culture can be exoticised in another to give brands a unique and competitive edge.

Ikigai literally means ‘life purpose’, but it’s not necessarily an outrageously huge idea

For Japanese people, the word ikigai means ‘life purpose’ or one’s ‘raison d’etre’. It does imply something spiritual on a personal level, but the expression is also used casually to mean ‘things that make you feel happy in your everyday life’. While the word certainly originates in Japan, it doesn’t mean every single Japanese person can claim to have their own ikigai. If asked what their ikigai is, most Japanese people are likely to be taken by surprise and say, ‘that’s a big question’. Not many would be able to give an answer right away.

What’s different about the western definition of ikigai is that the word is loaded with various overlapping concepts, which are often illustrated in a diagram such as this one:

It’s safe to say that almost no Japanese person would be able to explain the term in such a structured way. This kind of diagram is definitely not the first thing Japanese people would tend to think of when they hear the word ikigai.

The philosophy of ikigai is now commonly applied within western business settings, particularly with regards to entrepreneurship and management. Again, by making use of a diagram, an article like this explains how the concept can help people uncover key areas of focus in business planning to ensure they succeed.

Again, this is not the typical way Japanese people would consider the word ikigai. It tends to be implemented at a more personal level. Applying the concept to business thinking in such a systematic and scientific way would not be top-of-mind for the majority.

Ikigai as a re-imported Japanese buzzword

Despite the different meanings, Japanese people don’t necessarily dismiss the way certain words have been ‘exoticised’ in the west. In fact, in some cases, Japanese buzzwords are actually re-imported into the Japanese vernacular, complete with the exoticised, extended meanings attributed to them in the west.

Ikigai is a solid example of this. Although still not deemed the most common usage of the word, the popular ikigai venn diagrams are now often translated and incorporated into Japanese social media and blog posts as guides instructing people how to live their lives to the fullest.

What can Western brands learn from this?

Skewing the meanings of trendy foreign terminology for western audiences can be an effective tactic for boosting appeal and tastefully ‘exoticising’ a product or service. The lesson when addressing the Japanese market, however, is not to be misled by what you think is inherently ‘Japanese’ in nature when crafting brand messages. Certain aspects of Japanese culture that are widely known and accepted in the west are not necessarily perceived the same way.

If brand representatives misunderstand the original definition within the local context, it’s easy to veer off message and they’ll most likely end up having little impact or even be seen as comical.

Got a question about a buzzword? Get in touch with us here.

The term Zen is derived from the Japanese pronunciation of the Middle Chinese word 禪 (chán), an abbreviation of 禪那 (chánnà), which is a Chinese transliteration of the Sanskrit word dhyāna (“meditation”). Zen emphasizes rigorous self-restraint, meditation-practice, insight into the nature of mind (見性, Ch. jiànxìng, Jp.

Who introduced Zen to Japan?

Myoan Eisai

Is Zen a form of Buddhism?

Zen Buddhism is a mixture of Indian Mahayana Buddhism and Taoism. It began in China, spread to Korea and Japan, and became very popular in the West from the mid 20th century. The essence of Zen is attempting to understand the meaning of life directly, without being misled by logical thought or language.

Is Zen popular in Japan?

ZEN TEMPLES AND PLACES IN JAPAN Visiting Zen temples while in Japan is a great way to approach the Zen movement. They are particularly numerous in Kyoto, ancestral city which shelters among the most beautiful Zen Buddhist complexes of the country, but also in Kamakura.

Is Zen still practiced in Japan?

Japanese Zen refers to the Japanese forms of Zen Buddhism, an originally Chinese Mahāyāna school of Buddhism that strongly emphasizes dhyāna, the meditative training of awareness and equanimity….

Japanese Zen
Traditional Chinese	禪
showTranscriptions
Vietnamese name
Vietnamese	Thiền

Is Zen Japanese or Chinese?

Zen, Chinese Chan, Korean Sŏn, also spelled Seon, Vietnamese Thien, important school of East Asian Buddhism that constitutes the mainstream monastic form of Mahayana Buddhism in China, Korea, and Vietnam and accounts for approximately 20 percent of the Buddhist temples in Japan.

What’s the opposite of Zen?

Zen comes from the Sanskrit word “dhyana” which means meditative absorption – perfectly relaxed, perfectly alert, so the opposite would be having a mind in chaos – agitated, ignorant, inattentive, unfocussed.

What are three synonyms tranquil?

tranquil

• arcadian,
• calm,
• hushed,
• peaceful,
• placid,
• quiet,
• restful,
• serene,

What is the opposite word of calm?

Antonym of Calm

Word	Antonym
Calm	Excited, Panic
Get definition and list of more Antonym and Synonym in English Grammar.

What is the meaning of Daisy tattoos?

Daisy tattoos symbolize loyalty, love, patience, and purity. Daisy is a form of flower purely for the female kind and is one of the most versatile tattoos you can wear on your body. Daisy tattoos are used by ladies to give them a more beautiful and appealing look.

1. History

1.1. Chinese Origins

According to tradition, Zen originated in India , when Gautama Buddha held up a flower and Mahākāśyapa smiled. With this smile he showed that he had understood the wordless essence of the dharma. This way the dharma was transmitted to Mahākāśyapa, the second patriarch of Zen.^[1]

The term Zen is derived from the Japanese pronunciation of the Middle Chinese word 禪 (Chan) which traces its roots to the Indian practice of dhyāna («meditation»). Buddhism was introduced to China in the first century CE. According to tradition, Chan was introduced around 500 CE by Bodhidharma, an Indian monk teaching dhyāna. He was the 28th Indian patriarch of Zen and the first Chinese patriarch.^[1]

1.2. Kamakura (1185–1333)

Buddhism was introduced in Japan in the 8th century CE during the Nara period (710-794) and the Heian period (794–1185). Zen was not introduced as a separate school in Japan until the 12th century during the Kamakura period (1185–1333), when Nōnin established the Daruma-school. In 1189 Nōnin^[2] sent two students to China, to meet with Cho-an Te-kuang (1121–1203), and ask for the recognition of Nōnin as a Zen-master. This recognition was granted.^[3]

In 1168, Eisai traveled to China, whereafter he studied Tendai for twenty years.^[4] In 1187 he went to China again, and returned to establish a local branch of the Linji school, which is known in Japan as the Rinzai school.^[5] Decades later, Nampo Jōmyō (南浦紹明) (1235–1308) also studied Linji teachings in China before founding the Japanese Ōtōkan lineage, the most influential branch of Rinzai.

In 1215, Dōgen, a younger contemporary of Eisai’s, journeyed to China himself, where he became a disciple of the Caodong master Rujing. After his return, Dōgen established the Sōtō school, the Japanese branch of Caodong.^[5]

Zen fit the way of life of the samurai: confronting death without fear, and acting in a spontaneous and intuitive way.^[5]

During this period the Five Mountain System was established, which institutionalized an influential part of the Rinzai school. It consisted of the five most famous Zen temples of Kyoto: Kenchō-ji, Engaku-ji, Jufuku-ji, Jōmyō-ji and Jōchi-ji.^[6]

1.3. Muromachi (or Ashikaga) (1336–1573)

During the Muromachi period the Rinzai school was the most successful of the schools, since it was favoured by the shōgun.

Gozan-system

In the beginning of the Muromachi period the Gozan system was fully worked out. The final version contained five temples of both Kyoto and Kamakura. A second tier of the system consisted of Ten Temples. This system was extended throughout Japan, effectively giving control to the central government, which administered this system.^[7] The monks, often well educated and skilled, were employed by the shōgun for the governing of state affairs.^[8]

Gozan system
	Kyoto	Kamakura
First Rank	Tenryū-ji	Kenchō-ji
Second Rank	Shōkoku-ji	Engaku-ji
Third Rank	Kennin-ji	Jufuku-ji
Fourth Rank	Tōfuku-ji	Jōchi-ji
Fifth Rank	Manju-ji	Jōmyō-ji

Rinka-monasteries

Not all Rinzai Zen organisations were under such strict state control. The Rinka monasteries, which were primarily located in rural areas rather than cities, had a greater degree of independence.^[9] The O-to-kan lineage, that centered on Daitoku-ji, also had a greater degree of freedom. It was founded by Nampo Jomyo, Shuho Myocho, and Kanzan Egen.^[10] A well-known teacher from Daitoku-ji was Ikkyū.^[5]

Another Rinka lineage was the Hotto lineage, of which Bassui Tokushō is the best-known teacher.^[11]

Soto

Soto too spread out over Japan. Gasan adopted the Five Ranks of Tung-shan as a fit vehicle to explain the Mahayana teachings.^[12]

1.4. Azuchi-Momoyama (1573–1600) and Edo (or Tokugawa) (1600–1868)

After a period of war Japan was re-united in the Azuchi–Momoyama period. This decreased the power of Buddhism, which had become a strong political and military force in Japan. Neo-Confucianism gained influence at the expense of Buddhism, which came under strict state control. Japan closed the gates to the rest of the world. The only traders to be allowed were Dutchmen admitted to the island of Dejima.^[5] New doctrines and methods were not to be introduced, nor were new temples and schools. The only exception was the Ōbaku lineage, which was introduced in the 17th century during the Edo period by Ingen, a Chinese monk. Ingen had been a member of the Linji school, the Chinese equivalent of Rinzai, which had developed separately from the Japanese branch for hundreds of years. Thus, when Ingen journeyed to Japan following the fall of the Ming dynasty to the Manchu people, his teachings were seen as a separate school. The Ōbaku school was named after Mount Huangbo (黄檗山, Ōbaku-sān), which had been Ingen’s home in China.

Well-known Zen masters from this period are Bankei, Bashō and Hakuin.^[5] Bankei Yōtaku (盤珪永琢?, 1622–1693) became a classic example of a man driven by the «great doubt». Matsuo Bashō (松尾 芭蕉?, 1644 – November 28, 1694) became a great Zen poet. In the 18th century Hakuin Ekaku (白隠 慧鶴?, 1686–1768) revived the Rinzai school. His influence was so immense that almost all contemporary Rinzai lineages are traced back to him.

1.5. Meiji Restoration (1868–1912) and Imperial expansionism (1912–1945)

The Meiji period (1868–1912) saw the restoration of the political importance of the Emperor after a coup in 1868. At that time Japan opened up to Western influences, restructuring all government and commercial structures to Western standards. Shinto became the state religion and Buddhism was coerced to adapt to the new regime. The Buddhist establishment saw the Western world as a threat, but also as a challenge to stand up to.^[13][14]

Shinto became the official religion, at the expense of Buddhism. Buddhist institutions had a simple choice: adapt or perish. Rinzai and Soto Zen chose to adapt, trying to modernize Zen in accord with Western insights, while simultaneously maintaining a Japanese identity. This Japanese identity was being articulated in the Nihonjinron philosophy, the «Japanese uniqueness» theory. A broad range of subjects was taken as typical of Japanese culture. D.T. Suzuki contributed to the Nihonjinron-philosophy by taking Zen as the distinctive token of Asian spirituality, showing its unique character in the Japanese culture^[15]

This resulted in support for the war activities of the Japanese imperial system by the Japanese Zen establishment—including the Sōtō sect, the major branches of Rinzai, and several renowned teachers. According to Sharf,

They became willing accomplices in the promulgation of the kokutai (national polity) ideology—the attempt to render Japan a culturally homogeneous and spiritually evolved nation politically unified under the divine rule of the emperor.^[15]

War endeavours against Russia, China and finally during the Pacific War were supported by the Zen establishment.^[14][16]

A notable work on this subject was Zen at War (1998) by Brian Victoria,^[14] an American-born Sōtō priest. One of his assertions was that some Zen masters known for their post-war internationalism and promotion of «world peace» were open Japanese nationalists in the inter-war years.^[17] Among them as an example Hakuun Yasutani, the founder of the Sanbo Kyodan School, even voiced antisemitic and nationalistic opinions after World War II. Only after international protests in the 1990s, following the publication of Victoria’s ‘Zen at war’, did the Sanbo Kyodan express apologies for this support^[18] This involvement was not limited to the Zen schools, as all orthodox Japanese schools of Buddhism supported the militarist state. Victoria’s particular claims about D. T. Suzuki’s involvement in militarism have been much disputed by other scholars.

1.6. Present Time (after 1945)

Interest in Zen grew in the West after World War II. Westerners such as Philip Kapleau and the Dutchman Janwillem van de Wetering went to Japan to study Zen.^[19] Japanese teachers came to the West to share Zen practice and philosophy.^[20]

Some contemporary Japanese Zen teachers, such as Harada Daiun Sogaku and Shunryū Suzuki, have criticized Japanese Zen as being a formalized system of empty rituals in which very few Zen practitioners ever actually attained realization. They assert that almost all Japanese temples have become family businesses handed down from father to son, and the Zen priest’s function has largely been reduced to officiating at funerals, a practice sarcastically referred to in Japan as sōshiki bukkyō (葬式仏教, funeral Buddhism). For example, the Sōtō school published statistics stating that 80 percent of laity visited temples only for reasons having to do with funerals and death.^[21]

2. Teachings

2.1. Buddha-Nature and Sunyata

Mahayana Buddhism teaches śūnyatā, «emptiness», which is also emphasized by Zen. But another important doctrine is the buddha-nature, the idea that all human beings have the possibility to awaken. All living creatures are supposed to have the Buddha-nature, but don’t realize this as long as they are not awakened. The doctrine of an essential nature can easily lead to the idea that there is an unchanging essential nature or reality behind the changing world of appearances.^[22]

The difference and reconciliation of these two doctrines is the central theme of the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra.^[22]

2.2. Kensho: Seeing One’s True Nature

The primary goal of Rinzai Zen is kensho, seeing one’s true nature, and mujodo no taigen, expression of this insight in daily life.^[23]

Seeing one’s true nature means seeing that there is no essential ‘I’ or ‘self’, that our true nature is empty.

Expression in daily life means that this is not only a contemplative insight, but that our lives are expressions of this selfless existence.^[24]

3. Methods

Zen meditation is the essential method of Zen. In Rinzai Zen this is supplemented by kōan training.

3.1. Zen Meditation

Zen emphasizes zazen: meditation as the means to awakening. There are various methods of meditation. In Buddhism two main approaches are used, vipaśyanā (insight training) and śamatha (concentration of the mind). Zen Buddhism emphasizes samātha. The Japanese word Zen is derived from the Chinese word 禅, pinyin: chán, which is derived from the Sanskrit dhyāna «meditation». The Japanese word zazen means «sitting meditation». However, Zen meditation ideally is not only concentration, but also awareness: being aware of the continuing changes in our consciousness, of all our sensations and our automatic reactions. https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?curid=1260105

In alternation with zazen, there is walking meditation, kinhin, in which one walks with full attention.

3.2. Kōans

To facilitate insight, a Zen teacher can assign a kōan. This is a short anecdote, which seems irrational, but contains subtle references to the Buddhist teachings.^[25] An example of a kōan is Joshu’s ‘Mu’:^[26]

A monk asked: «Does a dog have buddha-nature?» Joshu responded: «Mu!»

4. Contemporary Zen Organizations

The traditional schools of Zen in contemporary Japan are the Sōtō (曹洞), Rinzai (臨済), and Ōbaku (黃檗). Of these, Sōtō is the largest and Ōbaku the smallest. Besides these there are modern Zen organizations which have especially attracted Western lay followers, namely the Sanbo Kyodan and the FAS Society.

4.1. Sōtō

Sōtō emphasizes meditation and the inseparable nature of practice and insight. Its founder Dogen is still highly revered.

4.2. Rinzai

Rinzai emphasizes kōan study and kensho. The Rinzai organisation includes fifteen subschools based on temple affiliation. The best known of these main temples are Myoshin-ji, Nanzen-ji, Tenryū-ji, Daitoku-ji, and Tofuku-ji.

4.3. Obaku

Ōbaku is a small branch, which organizationally, is part of the Rinzai school.

4.4. Sanbo Kyodan

The Sanbo Kyodan is a small Japanese school, established by Hakuun Yasutani, which has been very influential in the West. Well-known teachers from this school are Philip Kapleau and Taizan Maezumi. Maezumi’s influence stretches further through his dharma heirs, such as Joko Beck, Tetsugen Bernard Glassman, and especially Dennis Merzel, who has appointed more than a dozen dharma heirs.

4.5. FAS Society

The FAS Society is a non-sectarian organization, founded by Shin’ichi Hisamatsu. Its aim is to modernize Zen and adapt it to the modern world. In Europe it is influential through such teachers as Jeff Shore and Ton Lathouwers.

5. Zen in the Western World

5.1. Early Influences

Although it is difficult to trace when the West first became aware of Zen as a distinct form of Buddhism, the visit of Soyen Shaku, a Japanese Zen monk, to Chicago during the World Parliament of Religions in 1893 is often pointed to as an event that enhanced its profile in the Western world. It was during the late 1950s and the early 1960s that the number of Westerners pursuing a serious interest in Zen, other than descendants of Asian immigrants, reached a significant level.

Eugen Herrigel’s book Zen in the Art of Archery^[27] describing his training in the Zen-influenced martial art of Kyūdō, inspired many of the Western world’s early Zen practitioners. However, many scholars, such as Yamada Shoji, are quick to criticize this book.^[28]

5.2. D.T. Suzuki

The single most influential person for the spread of Zen Buddhism was D. T. Suzuki.^[13][15] A lay student of Zen, he became acquainted with Western culture at a young age. He wrote many books on Zen which became widely read in the Western world, but he has been criticised for giving a one-sided and overly romanticized vision of Zen.^[13][15][29]

Reginald Horace Blyth (1898–1964) was an Englishman who went to Japan in 1940 to further his study of Zen. He was interned during World War II and started writing in prison. While imprisoned he met Robert Aitken, who was later to become a roshi in the Sanbo Kyodan lineage. Blyth was tutor to the Crown Prince after the war. His greatest work is the 5-volume «Zen and Zen Classics», published in the 1960s. Here he discusses Zen themes from a philosophical standpoint, often in conjunction with Christian elements in a comparative spirit. His essays include «God, Buddha, and Buddhahood» and «Zen, Sin, and Death».

5.3. Beat Zen

The British philosopher Alan Watts took a close interest in Zen Buddhism and wrote and lectured extensively on it during the 1950s. He understood Zen as a vehicle for a mystical transformation of consciousness, and also as a historical example of a non-Western, non-Christian way of life that had fostered both the practical and fine arts.

The Dharma Bums, a novel written by Jack Kerouac and published in 1959, gave its readers a look at how a fascination with Buddhism and Zen was being absorbed into the bohemian lifestyles of a small group of United States youths, primarily on the West Coast. Beside the narrator, the main character in this novel was «Japhy Ryder», a thinly veiled depiction of Gary Snyder. The story was based on actual events taking place while Snyder prepared, in California, for the formal Zen studies that he would pursue in Japanese monasteries between 1956 and 1968.^[30]

5.4. Christian Zen

Thomas Merton (1915–1968) was a Catholic Trappist monk and priest.^[31] Like his friend, the late D.T. Suzuki, Merton believed that there must be a little of Zen in all authentic creative and spiritual experience. The dialogue between Merton and Suzuki^[32] explores the many congruencies of Christian mysticism and Zen.^[33][34]

Hugo Enomiya-Lassalle (1898–1990) was a Jesuit who became a missionary in Japan in 1929. In 1956 he started to study Zen with Harada Daiun Sogaku. He was the superior of Heinrich Dumoulin, the well-known author on the history of Zen. Enomiya-lassalle introduced Westerners to Zen meditation.

Robert Kennedy (roshi), a Catholic Jesuit priest, professor, psychotherapist and Zen roshi in the White Plum lineage has written a number of books about what he labels as the benefits of Zen practice to Christianity. He was ordained a Catholic priest in Japan in 1965, and studied with Yamada Koun in Japan in the 1970s. He was installed as a Zen teacher of the White Plum Asanga lineage in 1991 and was given the title ‘Roshi’ in 1997.

In 1989, the Vatican released a document which states some Catholic appreciation of the use of Zen in Christian prayer. According to the text none of the methods proposed by non-Christian religions should be rejected out of hand simply because they are not Christian:

On the contrary, one can take from them what is useful so long as the Christian concept of prayer, its logic and requirements are never obscured.^[35]

5.5. Zen and the art of…

While Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance, by Robert M. Pirsig, was a 1974 bestseller, it in fact has little to do with Zen as a religious practice, nor with motorcycle maintenance for that matter. Rather it deals with the notion of the metaphysics of «quality» from the point of view of the main character. Pirsig was attending the Minnesota Zen Center at the time of writing the book. He has stated that, despite its title, the book «should in no way be associated with that great body of factual information relating to orthodox Zen Buddhist practice». Though it may not deal with orthodox Zen Buddhist practice, Pirsig’s book in fact deals with many of the more subtle facets of Zen living and Zen mentality without drawing attention to any religion or religious organization.

A number of contemporary authors have explored the relationship between Zen and a number of other disciplines, including parenting, teaching, and leadership. This typically involves the use of Zen stories to explain leadership strategies.^[36]

5.6. Art

In Europe, the Expressionist and Dada movements in art tend to have much in common thematically with the study of kōans and actual Zen. The early French surrealist René Daumal translated D.T. Suzuki as well as Sanskrit Buddhist texts.

6. Western Zen Lineages Derived from Japan

Over the last fifty years mainstream forms of Zen, led by teachers who trained in East Asia and their successors, have begun to take root in the West.

6.1. USA

Sanbo Kyodan

In North America, the Zen lineages derived from the Sanbo Kyodan school are the most numerous. The Sanbo Kyodan is a Japan-based reformist Zen group, founded in 1954 by Yasutani Hakuun, which has had a significant influence on Zen in the West. Sanbo Kyodan Zen is based primarily on the Soto tradition, but also incorporates Rinzai-style kōan practice. Yasutani’s approach to Zen first became prominent in the English-speaking world through Philip Kapleau’s book The Three Pillars of Zen (1965), which was one of the first books to introduce Western audiences to Zen as a practice rather than simply a philosophy. Among the Zen groups in North America, Hawaii, Europe, and New Zealand which derive from Sanbo Kyodan are those associated with Kapleau, Robert Aitken, and John Tarrant.

The most widespread are the lineages founded by Hakuyu Taizan Maezumi and the White Plum Asanga. Maezumi’s successors include Susan Myoyu Andersen, John Daido Loori, Chozen Bays, Tetsugen Bernard Glassman, Nicolee Jikyo McMahon, Joan Hogetsu Hoeberichts, and Charlotte Joko Beck.

Soto

Soto has gained prominence via Shunryu Suzuki, who established the San Francisco Zen Center. In 1967 the Center established Tassajara, the first Zen Monastery in America, in the mountains near Big Sur.

The Katagiri lineage, founded by Dainin Katagiri, has a significant presence in the Midwest. Note that both Taizan Maezumi and Dainin Katagiri served as priests at Zenshuji Soto Mission in the 1960s.

Taisen Deshimaru, a student of Kodo Sawaki, was a Soto Zen priest from Japan who taught in France . The International Zen Association, which he founded, remains influential. The American Zen Association, headquartered at the New Orleans Zen Temple, is one of the North American organizations practicing in the Deshimaru tradition.

Soyu Matsuoka established the Long Beach Zen Buddhist Temple and Zen Center in 1971, where he resided until his death in 1998. The Temple was headquarters to Zen centers in Atlanta, Chicago, Los Angeles, Seattle, and Everett, Washington. Matsuoka created several dharma heirs, three of whom are still alive and leading Zen teachers within the lineage: Hogaku ShoZen McGuire, Zenkai Taiun Michael Elliston Sensei, and Kaiten John Dennis Govert.

Brad Warner is a Soto priest appointed by Gudo Wafu Nishijima. He is not a traditional Zen teacher, but is influential via his blogs on Zen.

Rinzai

Rinzai gained prominence in the West via D.T. Suzuki and the lineage of Soen Nakagawa and his student Eido Shimano. Soen Nakagawa had personal ties to Yamada Koun, the dharma heir of Hakuun Yasutani, who founded the Sanbo Kyodan.^[37] They established Dai Bosatsu Zendo Kongo-ji in New York. In Europe there is Havredal Zendo established by a Dharma Heir of Eido Shimano, Egmund Sommer (Denko Mortensen).

Some of the more prominent Rinzai Zen centers in North America include Rinzai-ji founded by Kyozan Joshu Sasaki Roshi in California, Chozen-ji founded by Omori Sogen Roshi in Hawaii, Daiyuzenji founded by Dogen Hosokawa Roshi (a student of Omori Sogen Roshi) in Chicago, Illinois, and Chobo-Ji founded by Genki Takabayshi Roshi in Seattle, Washington.

6.2. United Kingdom

The lineage of Hakuyu Taizan Maezumi Roshi is represented in the UK by the White Plum Sangha UK.

Throssel Hole Buddhist Abbey was founded as a sister monastery to Shasta Abbey in California by Master Reverend Jiyu Kennett Roshi. It has a number of dispersed priories and centres. Jiyu Kennett, an Englishwoman, was ordained as a priest and Zen master in Shoji-ji, one of the two main Soto Zen temples in Japan.^[38] The Order is called the Order of Buddhist Contemplatives.

Taisen Deshimaru Roshi’s lineage is known in the UK as IZAUK (International Zen Association UK).

The Zen Centre in London is connected to the Buddhist Society.

The Western Chan Fellowship is an association of lay Chán practitioners based in the UK. They are registered as a charity in England and Wales, but also have contacts in Europe, principally in Norway, Poland, Germany, Croatia, Switzerland and the US.

Buddhism
Basic terms
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People
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Schools
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Zen is a Chinese school of Mahayana Buddhism. Buddhism was first brought to China from India, by Bodhidharma. It developed in China, into Zen, in the 6th century. From China it spread to Vietnam, Korea and Japan.

Zen is a Japanese word translated from the Chinese word Chán, which means «meditation».^[1]

Zen uses meditation to help practitioners go beyond simply thinking about Zen. The goal in Zen is to attain satori. This Japanese word translates as «enlightenment». The practice also includes using riddles, called Koans. Koans are also designed to help the practitioner not just engage in rational thought. The traditional Japanese place to learn Zen is a Zen monastery.

Japanese Zen scholars such as D.T. Suzuki became well known in the West. Suzuki spent over fifty years teaching Zen to the world with a series of books in English.^[2] In the 1960s in California, Aldous Huxley, Alan Watts, and others promoted the philosophy.^[1] From there it spread to many parts of the western world. Zen is now well established outside of Japan and China. Many Zen centers exist in the US and Europe.

Zen is now associated with some design styles, like Minimalism. The Japanese gardens found at Zen monasteries in Japan are an example of this style. They are called Zen rock gardens. They are not directly part of the teachings of Zen.

• Criticism of Buddhism
• Zen at War

References