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lesser

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adjective, a comparative of little, with least as superlative.

smaller, as in size or importance; inferior: a lesser evil.

adverb, a comparative of little, with least as superlative.

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Origin of lesser

First recorded in 1175–1225; Middle English lasser, lesser; see less, -er⁴

WORDS THAT MAY BE CONFUSED WITH lesser

lesser , lessor

Words nearby lesser

lesquerella, less, lessee, lessen, Lesseps, lesser, Lesser Antilles, lesser ape, Lesser Bear, lesser celandine, lesser cornstalk borer

Dictionary.com Unabridged
Based on the Random House Unabridged Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2023

Words related to lesser

insignificant, minor, bottom, bush, bush-league, dinky, low, minor-league, nether, second-string, slighter, small, small-fry, small-time, subjacent, subordinate, undersized

How to use lesser in a sentence

Most visitors stick to Tenerife, the largest island, but a new trek with outfitter CanariaWays explores lesser-known La Gomera.
Avoid some of the lesser-known options, especially those with reputations for being highly unreliable.
Baggott’s analysis does not merely focus on the most popular interpretations of quantum mechanics, but includes many of the lesser known ones.
Let’s have a look at five quick and lesser-known ways to speed up ecommerce conversions.

Not all athletes have the resources to create the virtual pro days that have now become the primary way for lesser-known players to put their names on the draft boards of NFL teams.
The other songs go in to lesser percentages of “me” as you move along.
An ace comedic turn that, in lesser hands, would come off as one-note.
Some lesser-known live performances from the late rock legend.
Why is the killing of a million a lesser crime than the killing of an individual?
The three parades since 9/11 have all been for lesser heroes.
Haggard merely played for the excitement, and Spunyarn because it was a lesser bore to play than to look on.
But I have never once thought of believing that they were specially created to be lesser lights to the Earth.
And he forgot his lesser self in this crowded atmosphere of ancient divinities and old-world splendour.
There was a famous Bar, including all the big-wigs of course, and some lesser wigs, and numbering more than twenty in all.
Crane and Keith were at the same interesting employment, but on a lesser scale.

British Dictionary definitions for lesser

adjective

not as great in quantity, size, or worth

Collins English Dictionary — Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition
© William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins
Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012

Источник

Задачи меньшей важности || Задачи большей важности.
Предметы меньшей ценности || Предметы большей ценности.
Решения меньшей значимости || Решения большей значимости.
Ураганы меньшей интенсивности || Ураганы большей интенсивности.
Это касается тебя и, в меньшей степени, твоего брата.
Мы все были удивлены и, в той или иной степени, шокированы.
Мы выбрали меньшее по стоимости предложение.
Мы относились к этому как к меньшему из двух зол.
Мы выбрали меньшее зло, но и оно было ничуть не лучше.
Сначала они запросили 200 долларов, но потом согласились на меньшую сумму.
Человек меньшего калибра при таких обстоятельствах сломался бы. = Человек меньшего масштаба при таких обстоятельствах сломался бы.
Это нарисовал один из менее известных художников той эпохи.
Некоторые его песни нам известны меньше. • Нам также нравятся некоторые его песни из числа менее известных.

one of the lesser-known artists of the period – один из менее известных художников того периода
(предполагается, что в тот период был целый ряд художников и их условно можно разделить на две категории – на более известных и менее известных)

Здесь тоже ключевым моментом является противопоставление категории менее известных художников категории более известных художников, хоть это и не обозначено явно.

3. Интересно, что форма lesser произошла как двойная сравнительная степень от little:

little => less + er => lesser

4. В чём разница между формами less и lesser?

Разница существенная. Они даже не синонимы и не взаимозаменяемы.

Разница в следующем.

Когда мы говорим less, мы имеем в виду «меньше» вообще, объективно, без деления на категории «больше» – «меньше».

Употребление lesser, напротив, предполагает деление на категории «больше» – «меньше», то есть подразумевает наличие некоторого ряда предметов или лиц, которых можно условно разделить на две категории – на бóльшие (по размеру, по количеству, по важности и т.д.) и меньшие.

Проще всего это понять на примерах:

Some of his songs are less known to us – Некоторые его песни нам известны меньше
(никакой категории менее известных песен здесь нет, это просто сравнительная степень прилагательного ‘known’ – more known / less known)

We also like some of his lesser-known songs – Нам также нравятся некоторые его песни из числа менее известных
(речь идёт о категории менее известных песен, при этом автоматически подразумевается, что есть и категория более известных песен – his better-known or well-known songs)

Кроме того, как мы уже говорили, lesser как прилагательное всегда ставится перед существительным и никогда не употребляется с than. У less таких ограничений нет.

Заметим также, что антонимом для less является more, а для lesser как прилагательного – greater:

more water – less water
(больше воды – меньше воды)

of greater importance – of lesser importance
(большей важности – меньшей важности)

В принципе, ничего сложного. Достаточно хорошо отработать примеры урока, и никаких проблем с этим замечательным словом у вас не будет.

5. В современном английском языке прилагательное lesser стало также употребляться в значении smaller, less important и т.д., например:

At first they asked for 200 dollars but then agreed to a lesser sum – Сначала они запросили 200 долларов, но потом согласились на меньшую сумму
(= a smaller sum, a lower sum)

A lesser person would have broken down under the circumstances – Человек меньшего калибра при таких обстоятельствах сломался бы • Человек меньшего масштаба при таких обстоятельствах сломался бы
(= a less important person)

Обратите внимание: таким образом lesser употребляется с исчисляемыми существительными. Если существительное неисчисляемое, то следует употреблять less, например:

At first they asked for 200 dollars but then agreed to less money – Сначала они запросили 200 долларов, но потом согласились на меньшие деньги

Примечание ▾

А ведь ещё недавно lesser употреблялось для обозначения всего лишь меньшего из двух значений – the lesser и the greater, как в известном выражении the lesser of two evils – меньшее из двух зол.

Вот так, на глазах, меняется английский язык!

6. Полезные выражения и конструкции с прилагательным и наречием lesser:

smth of lesser importance, value, significance, etc.
(что-л. меньшей важности, ценности, значимости и т.д.)

to a lesser extent
(в меньшей степени, в меньшей мере)

to a lesser degree
(в меньшей степени, в меньшей мере)
(= to a lesser extent)

to a greater or lesser extent
(в большей или меньшей степени, в той или иной степени, в той или иной мере)

to a greater or lesser degree
(в большей или меньшей степени, в той или иной степени, в той или иной мере)
(= to a greater or lesser extent)

the lesser of two evils
(меньшее из двух зол)

the lesser evil
(меньшее зло, меньшее из зол)

one of the lesser-known artists, poets, etc.
(один из менее известных художников, поэтов и т.д.)

a lesser sum, a lesser person, on a lesser scale, etc.
(сумма поменьше, человек меньшего калибра / масштаба, в меньших масштабах и т.д. – с исчисляемыми существительными в значении ‘smaller’, ‘less important’ и т.д.)

lesser mortals
(простые смертные; дословно – менее важные смертные, смертные меньшего калибра)
(= mere mortals)

7. На этом мы завершаем цикл уроков, посвящённый прилагательному, наречию, местоимению и определяющему слову little. Напоминаем, что началом цикла было прилагательное little.

8. Напоминаем, что тоже и также в отрицательных предложениях – это either. Ставится, как правило, в конце предложения, например:

We chose the lesser evil, but it wasn’t any better either – Мы выбрали меньшее зло, но оно тоже было ничуть не лучше • Мы выбрали меньшее зло, но и оно было ничуть не лучше
(отрицательное предложение)

Сравните то же самое в утвердительных предложениях:

We chose the lesser evil, but it was bad too – Мы выбрали меньшее зло, но оно тоже было нехорошим • Мы выбрали меньшее зло, но и оно было нехорошим
(spoken and informal English)
(обычно ставится в конце предложения и зачастую отделяется запятой)

We chose the lesser evil, but it was bad as well – Мы выбрали меньшее зло, но оно тоже было нехорошим • Мы выбрали меньшее зло, но и оно было нехорошим
(= ‘too’ in BrE, but formal or old-fashioned in AmE)
(как правило, ставится в конце предложения)

We chose the lesser evil, but it was also bad – Мы выбрали меньшее зло, но оно тоже было нехорошим • Мы выбрали меньшее зло, но и оно было нехорошим
(more formal than ‘too’ and ‘as well’)
(как правило, ставится перед смысловым глаголом или после ‘be’, как в этом примере)

Заодно объяснили разницу между обычным в повседневной речи too, его синонимом as well (но не в AmE, где as well звучит достаточно официально) и более официальным also.

9. Выражение to opt for smth означает «выбирать что-л.», например:

After some thought, we opted for a red car – Немного подумав, мы выбрали красную машину

Произносится [ɒpt] в британском английском и [ɑːpt] в американском.

Употребляется в том случае, если у нас есть несколько – два или более – вариантов (options) и мы выбираем один из них – тот, который нам больше всего нравится.

Вот понравилась нам красная машина, мы её и выбрали. А могли выбрать серебристую или белую. Выбор был за нами.

Вы можете спросить: а зачем нам вообще это слово, если есть обычный глагол choose? Ведь можно сказать и так:

After some thought, we chose a red car – Немного подумав, мы выбрали красную машину

Ну, во-первых, глагол opt в английском языке существует и довольно широко употребляется. Это уже достаточная причина для того, чтобы его выучить.

Во-вторых, это очень удобное слово, ведь мы говорим не просто о выборе, а о том, что делаем его по собственному желанию.

Choose – это общее слово. Зачастую тот или иной выбор нам приходится делать под нажимом обстоятельств.

Но если выбор мы делаем сами, исходя из собственных предпочтений, то почему бы нам это не отразить в своей речи, употребив глагол opt?

I could go to the Air Force, but I opted for the Navy. That’s because I like the sea! – Я мог пойти в ВВС, но выбрал ВМФ. Это потому, что мне нравится море!

Не бойтесь употреблять замечательный глагол opt, если выбор из нескольких вариантов вы делаете сами!

И кстати говоря, его можно также употреблять с инфинитивом – to opt to do smth, например:

After some thought, we opted to buy a red car – Немного подумав, мы решили купить красную машину

I opted to join the Navy rather than the Air Force – Я решил пойти не в ВВС, а в ВМФ

Тут для перевода мы используем глагол «решить», поскольку «выбрать сделать что-л.» – так по-русски мы не говорим. Но какая разница? Глагол «решить» прекрасно подходит, ведь выбор делаем мы сами! И соответствующее решение принимаем сами.

А ещё зачастую подходит глагол «предпочитать». Почему нет?

Но единственное – давайте английский глагол opt употреблять для обозначения более судьбоносных решений. Если мы, например, выбираем конфетку поаппетитнее из вазочки, то нам лучше использовать другой глагол – попроще, например pick, или тот же choose.

10. Проверьте правильность произношения следующих слов [BrE || AmE]:

importance – [ɪmˈpɔːtns || ɪmˈpɔːrtns]
an object – [ˈɒbdʒɪkt, ˈɒbdʒekt || ˈɑːbdʒɪkt, ˈɑːbdʒekt]
(a) value – [ˈvæljuː]
significance – [sɪɡˈnɪfɪkəns]
a hurricane – [ˈhʌrɪkən || ˈhɜːrəkeɪn]
intensity – [ɪnˈtensəti]
to concern – [kənˈsɜːn || kənˈsɜːrn]
(an) extent – [ɪkˈstent]
a degree – [dɪˈɡriː]
surprised – [səˈpraɪzd || sərˈpraɪzd]
shocked – [ʃɒkt || ʃɑːkt]
to opt – [ɒpt || ɑːpt]
an offer – [ˈɒfə(r) || ˈɔːfər]
a circumstance – [ˈsɜːkəmstæns, ˈsɜːkəmstəns || ˈsɜːrkəmstæns]
to regard – [rɪˈɡɑːd || rɪˈɡɑːrd]
(an) evil – [ˈiːvl]
to choose / chose – [tʃuːz] / [tʃəʊz]
either – [ˈaɪðə(r), ˈiːðə(r) || ˈiːðər, ˈaɪðər]
an artist – [ˈɑːtɪst || ˈɑːrtɪst]
a poet – [ˈpəʊɪt || ˈpəʊət]
a mortal – [ˈmɔːtl || ˈmɔːrtl]
(a) thought – [θɔːt]
(the) Air Force – [ˈeə fɔːs || ˈer fɔːrs]
(the) Navy – [ˈneɪvi]

Источник

Hi everyone,
I know «less» is the comparative form of «little», and then what is «lesser»? Could you please explain the difference in the usage of «less» and «lesser»? Thank you.

johnp

Here is a dictionary difinition:

–adjective, a compar. of little with least as superl. 1.smaller, as in size or importance; inferior: a lesser evil. –adverb, a compar. of little with least as superl. 2.less.

You can speak of a «lesser» amount. You can conduct yourself as a «lesser» one, meaning you humble yourself in the company of others, treating them as superior.

less…lesser….least…

less can be used both as a comparitive and as an adj.

«She has less money».
«She has lesser money than Tom». (using lesser in comparitive)…(notice…money=noun)
«She is less studious than Tom». (using less as comparitive)…(notice…studious=adjective)

so ..less can be used in the comparitive form with an adj…while lesser with the noun…

anybody else with examples/ suggestions???

johnp

You would need to say «She has a lesser amount of money than Tom.» You can’t say «lesser money.»

Hi everyone,
I know «less» is the comparative form of «little», and then what is «lesser»? Could you please explain the difference in the usage of «less» and «lesser»? Thank you.

less·er adj. A comparative of little.
1. Smaller in amount, value, or importance, especially in a comparison between two things: chose the lesser evil.
2. Of a smaller size than other, similar forms: the lesser anteater.

adv. A comparative of little. Less. Used before a participle: a lesser-known writer.

n. One that is lower in importance, rank, magnitude, or degree: the lesser of two evils.

lessadj. A comparative of little. 1. Not as great in amount or quantity: had less time to spend with the family.
2. Lower in importance, esteem, or rank: no less a person than the ambassador.
3. Consisting of a smaller number. See Usage Note at few.

prep. With the deduction of; minus: Five less two is three.

adv. Comparative of little. To a smaller extent, degree, or frequency: less happy; less expensive.

n. 1. A smaller amount: She received less than she asked for.
2. Something not as important as something else: People have been punished for less.

http://www.thefreedictionary.com/less

Last edited: May 8, 2008

‘Lesser’ is the comparative of ‘less’. ‘Least’ is the superlative.

«Between robbery and murder, the former is the lesser crime.»

«Poverty is the least of all my troubles.»

Rover

According to the dictionary, both are comparative forms of ‘little’. Why should there be two different comparative forms? There must be some difference. Why can’t I say «I have lesser money than Tom.» while it’s okay to say «I have less food than Tom.»?

liliput

‘Lesser’ is the comparative of ‘less’. ‘Least’ is the superlative.

«Between robbery and murder, the former is the lesser crime.»

«Poverty is the least of all my troubles.»

Rover

Less and lesser are both comparatives. The difference is explained excellently by valskyfrance’s dictionary extracts.

Greetings!

‘… Could you please explain the difference in the usage of «less» and «lesser»?’ (#1)

My take on this rather tricky point of grammar is:

less can be an adjective (less money, less time)
less can be an adverb (a less pretty dress, it cost less)
less can be a pronoun (there was less than I expected)

lesser is always an adjective, and is preceded by an article (the lesser evil, a lesser person)

I would say that, of the two forms, lesser has generally less usage!

Last edited: May 8, 2008

You would need to say «She has a lesser amount of money than Tom.» You can’t say «lesser money.»

Thank you for pointing that out John.

«Between robbery and murder, the former is the lesser crime.»

What is still vague for me is the third point in the extract from a dictionary where the lesser is a noun.

n. One that is lower in importance, rank, magnitude, or degree: the lesser of two evils.

If it is a noun then, I suppose, these two should be interchangable.

1) «Between robbery and murder, the former is the lesser.» («the» modifies lesser. «the lesser» is a noun)

2) «Between robbery and murder, the former is the lesser crime.» («the» modifies «crime». «lesser is an adjective)

Another example:

«People have been punished for less.»Could it be substituted with?People have been punished for the lesser. (the lesser deeds/actions)

How do you feel about it?

Less is used to modify noncount nouns (e.g. less money = not as much money), whereas lesser is used to modify count nouns (e.g. a lesser amount = a smaller amount, a lesser man = not as much of a man, approximately).

Hey guys! What should be right—
1)a person of less/ lesser calibre
2)

adv. A comparative of little. Less. Used before a participle: a lesser-known writer.

I guess, ‘less known’ could also work.
It’s enormously confusing!! :confused:

Please help!!

Last edited by a moderator: Aug 21, 2017

What should be right—
1)a person of less/ lesser calibre
2)

I guess, ‘less known’ could also work.

Please provide the complete sentence you have in mind. It’s hard to understand how you might substitute «less known» for «less» or «lesser» in the phrase you’ve provided.

He is a less known artist ( He is less known than the other arists).
He is a person of less calibre ( his calibre is less than others).
Are these right?
I really am confused!!
Is it ‘ to a lesser extent’ or ‘to a less extent’??!!!
This less-lesser thing is quite haunting me!! :confused:

He is a less known artist ( He is less known than the other arists).
He is a person of less calibre ( his calibre is less than others).
Are these right?
I really am confused!!
Is it ‘ to a lesser extent’ or ‘to a less extent’??!!!
This less-lesser thing is quite haunting me!!

It is a bit confusing, yes. Did you follow the link I shared? Here it is again:

Difference between «less» and «lesser»?

In general, I would recommend following this simple rule:
Are you talking about quantity? Use less.
Are you talking about quality? Use lesser.

In your example, you should say: «He is of a lesser caliber».

Let me give it a shot: When you can substitute with «smaller», it is lesser. When you can substitute with «not as much», it is less.
<——German words removed by moderator (Florentia52)——>

Last edited by a moderator: Nov 20, 2017

Little has three comparatives: littler, for size; less, for quantity; and lesser, for value.

The summary of everything:

🔸 less can be
an adjective (less money, less time)
an adverb (a less pretty dress, it cost less)
a pronoun (There was less than I expected.)
a preposition (The regular price less [=minus] a discount)

🔸 Lesser is used in a few expressions (in a rather formal style) to mean «not as large, as important, or as much as something else.»

lesser can be
an adjective, used only before a noun, and preceded by an article (the lesser evil, a lesser person)
an adverb (lesser-known writers)

bearded

an adverb (lesser-known writers)

In predicative position, could it be replaced by ‘less’? These writers are less known than others…?
There is a thread
eponyms-lesser-known
Could it also be »Eponyms (less known)»?
Or is »lesser known» a fixed expression in all positions? Thank you.

In predicative position, could it be replaced by ‘less’? These writers are less known than others…?
There is a thread
eponyms-lesser-known
Could it also be »Eponyms (less known)»?
Or is »lesser known» a fixed expression in all positions? Thank you.

Changing «lesser» to «less» changes the meaning, and I would not use «lesser known» with a «than» clause.

«Lesser known» is the opposite of «better known»/»best known», not the opposite of «more known».

elroy

Moderator: EHL, Arabic, Hebrew, German(-Spanish)

These writers are less known than others…?

I would say «are

less well known

than others.»

I don’t think it’s a matter of meaning; «less known» just doesn’t sound idiomatic to me (there might be contexts in which it sounds okay, but I can’t think of any right now). In general, I think I would say either «less well known» or «lesser known,» depending on context, etc.

bearded

Many thanks, Forero and elroy.

Источник

In many game systems (particularly fantasy or role-playing games), relative qualities or power levels are denoted by naming things using «lesser» or «greater». For example, in Dungeons and Dragons 3.5, there are weapon augmentation crystals, that might be named

Least crystal of Arcane Steel
Lesser crystal of Arcane Steel
Greater crystal of Arcane Steel

etc.

It seems odd to me that there is a «least», a «lesser», and a «greater», but nothing in the middle. It makes sense that a «lesser» object is lesser than the «greater» one, and vice versa, but it seems strange to not have something in the middle. Of course one could argue that the one in the middle needs no such qualifier, but I was wondering — is there a word that can stand alongside words such as «lesser» and «greater» to denote that something is the «regular» version?

I thought of «common», but that strays into ideas of rarity, which is slightly different.

asked Jun 29, 2015 at 13:37

I think you are right when you say that it could be argued that ‘the one in the middle’ needs no qualifier. And that is likely what would be best. However, if you felt the need to emphasize its ‘normality’, so to speak, then I believe words such as standard, common, everyday, normal, conventional, or ordinary would suffice.

answered Jun 29, 2015 at 14:18

There are several metaphorical realms you should explore.

Go mathematical and you can select from medium, median, average.

Choose quality and you have standard, paradigm,

If height is your metaphor mezzanine, base camp, Appenine.

Or there’s distance arrow-flight, middling, stone’s-throw.

answered Jun 29, 2015 at 14:19

HughHugh

8,3401 gold badge14 silver badges38 bronze badges

Considering that Lesser, Greater, etc. are similar to prefixes it’s possible that there’s no need for a word in between “lesser” and “greater.” Instead of using a word in between, you could use the absence of any word. You would do this because words like lesser or greater show that it’s a lesser or greater version of it so when it’s the normal version there is no need to specify.

For example:

Lesser crystal of Arcane Steel
Crystal of Arcane Steel
Greater crystal of Arcane Steel

Other than that you could use the word «normal.»

For example:

Lesser crystal of Arcane Steel
Normal Crystal of Arcane Steel
Greater crystal of Arcane Steel

answered Apr 7, 2021 at 14:14

Источник

What is the difference between fewer and less? — everything is simple

Few, a few, little and a little in English are pronouns indicating quantity, in order to indicate a lack of something. These pronouns can stand in a sentence as defined to a noun, or independently of it, independently.

Depending on the form of use — whether the article is used or not — quantitative pronouns have different meanings. These differences include, as a rule, not only the semantic load, but also a certain assessment, which is found in the translation.

Rules of Use

For nouns that have both singular and plural, as well as when a noun / pronoun is only thought of, its presence becomes apparent from the context, the pronouns few / a few are used.

In this case, it does not matter at all how the noun forms its plural — for all these cases, the rule will act the same.

For example:

She went to the USA for a few months… — She went to America for several months.

Few of her friends had been in the USA… — Few of her friends were in America.

The pronouns little / a little are used in sentences with uncountable nouns. The rules for their use and their semantic meaning are absolutely the same as for the pronouns few / a few, and their translation into Russian is also no different.

Example:

She stood in the USA a little last year… — Last year she spent a little time in America.

When she first came to the USA, she little thought that she would stay there so long. — When she first arrived in America, she never thought that she would stay there for so long.

Pronoun meaning (word translation)

As we noted, the pronouns few, little, a few, and a little are used to indicate not enough of something. The difference between them appears only in the context of their use with nouns.

So, few / a few is used with countable nouns, and little / a little — with those that have only a singular, or only a plural.

However, there are still some differences in meanings, which depend on the form in which the pronoun is used, and create some difference in translation.

The pronouns few, little, used without the indefinite article, express the meaning of «little», «not enough» or «not at all.» If they stand with an article, then the meaning is interpreted as «little, but enough» or «a little».

Moreover, in the first case, the sentence will most likely contain a somewhat negative connotation, in the second — neutral:

I can’t help you. I speak very little English… — I cannot help you, I know very little English.

I can help you, I speak a little English… — I can help you, I speak a little English.

It would seem that in both cases the first part of the sentence implies the same thing — I do not speak English very well, my knowledge is hardly enough.

However, if in the first sentence the evaluative fact is negative, then in the second it bears a positive connotation, and this already implies the use of the pronoun little with the indefinite article a:

His English is intermediate, he forgets about his lessons. He has very little interest in languages… — His English is not above average, he forgets about his lessons. He has no interest in languages at all.
His English is intermediate, he coaches in it every weekends. He has a little interest in language. — His English is intermediate and he trains him every weekend. He has little interest in languages.
I didn’t read this book in original, I can say very little about it… — I have not read this book in the original, I can say very little about it.
I didn’t read this book in original, I can say a little about it… — I have not read this book in the original, but I can tell you a little about it.
Very few of his friends can speak English… — Almost none of his friends speak English.
A few of his friends can speak in English not bad at all. “Some of his friends don’t speak English bad at all.

Comparative and superlative

Like adjectives, quantitative pronouns in English can create degrees of comparison.

The pronouns few / a few form comparative and superlatives according to all the rules of the English language.

In the case of the pronouns little / a little, the situation is different:

few ⇒ fewer ⇒ the fewis — few ⇒ less ⇒ least
little ⇒ less ⇒ the least — little ⇒ less ⇒ least
a few / a little ⇒ more ⇒ the most — a little ⇒ more ⇒ most

Source: https://vseprostdo.ru/v-chem-raznica-mezhdu-fewer-i-less.html

What is the difference between fewer and less. use of the words much, many, few, little, a lot of and plenty of

Hey, folks! In this article, you will learn: when the English sentence uses «little» and when «few», what is the difference between «small» and «less», and when to use certain words with countable or uncountable nouns. Everything is accessible and understandable! Are you ready to be surprised? Let’s go then!

So, in English we use the word «few» when we mean extremely small the amount of something or the absence of something at all.

The word is translated as «very little«, I.e. «Not enough» at all. We use it, as a rule, when we are dealing with countable plural nouns, those objects and things that can be counted.

Few
Very little James’s family members leave Pittsburgh and move to New York every year.

In the above sentence, we used “few” to indicate that only two or three family members leave the city, most of the relatives remain in place.

However, if we used “a few«, Then the meaning would change:

A few members of James «family leave Pittsburgh and move to NY each year.
Some(a small number) of James’s family members leave Pittsburgh and move to New York every year.

Here we are talking about the fact that a small number of family members leave their hometown. Of course, there are still not many of them, but the emphasis here is on the fact that there are some nearest & dearest (close and dear relatives) who are moving, and not on the fact that their number is small.

An exception to the use of «a few» is the expression «quite a few«-«quite a bit of«,» A decent number «,» a lot. «

I have many besties, I have known quite a few of them since high school.
I have a lot of best friends quite a few I know of them since high school. So many mosquitoes in this house! The fewestof them are in the living room though.
There are so many mosquitoes in this house! Although in their living room least of all.Mia made fewergrammar mistakes last time.
Last time Mia did less grammatical errors.

little / a little

«Little» [«lɪtl] and» a little «follow the same pattern as» few «with» a few «. The difference is that we use «few» and «a few» with plural nouns, while «little» and «a little» with nouns, which cannot be counted by the piece:

Unfortunately, we have littletime to prepare before the exam.
Sorry, not preparing for the exam with us very little time. Unfortunately, we have a littletime to prepare before we have to go today.
Unfortunately, for preparation today we have slightly time before we have to leave.

In the first example, we say that we have a little time to prepare, but this time is still enough. In the second, we mean that there is time, but it is not enough to prepare thoroughly.

For a better understanding, you can compare these words with a glass of water.

If you need to focus on the fact that the glass is half full, then we say “littlewater ”(a little water, but enough in a glass).

If you want to emphasize that the glass is half empty, then “a little water ”(there is little water and not enough water in the glass).

homer does lesshomework than I used to.
Homer does less homework than I once did.The least environmentallyhostile generator costs a fortune.
Leastdangerousfor the environment the energy source is worth a fortune.

Small

The adjective «small» translates as «small»/«small»/«небольшой«And is used when this is aboutthe size of

Source: https://film05.ru/bathroom/v-chem-raznica-mezhdu-fewer-i-less-ispolzovanie-slov-much-many-few-little-a-lot-of-i-plenty.html

Countable and uncountable nouns — video tutorial

Let’s say you come to someone’s house, open the refrigerator, and there all the shelves are crammed with packs of butter from top to bottom. You will express surprise by exclaiming not Wow! That’s a lot of butters !, a

That’s a lot of butter! — How much oil is there

Finding hundreds of pencils in a desk drawer, you say no Wow! That’s a lot of pencil !, a

That’s a lot of pencils! — Wow, how many pencils!

Uncountable nouns

This is because oil is an uncountable noun in English, and a pencil is a countable noun. Uncountable means the whole class of a given substance — rain (rain), snow (snow), applause (applause), guilt (wine), liking (addiction). Most of the food is also incalculable: flour (flour), rice (rice).

They can be counted only in 3 cases:

— in the limitation of stick meters

a stick of butter — a pack of butter

— to distinguish between subspecies

3 butters — lime butter, pepper butter, chilly butter — 3 types of butter — lime, pepper, chili

— to mark packages in catering

Waiter, we need some more butters here — Waiter, more packs of butter here

Countable nouns

Countable nouns in English are subject-matter — they can always be counted, put in the plural, and numbered.

5 pencils — 5 pencils

2 cars — 2 cars

7 people — 7 people

3 children — 3 children

Quantitative nouns

There are quantitative nouns and pronouns that are combined with only 1 of 2 classes. So, an amount of requires an uncountable noun, and number of requires a countable noun.

a number of cows — several cows

Similarly, less is followed by an uncountable noun, and fewer is followed by a countable noun. However, less is also used with plural price tags — after all, we are not talking about a bill, but about the whole price.

less applause — less applause

less than 10 dollars — less than 10 dollars

In some illiterate supermarkets, you can see the inscription Less than 10 items express checkout. That’s right

Fewer than 10 items — Up to 10 purchases

Fun Facts

Dandelion root can be roasted and ground as a coffee substitute.

Source: https://www.lovelylanguage.ru/grammar/video-lessons/count-and-mass-nouns

13 mistakes in English that each of us makes

It is the pearl of all grammatical mistakes. And all because the words are similar in meaning and sound. But still there are nuances. To lie is translated as «to lie», «to be located», «to lie down».

I love to lie down in front of the fire and read — I like to lie near the fireplace with a book.

But lie is an irregular verb, in the past tense it turns into lay.

The town lay in ruins — The town lay in ruins.

And this form is written and pronounced in the same way as an independent verb to lay. The main meaning of which is «to put».

She laid the baby on the bed — She laid the baby on the bed.

In a word, the confusion, of course, is utter, but if you look deeply into it and remember it once, it will be much easier to avoid mistakes.

2. Continual and continuous

These words can be called paronyms: they are spelled almost the same, but differ in meaning. Continual applies to repeated actions or events.

I’m sorry, I can’t work with these continual interruptions — Sorry, but I can’t work like that, I’m constantly interrupted.

But continuous is about something that lasts continuously.

He spoke continuously for more than two hours — He spoke without stopping for more than two hours.

3. Envy and jealous

Even philologists cannot always explain the difference between these words clearly. Dictionaries say that jealous is primarily about jealousy.

In a moment of jealous frenzy, she cut the sleeves off all his shirts — In a fit of jealousy, she shredded the sleeves of his shirts.

But the word has a second meaning: «annoyance because someone has what you yourself would like.» In other words, envy. It is how “envy” translates the second word, envy.

He had always been very jealous of his brother’s success — He was always very jealous of his brother’s success.
Some of his colleagues envy the enormous wealth that he has amassed — Some of his colleagues envy his enormous wealth.

So what’s the difference? Linguists admit that if we are talking about envy, and not about jealousy, the differences have practically disappeared and the two words can be considered synonymous. Although earlier jealous meant a more serious, terrible and dramatic degree of envy.

4. Fewer and less

Less is used when we are talking about something abstract and uncountable, or when we don’t mention the exact amount.

I eat less chocolate and fewer biscuits than I used to — I eat less chocolate and fewer biscuits than usual.
We must try to spend less money — We must try to spend less money.

Few and fewer can be safely used when talking about specific numbers or something that can be accurately calculated.

Fewer than 3,500 tigers are left in the wild today — No more than three and a half thousand tigers live in the wild today.
We received far fewer complaints than expected — We received far fewer complaints than expected.

5. Disinterested and uninterested

It seems that both prefixes — dis- and un- — denote negation. And if so, then the meaning of the words is the same. But no. Disinterested translates to impartial.

A disinterested observer / judgment

If we are talking about disinterest and indifference, it would be more correct to use the option uninterested.

He’s completely uninterested in sports — He’s completely uninterested in sports.

True, not all linguists are united on this issue. The compilers of the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, for example, believe that these words can be synonymous.

6. Anxious and excited

In Russian, the word “worry” can be used not only in the negative (“I’m terribly worried about you!”), But also in a positive way (“I was so excited when I received your letter!”). Perhaps that is why when we speak English, in similar cases we try to use anxious. But this word translates as «alarmed, worried, nervous.»

It’s natural that you should feel anxious when you first leave home — It’s natural to be anxious when you first leave home.

If you are happy to see friends, telling them that you are anxious to see them would be wrong. Excited is more appropriate here. By the way, the word anxious is also appropriate if we are impatient to do something or we are striving for something.

I’m anxious to get home to open my presents — I can’t wait to come home as soon as possible and open the presents.

7. Affect and effect

To deal with this dilemma, a simple hint can be used. Affect is almost always a verb, effect is a noun. Affect can be translated as «influence, cause, lead to something.»

Factors that affect sleep include stress and many medical conditions — Causes that affect sleep include stress and various medical conditions.

Effect is, in fact, the effect or the result of some processes or events.

I’m suffering from the effects of too little sleep — I suffer from the effects of lack of sleep.

8. Among and between

Words are similar in meaning, but still not synonymous. Between translates as «between».

A narrow path runs between the two houses — A narrow path runs between the two houses.
The shop is closed for lunch between 12.30 and 1.30 — The shop is closed for lunch from half past twelve to half past one.

Among rather means «among», «one of».

The decision will not be popular among students — This decision will not be popular among students.
She divided the cake among the children — She divided the cake between the children.

If we are talking about specific people or objects, it is more appropriate to speak between, and if it is about indefinite or generalized — among.

9. Assure and ensure

It is clear that in both cases we are talking about faith, trust or assurances. But since the words sound and spelled almost the same, it’s easy to get confused. And here it is important to remember that assure is used when we want to assure or convince someone of something.

She assured them, that she would be all right — She assured them that everything would be fine with her.

But ensure is appropriate to use when we ourselves want to make sure of something.

Please ensure that all examination papers have your name at the top — Please ensure that your examination papers are signed.

10. Then and than

It is easy to confuse these words, but it is better not to do this, because then the sentence will lose its meaning. Just one letter — and what a difference in meaning! Then is an adverb that translates as «then» and «then».

She trained as a teacher and then became a lawyer — She studied to be a teacher, but then became a lawyer.

Than is a preposition, it is used for comparison.

It cost less than I expected — It cost less than I thought.

11. Lose and loose

Here, too, almost the same spelling and pronunciation are to blame for everything. The word «loser» is well known even to those who are not very good at English. Therefore, it seems that both lose and loose are about failures and losses. But it is important to remember that lose means “to lose”, “to lose”, “to lose”.

I hope he doesn’t lose his job — I hope he doesn’t lose his job.

And loose translates as «relaxed», «free», «loose».

A loose dress / sweater — loose dress / sweater.

12. A lot and the lot

Here, in general, the difference is only in the article. But in English, even he can significantly change the meaning of a word. The noun lot together with the indefinite article a translates as «a lot», «a large number».

I’ve got a lot to do this morning — I have a lot to do this morning.

At the same time, the lot is a British colloquial element, which means not just «a lot», but «everything.»

I made enough curry for three people and he ate the lot — I cooked curry for three, and he ate it all alone.

13. Amount and number

Here the story is similar to fewer and less. Both words refer to quantity, but amount is used when we are talking about something indefinite and uncountable, and number is used when we are talking about objects or people that can be counted.

The project will take a huge amount of time and money — This project will take a huge amount of time and money.
A small number of children are educated at home — A small number of children study at home.

UPD. Updated on October 25, 2019.

13 Difficulties in English and How to Avoid Them

We learn English first at school, then at university, but the years go by — and we still make mistakes even in simple cases that do not apply to exceptions. We have prepared examples of common difficulties and rules for them. Having carefully studied and carefully understood the rules of spelling and pronunciation once, you will no longer make funny mistakes, and the level of English proficiency will be higher than that of some native speakers!

Incorrect use of apostrophes

What is the difference between fewer and less. example sentences ca little. use of few, a few, little, a little

Today we will look at the words with which we speak about a small amount of something or someone: few, little и a few, a little… In English, sometimes one small detail can completely change the meaning of what is said. Let’s find out how adding a before words few и little changes their meaning.

Use few

Using less and fewer. Use of the words much, many, few, little, a lot of and plenty of

In this article, we will analyze when and how to use pronouns. few, a few, little, a little, a lot of, some, anycalled with a beautiful word — quantifiers (quantifiers). Often they have the same meaning, but their use in English depends on which object they describe — that is, with which noun — countable or uncountable they are used.

Scheme of using quantifiers:

The use of much, many, few, little, a lot of, plenty

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Have you noticed how often we use the words «a lot», «a little», «a few» in our speech and how we do not like to give exact numbers? Secretive by nature, the English also use these words very often in speech.

When we say «a lot» in English, we use the words many, much, a lot of, plenty of, and when we say «little» — few, a few, little, a little. These words are called determiners, they indicate an indefinite amount of something.

This article will show you when and where to use much, many, few, little, a lot of, plenty of in English.

The noun plays a key role in the choice of the defining word. The determiner depends on which noun is in front of us, countable (countable) or uncountable (uncountable). Once again, we recall that we can count countable nouns and they have a plural form (a boy — boys). And uncountable nouns do not have a plural form (water — some water), and we cannot count them.

We have divided all words into three groups depending on which noun they are used with. We will consider each group separately.

Much / Little Many / Few A lot of / Plenty of

Uncountable nouns	Countable nouns	Countable and uncountable nouns
How much money have you got? — How much money do you have? — There is little ink left in my pen.	I have many friends. — He has got few friends. — He has few friends.	There is a lot of sugar there. — There are plenty of plants in the garden. — There are many plants in the garden.

Many, few, a few with countable nouns

Less / Fewer

«Less» and «fewer»Both words indicate quantitative indicators. «Less«- the comparative form of the word»little«, but «fewer«Is the comparative form»few».

Little [ˈLɪtəl] — a little, a little.
Few [fju] — a little, a little.

we have less milk than I’d hoped. — We have less milk than I had hoped.
There are fewer people than I expected. — Of people lessthan I expected.

Less

Difference in the use of less and fewer in English

Why is it so easy to get confused when using «less» and «fewer» — two pointers to many English languages?

This is because these words are translated the same way — «less», but they are used when discussing quantities of different types. In one case, the conversation is about objects that can be counted, in the other about things that require weighing.

An error in the use of both words, albeit noticeable, is not at all critical. If you are not a pedant, then perhaps you will not attach much importance to this lesson; for everyone else, it’s time to figure out how and what we consider as a smaller value.

Difference between less and fewer in English

«Little» in English

How do you say «little» in English? Find out in this article!

Hello, friends! What lovely weather outside today, right? I don’t know about you, but I love warm spring and summer! This is definitely the best time of the year! So, put off all your business for the weekend and go outside to enjoy this sunny and wonderful day!

Source: https://enjoyenglish-blog.com/razgovornyj-anglijskij/malo-na-anglijskom.html

13 mistakes in English that each of us makes — News All Kharkiv

It doesn’t matter what level you have. Even native speakers are sometimes confused in these words.

1. Lay and lie

What is the difference between fewer and less? — everything is simple

Rules of Use

What is the difference between fewer and less. use of the words much, many, few, little, a lot of and plenty of

So, in English we use the word «few» when we mean extremely small the amount of something or the absence of something at all.

The word is translated as «very little«, I.e. «Not enough» at all. We use it, as a rule, when we are dealing with countable plural nouns, those objects and things that can be counted.

Few
Very little James’s family members leave Pittsburgh and move to New York every year.

In the above sentence, we used “few” to indicate that only two or three family members leave the city, most of the relatives remain in place.

However, if we used “a few«, Then the meaning would change:

A few members of James «family leave Pittsburgh and move to NY each year.
Some(a small number) of James’s family members leave Pittsburgh and move to New York every year.

An exception to the use of «a few» is the expression «quite a few«-«quite a bit of«,» A decent number «,» a lot. «

little / a little

Countable and uncountable nouns — video tutorial

That’s a lot of butter! — How much oil is there

Finding hundreds of pencils in a desk drawer, you say no Wow! That’s a lot of pencil !, a

That’s a lot of pencils! — Wow, how many pencils!

Uncountable nouns

13 mistakes in English that each of us makes

I love to lie down in front of the fire and read — I like to lie near the fireplace with a book.

But lie is an irregular verb, in the past tense it turns into lay.

The town lay in ruins — The town lay in ruins.

And this form is written and pronounced in the same way as an independent verb to lay. The main meaning of which is «to put».

She laid the baby on the bed — She laid the baby on the bed.

In a word, the confusion, of course, is utter, but if you look deeply into it and remember it once, it will be much easier to avoid mistakes.

2. Continual and continuous

13 Difficulties in English and How to Avoid Them

Incorrect use of apostrophes

Using apostrophes is not that difficult. Today, mistakes associated with the use of apostrophes are one of the most common in the English language. The apostrophe is used to indicate that something belongs to someone or something. To indicate that an object belongs to one person, the apostrophe must be placed before the ending «-s».

Example: «The girl’s horse» — the horse belongs to the girl.

To indicate that an object belongs to several persons, the apostrophe must be placed after the end of «-s».

Example: «The girls’ horse» — the horse belongs to girls.

Your or you’re

What is the difference between fewer and less. example sentences ca little. use of few, a few, little, a little

Use few

Pronunciation and translation:
Few / [fyu] — little

Meaning of the word:
Small amount

Few is used with (people, chairs, flowers, apples).

This word is used to emphasize a small amount of something or someone. That is, we say that we have not enough of something or someonefor a specific business.

Few has a negative meaning, we say that something is not enough and we regret it. For example, she had littleacquaintances in this city, that is, she lacked communication and was lonely.

This country has few natural resources.
This country has little natural resources.

Few politicians admit their mistakes.
Little politicians admit their mistakes.

Little

Using less and fewer. Use of the words much, many, few, little, a lot of and plenty of

Scheme of using quantifiers:

The details will help you master the audio lessons from the LingQ foreign language learning system, which is described in the article. For convenience, Russian translations are provided after each English text.

1. Little — few quantifiers

The use of much, many, few, little, a lot of, plenty

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This article will show you when and where to use much, many, few, little, a lot of, plenty of in English.

The noun plays a key role in the choice of the defining word. The determiner depends on which noun is in front of us, countable (countable) or uncountable (uncountable). Once again, we recall that we can count countable nouns and they have a plural form (a boy — boys). And uncountable nouns do not have a plural form (water — some water), and we cannot count them.

We have divided all words into three groups depending on which noun they are used with. We will consider each group separately.

Much / Little Many / Few A lot of / Plenty of

Uncountable nouns	Countable nouns	Countable and uncountable nouns
How much money have you got? — How much money do you have? — There is little ink left in my pen.	I have many friends. — He has got few friends. — He has few friends.	There is a lot of sugar there. — There are plenty of plants in the garden. — There are many plants in the garden.

Many, few, a few with countable nouns

The words many (many), few (few), a few (several) are used with countable nouns. Many denotes a large number of something: many apples (many apples), many friends (many friends), many ideas (many ideas).

The opposite of many is few: few apples, few friends, few ideas. Few often have a negative meaning: very little, not enough, so little that practically none.

A few has an intermediate meaning between many and few, translated as «a few»: a few apples (a few apples), a few friends (a few friends), a few ideas (a few ideas).

— Do you have many friends in this part of the city? — At your place lot friends in this part of town?
— No, I don’t. I have few friends in this part of the city. — I do not have little friends in this part of town. (that is, not enough, I would like more)
— I have a few friends in the city center. — I have some friends in the city center.

Much, little, a little with uncountable nouns

Less / Fewer

«Less» and «fewer»Both words indicate quantitative indicators. «Less«- the comparative form of the word»little«, but «fewer«Is the comparative form»few».

Little [ˈLɪtəl] — a little, a little.
Few [fju] — a little, a little.

we have less milk than I’d hoped. — We have less milk than I had hoped.
There are fewer people than I expected. — Of people lessthan I expected.

Less

We use «less«With uncountable nouns such as: Pollution (pollution), traffic (traffic), News (news), freedom (freedom).

there is less traffic and less pollution. — There less traffic and less pollution.
We’ve been receiving a lot less news since we switched TV providers. — We get much less news since we changed TV providers.
In more conservative societies, women have less freedom than they do here. — In more conservative societies, women have less freedom than here.

fewer

Difference in the use of less and fewer in English

Why is it so easy to get confused when using «less» and «fewer» — two pointers to many English languages?

Difference between less and fewer in English

fewer

«Little» in English

How do you say «little» in English? Find out in this article!

Source: https://enjoyenglish-blog.com/razgovornyj-anglijskij/malo-na-anglijskom.html

13 mistakes in English that each of us makes — News All Kharkiv

It doesn’t matter what level you have. Even native speakers are sometimes confused in these words.

1. Lay and lie

13 mistakes in English that each of us makes — News All Kharkiv

It doesn’t matter what level you have. Even native speakers are sometimes confused in these words.

1. Lay and lie

I love to lie down in front of the fire and read — I like to lie near the fireplace with a book.

But lie is an irregular verb, in the past tense it turns into lay.

The town lay in ruins — The town lay in ruins.

And this form is written and pronounced in the same way as an independent verb to lay. The main meaning of which is “to put”.

She laid the baby on the bed — She laid the baby on the bed.

In a word, the confusion, of course, is utter, but if you look deeply into it and remember it once, it will be much easier to avoid mistakes.

2. Continual and continuous

What is the difference between fewer and less? — everything is simple

Rules of Use

For nouns that have both singular and plural, as well as when a noun / pronoun is only thought of, its presence becomes apparent from the context, the pronouns few / a few are used.

In this case, it does not matter at all how the noun forms its plural — for all these cases, the rule will act the same.

For example:

She went to the USA for a few months… — She went to America for several months.

Few of her friends had been in the USA… — Few of her friends were in America.

Example:

She stood in the USA a little last year… — Last year she spent a little time in America.

When she first came to the USA, she little thought that she would stay there so long. — When she first arrived in America, she never thought that she would stay there for so long.

Pronoun meaning (word translation)

As we noted, the pronouns few, little, a few, and a little are used to indicate not enough of something. The difference between them appears only in the context of their use with nouns.

So, few / a few is used with countable nouns, and little / a little — with those that have only a singular, or only a plural.

However, there are still some differences in meanings, which depend on the form in which the pronoun is used, and create some difference in translation.

Moreover, in the first case, the sentence will most likely contain a somewhat negative connotation, in the second — neutral:

I can’t help you. I speak very little English… — I cannot help you, I know very little English.

I can help you, I speak a little English… — I can help you, I speak a little English.

It would seem that in both cases the first part of the sentence implies the same thing — I do not speak English very well, my knowledge is hardly enough.

His English is intermediate, he forgets about his lessons. He has very little interest in languages… — His English is not above average, he forgets about his lessons. He has no interest in languages at all.
His English is intermediate, he coaches in it every weekends. He has a little interest in language. — His English is intermediate and he trains him every weekend. He has little interest in languages.
I didn’t read this book in original, I can say very little about it… — I have not read this book in the original, I can say very little about it.
I didn’t read this book in original, I can say a little about it… — I have not read this book in the original, but I can tell you a little about it.
Very few of his friends can speak English… — Almost none of his friends speak English.
A few of his friends can speak in English not bad at all. “Some of his friends don’t speak English bad at all.

Comparative and superlative

Like adjectives, quantitative pronouns in English can create degrees of comparison.

The pronouns few / a few form comparative and superlatives according to all the rules of the English language.

In the case of the pronouns little / a little, the situation is different:

few ⇒ fewer ⇒ the fewis — few ⇒ less ⇒ least
little ⇒ less ⇒ the least — little ⇒ less ⇒ least
a few / a little ⇒ more ⇒ the most — a little ⇒ more ⇒ most

Source: https://vseprostdo.ru/v-chem-raznica-mezhdu-fewer-i-less.html

What is the difference between fewer and less. use of the words much, many, few, little, a lot of and plenty of

So, in English we use the word «few» when we mean extremely small the amount of something or the absence of something at all.

The word is translated as «very little«, I.e. «Not enough» at all. We use it, as a rule, when we are dealing with countable plural nouns, those objects and things that can be counted.

Few
Very little James’s family members leave Pittsburgh and move to New York every year.

In the above sentence, we used “few” to indicate that only two or three family members leave the city, most of the relatives remain in place.

However, if we used “a few«, Then the meaning would change:

A few members of James «family leave Pittsburgh and move to NY each year.
Some(a small number) of James’s family members leave Pittsburgh and move to New York every year.

An exception to the use of «a few» is the expression «quite a few«-«quite a bit of«,» A decent number «,» a lot. «

little / a little

In the first example, we say that we have a little time to prepare, but this time is still enough. In the second, we mean that there is time, but it is not enough to prepare thoroughly.

For a better understanding, you can compare these words with a glass of water.

If you need to focus on the fact that the glass is half full, then we say “littlewater ”(a little water, but enough in a glass).

If you want to emphasize that the glass is half empty, then “a little water ”(there is little water and not enough water in the glass).

Small

The adjective «small» translates as «small»/«small»/«небольшой«And is used when this is aboutthe size of

Source: https://film05.ru/bathroom/v-chem-raznica-mezhdu-fewer-i-less-ispolzovanie-slov-much-many-few-little-a-lot-of-i-plenty.html

Countable and uncountable nouns — video tutorial

That’s a lot of butter! — How much oil is there

Finding hundreds of pencils in a desk drawer, you say no Wow! That’s a lot of pencil !, a

That’s a lot of pencils! — Wow, how many pencils!

Uncountable nouns

They can be counted only in 3 cases:

— in the limitation of stick meters

a stick of butter — a pack of butter

— to distinguish between subspecies

3 butters — lime butter, pepper butter, chilly butter — 3 types of butter — lime, pepper, chili

— to mark packages in catering

Waiter, we need some more butters here — Waiter, more packs of butter here

Countable nouns

Countable nouns in English are subject-matter — they can always be counted, put in the plural, and numbered.

5 pencils — 5 pencils

2 cars — 2 cars

7 people — 7 people

3 children — 3 children

Quantitative nouns

There are quantitative nouns and pronouns that are combined with only 1 of 2 classes. So, an amount of requires an uncountable noun, and number of requires a countable noun.

a number of cows — several cows

less applause — less applause

less than 10 dollars — less than 10 dollars

In some illiterate supermarkets, you can see the inscription Less than 10 items express checkout. That’s right

Fewer than 10 items — Up to 10 purchases

Fun Facts

Dandelion root can be roasted and ground as a coffee substitute.

Source: https://www.lovelylanguage.ru/grammar/video-lessons/count-and-mass-nouns

13 mistakes in English that each of us makes

I love to lie down in front of the fire and read — I like to lie near the fireplace with a book.

But lie is an irregular verb, in the past tense it turns into lay.

The town lay in ruins — The town lay in ruins.

And this form is written and pronounced in the same way as an independent verb to lay. The main meaning of which is «to put».

She laid the baby on the bed — She laid the baby on the bed.

In a word, the confusion, of course, is utter, but if you look deeply into it and remember it once, it will be much easier to avoid mistakes.

2. Continual and continuous

These words can be called paronyms: they are spelled almost the same, but differ in meaning. Continual applies to repeated actions or events.

I’m sorry, I can’t work with these continual interruptions — Sorry, but I can’t work like that, I’m constantly interrupted.

But continuous is about something that lasts continuously.

He spoke continuously for more than two hours — He spoke without stopping for more than two hours.

3. Envy and jealous

Even philologists cannot always explain the difference between these words clearly. Dictionaries say that jealous is primarily about jealousy.

In a moment of jealous frenzy, she cut the sleeves off all his shirts — In a fit of jealousy, she shredded the sleeves of his shirts.

But the word has a second meaning: «annoyance because someone has what you yourself would like.» In other words, envy. It is how “envy” translates the second word, envy.

He had always been very jealous of his brother’s success — He was always very jealous of his brother’s success.
Some of his colleagues envy the enormous wealth that he has amassed — Some of his colleagues envy his enormous wealth.

4. Fewer and less

Less is used when we are talking about something abstract and uncountable, or when we don’t mention the exact amount.

I eat less chocolate and fewer biscuits than I used to — I eat less chocolate and fewer biscuits than usual.
We must try to spend less money — We must try to spend less money.

Few and fewer can be safely used when talking about specific numbers or something that can be accurately calculated.

Fewer than 3,500 tigers are left in the wild today — No more than three and a half thousand tigers live in the wild today.
We received far fewer complaints than expected — We received far fewer complaints than expected.

5. Disinterested and uninterested

It seems that both prefixes — dis- and un- — denote negation. And if so, then the meaning of the words is the same. But no. Disinterested translates to impartial.

A disinterested observer / judgment

If we are talking about disinterest and indifference, it would be more correct to use the option uninterested.

He’s completely uninterested in sports — He’s completely uninterested in sports.

True, not all linguists are united on this issue. The compilers of the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, for example, believe that these words can be synonymous.

6. Anxious and excited

It’s natural that you should feel anxious when you first leave home — It’s natural to be anxious when you first leave home.

I’m anxious to get home to open my presents — I can’t wait to come home as soon as possible and open the presents.

7. Affect and effect

To deal with this dilemma, a simple hint can be used. Affect is almost always a verb, effect is a noun. Affect can be translated as «influence, cause, lead to something.»

Factors that affect sleep include stress and many medical conditions — Causes that affect sleep include stress and various medical conditions.

Effect is, in fact, the effect or the result of some processes or events.

I’m suffering from the effects of too little sleep — I suffer from the effects of lack of sleep.

8. Among and between

Words are similar in meaning, but still not synonymous. Between translates as «between».

A narrow path runs between the two houses — A narrow path runs between the two houses.
The shop is closed for lunch between 12.30 and 1.30 — The shop is closed for lunch from half past twelve to half past one.

Among rather means «among», «one of».

The decision will not be popular among students — This decision will not be popular among students.
She divided the cake among the children — She divided the cake between the children.

If we are talking about specific people or objects, it is more appropriate to speak between, and if it is about indefinite or generalized — among.

9. Assure and ensure

She assured them, that she would be all right — She assured them that everything would be fine with her.

But ensure is appropriate to use when we ourselves want to make sure of something.

Please ensure that all examination papers have your name at the top — Please ensure that your examination papers are signed.

10. Then and than

She trained as a teacher and then became a lawyer — She studied to be a teacher, but then became a lawyer.

Than is a preposition, it is used for comparison.

It cost less than I expected — It cost less than I thought.

11. Lose and loose

I hope he doesn’t lose his job — I hope he doesn’t lose his job.

And loose translates as «relaxed», «free», «loose».

A loose dress / sweater — loose dress / sweater.

12. A lot and the lot

I’ve got a lot to do this morning — I have a lot to do this morning.

At the same time, the lot is a British colloquial element, which means not just «a lot», but «everything.»

I made enough curry for three people and he ate the lot — I cooked curry for three, and he ate it all alone.

13. Amount and number

The project will take a huge amount of time and money — This project will take a huge amount of time and money.
A small number of children are educated at home — A small number of children study at home.

UPD. Updated on October 25, 2019.

Source: `https://lifehacker.ru/20-oshibok-v-anglijskom-yazyke-kotorye-delaet-kazhdyj-iz-nas/`

13 Difficulties in English and How to Avoid Them

Incorrect use of apostrophes

Example: «The girl’s horse» — the horse belongs to the girl.

To indicate that an object belongs to several persons, the apostrophe must be placed after the end of «-s».

Example: «The girls’ horse» — the horse belongs to girls.

Your or you’re

“Your” is used when an object belongs to you.

Example: «Today is your lucky day» — Today is your lucky day.

“You’re” is used only as a shorthand for “you are”: pronoun “you” + verb “are”.

Example: “You’re beautiful” — You are beautiful.

There, their and they’re

And again these words, which sound almost the same. The word “there” is used to contrast “here”. “There” can also be used at the beginning of statements: There are no cakes left — There are no cakes left.

“Their” indicates that the object belongs to others.

Example: «Can we use their boat?» — Can we use their boat?

“They’re” is a shorthand for “they are”: the pronoun “they” + the verb “are”.

Example: «They’re going to be here soon» — They will be here soon.

Fewer or less

Even native speakers do not always understand the difference between “fewer” and “less”, mistakes are found even in advertisements of some supermarkets in English-speaking countries. Cases where people use “less” to mean “fewer” are very common.

“Fewer” is used with countable nouns, that is, words that can be counted: cake, piece, grains of sand.

Example: «Fewer grains of sand» — Fewer grains of sand.

“Less” is used with uncountable nouns, that is, those that cannot be counted: coffee, water, sand.

Example: «Less sand» — less sand.

Amount or number

The same rule applies here as in the previous example. “Number” is used with countable nouns: birds, tables, chairs.

Example: «A greater number of people» — More and more people.

“Amount” is used with uncountable nouns: water, sugar, sand.

Example: «A larger amount of water» — More water.

To, two and too

The words sound identical, which is confusing for English learners. By ear, you can distinguish them by understanding other words from the context and the general meaning of the statements.

“To” is the particle that is used to form the initial form of the verb: “to talk” — to speak. “To” is also used to mean “towards something”.

Example: «I’m going to town» — I’m going to town.

“Too” means “too”, “also”, “too”.

Example: «I’m too hot» — I’m too hot.

“Two” means “two”.

Example: «He bought two cakes» — He bought two cakes.

Then or than

“Then” and “than” are often confused not only because they sound similar, but also because they are written almost the same.

“Than” is used when we want to compare two objects.

Example: This dress is more beautiful than that one — This dress is more beautiful than that.

“Then” is used to indicate an event that will follow another, such as when making a plan or schedule.

Example: We’ll go to the cinema and then to the cafe — We will go to the cinema and then to the cafe.

Me, myself, I

Here’s an easy way to remember the difference between “me”, “myself” and “I”. When you talk about yourself and another person in the same sentence, their name should appear at the beginning of the sentence.

To check which pronoun you need at the moment, “me” or “I”, remove the name of the person you are talking about and see which pronoun sounds more correct.

In the sentence “John and I are off to the circus” — “John and I are going to the circus” you are not only talking about yourself, so it is better to use the pronoun “I”.

«Me» can only be used when you talk about yourself as an object, that is, when an action is directed at you. Also, «me» is placed after the preposition, that is, you cannot say «with I», we say «with me».

Use the pronoun “myself” if you have already used the pronoun “I” or if you want to emphasize that you are doing an action on your own or in relation to only yourself.

Who or whom

Another tricky moment for people learning English.

“Who” refers to the one who performs the action.

Example: “Who did this? He did ”- Who did it? — He did it.

Whereas “whom” is used to refer to the object to which the action is directed.

Example: “Whom should I invite? Invite him ”. Who should I invite? — Invite him.

Who and that

Often, English learners use “that” instead of “who” or “whom,” which is incorrect. You cannot use “that” when you are talking about a person.

Example: “He was the only person who wanted to come” — He was the only one who wanted to come.

Affect or effect

The words are easy to get confused because they sound and spelled almost the same. But there is a simple rule to help you remember the difference between the two.

“Affect” is a verb meaning “to influence, to influence something”. You can draw a parallel with the expression in Russian «state of passion»: he committed a crime in a state of passion, that is, under the influence of some sudden process.

Example: “They were directly affected by the flooding” — The flood directly affected them.

“Effect” is a noun meaning the result or effect of the influence exerted. You can also draw a parallel with the use of a word in Russian, for example, «negative effect of the statement», that is, there was some statement that subsequently caused a negative effect.

Example: “He waited for the medicine to have an effect” — He expected the drug to be effective.

Ie or Eg

English learners often do not know the decoding of these abbreviations, so they use them incorrectly when writing.

Ie means “that is” or “in other words”, comes from the Latin expression “id est”.

Example: «He objects to the changes — ie he won’t be accepting them» — He objects to the changes, that is, he won’t accept them.

Eg means “for example,” comes from the Latin expression “exempli gratia”.

Example: “He d many different cheeses, eg cheddar, camembert and brie” — He liked many different cheeses, eg cheddar, camembert and brie.

Use these abbreviations only in informal correspondence. In official documents, it is better to write their values in expanded form: “for example” and “that is”.

Its or it’s

We wrote above that apostrophes are used to indicate that something belongs to someone or something, but there is an exception to the rule — the pronoun “it”.

“It’s” is used only as a shorthand for “it is” or “it has”. Example: “It’s snowing outside” — It is snowing outside.

“Its” denotes the belonging of an object to an inanimate object, animal or plant. As with “his” and “hers,” there is no apostrophe here.

Example: «The sofa looks great with its new cover» — The sofa looks great with its new cover.

We hope that this article has explained some of the difficulties of the English language and will serve you as an assistant in learning it!

Source: https://blog.teachmeplease.ru/posts/13-trudnostey-angliyskogo-yazyka

What is the difference between fewer and less. example sentences ca little. use of few, a few, little, a little

Use few

Pronunciation and translation:
Few / [fyu] — little

Meaning of the word:
Small amount

Few is used with (people, chairs, flowers, apples).

This word is used to emphasize a small amount of something or someone. That is, we say that we have not enough of something or someonefor a specific business.

Few has a negative meaning, we say that something is not enough and we regret it. For example, she had littleacquaintances in this city, that is, she lacked communication and was lonely.

This country has few natural resources.
This country has little natural resources.

Few politicians admit their mistakes.
Little politicians admit their mistakes.

Little

Pronunciation and translation:
Little [? L? Tl] / [little] — little

Meaning of the word:
Small amount

Little we use with items that we cannot count(time, money, water, sugar, salt).

This word has the same meaning as few, says that something or someone is not enough for some purpose. And a person is upset by such a small amount.

For example, he has little money, that is, he does not have enough money to buy groceries.

Addicting a few

Pronunciation and translation:
A few [? fju?] / [e fyu] — several

Meaning of the word:
A small amount of

A few, just like few is used with items that we can count.

However, when we say a few, the sentence takes on a positive meaning, that is, the speaking person, is not at all upset by a small amount of something. He believes that this amount is quite enough.

For example, she had someacquaintances in this city, that is, she had someone to spend time with, this number of acquaintances was quite enough.

I have got a few suggestions.
I have some offers.

Source: https://draftee.ru/v-chem-raznica-mezhdu-fewer-i-less-primery-predlozhenii-c-a-little-upotreblenie-few-a-few/

Using less and fewer. Use of the words much, many, few, little, a lot of and plenty of

Scheme of using quantifiers:

1. Little — few quantifiers

We use «a little»With uncountable nouns, for example: I have some money. This means: a certain amount, not a lot.

We use «a few»With countable plural nouns, for example:

I know a few words of French. This means: a certain amount, not a lot.

We can use «little» and «few» without «a«, But in this case it means» almost no «or» almost nothing «, for example: We must hurry, we have little time.

His English is very good and he makes few mistakes.

We can also say “very little» or «very few«(Very little), for example:

She is very thin because she eats very little. I made very few mistakes in the test.

And here are some more examples using «a little» and «a few«:

I cannot buy this coat today: I have very little money. She left and returned a few minutes later. There are very few old houses left on our street. She gave us some water to wash our hands. They are very poor and they have very little money. I speak good German and also a little Spanish. There were very few people in the park: it was almost empty. Can I have some milk in my coffee, please?

I hope you think these sentences will ensure that you will make very few mistakes when speaking English.

2. Quantifiers much — many — a lot of

USING much, many, a lot of. We use much with uncountable nouns, for example: a lot of time, a lot of coffee, a lot of money, a lot of sugar.

We use many with countable nouns, for example: many books, many months, many years, many friends.

We use a lot of both uncountable and countable nouns, for example: a lot of friends, a lot of sugar, a lot of photos, a lot of time. However, it is important to note that:

1. We use a lot of mostly in positive sentences, for example: I drink a lot of tea. She carries many books.

2. We use much и many mostly in questions and negative suggestions, for example: How much money do you have? I don’t have a lot of money today. How many mistakes did you make in the test? I didn’t make many mistakes, only a few.

3. We can use lots of instead a lot of before countable nouns, for example: She has many friends.

4. We can use a lot without the noun and in this case we use it without a particle offor example: I ate a lot yesterday.

5. Sometimes much и a lot mean often, for example: Do you often go to the movies? — Not, no so much. Yes, I love movies; I go to the movies often.

More examples using much, many и a lot: I drink a lot of coffee and my sister drinks a lot of tea. What about you, do you drink a lot of coffee? I don’t know many people here. She made a lot of mistakes. There was a lot of food on the table. He talks a lot but does little. There is not much milk in the fridge. How many foreign languages can you speak? There are many trees in our park. I have money, but not much. I have read many English books.

What about you: have you read a lot of English books?

3. Quantifiers some — any

USING some и Any… We use some in positive sentences with both countable and uncountable nouns, for example: I need a little flour and a little butter to make a cake. They made several mistakes.

But the meaning may be different: using some with uncountable nouns it means «a little»; but using some with countable nouns means ‘several’, for example: Not a lot of sugar, a few books. We use Any in negative sentences, for example: We don’t have any milk. They didn’t make a single mistake.

We can also use Any in most (but not all) questions, for example: Do you have any dictionaries? Was there any water in the glass? But we usually use some not Any in questions when we offer things, for example: Would you like coffee? Or when we ask for things, like: can you lend me some money?

And here are some more examples of use Any и some: There is some oil in the refrigerator, but no milk at all. Are there eggs? — No, there are no eggs left. There are some pictures on the wall.

Do you want some tea? Do you have any brothers or sisters? Can I have some water please? Can you speak any foreign languages? I have English books, but not many. Are there shops on this street? — Yes, there are several shops on this street.

They didn’t make a single mistake. And what about you? Have you made mistakes? I hope you haven’t made any mistakes.

Few / few

So, in English we use the word «few» when we mean extremely small the amount of something or the absence of something at all.

The word is translated as «very little«, I.e. «Not enough» at all. We use it, as a rule, when we are dealing with countable plural nouns, those objects and things that can be counted.

Few
Very little James’s family members leave Pittsburgh and move to New York every year.

In the above sentence, we used “few” to indicate that only two or three family members leave the city, most of the relatives remain in place.

However, if we used “a few«, Then the meaning would change:

A few members of James «family leave Pittsburgh and move to NY each year.
Some(a small number) of James’s family members leave Pittsburgh and move to New York every year.

An exception to the use of «a few» is the expression «quite a few«-«quite a bit of«,» A decent number «,» a lot. «

little / a little

In the first example, we say that we have a little time to prepare, but this time is still enough. In the second, we mean that there is time, but it is not enough to prepare thoroughly.

For a better understanding, you can compare these words with a glass of water.

If you need to focus on the fact that the glass is half full, then we say “littlewater ”(a little water, but enough in a glass).

If you want to emphasize that the glass is half empty, then “a little water ”(there is little water and not enough water in the glass).

Small

The adjective «small» translates as «small»/«small»/«небольшой«And is used when this is aboutthe size of

Source: https://chaos-heart.ru/upotreblenie-less-i-fewer-ispolzovanie-slov-much-many-few-little-a-lot-of-i-plenty.html

The use of much, many, few, little, a lot of, plenty

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This article will show you when and where to use much, many, few, little, a lot of, plenty of in English.

The noun plays a key role in the choice of the defining word. The determiner depends on which noun is in front of us, countable (countable) or uncountable (uncountable). Once again, we recall that we can count countable nouns and they have a plural form (a boy — boys). And uncountable nouns do not have a plural form (water — some water), and we cannot count them.

We have divided all words into three groups depending on which noun they are used with. We will consider each group separately.

Much / Little Many / Few A lot of / Plenty of

Uncountable nouns	Countable nouns	Countable and uncountable nouns
How much money have you got? — How much money do you have? — There is little ink left in my pen.	I have many friends. — He has got few friends. — He has few friends.	There is a lot of sugar there. — There are plenty of plants in the garden. — There are many plants in the garden.

Many, few, a few with countable nouns

The opposite of many is few: few apples, few friends, few ideas. Few often have a negative meaning: very little, not enough, so little that practically none.

A few has an intermediate meaning between many and few, translated as «a few»: a few apples (a few apples), a few friends (a few friends), a few ideas (a few ideas).

Much, little, a little with uncountable nouns

The words much, little, and little are used with uncountable nouns. Usually, the uncountable include liquids (water — water, oil — oil), objects that are too small that cannot be counted (sand — sand, flour — flour), or abstract concepts, since they cannot be seen or touched by hands (knowledge — knowledge, work — Work).

Much stands for a large amount of something uncountable: much sugar, much milk, much time.

The opposite of much is little: little sugar, little milk, little time. Little, like few, means that something is not enough, very little.

A little means a small amount of something that cannot be counted: a little sugar, a little milk, a little time.

— Did she put much salt in the soup? — She lot put salt in the soup?
— No, she didn’t. She put little salt in the soup. — No, she put little salt in the soup. (more could have been)
— I added a little salt in her soup. — I added slightly salt in her soup.

A lot of, plenty of — universal words

The words a lot of (many) and plenty of (many) are the most «convenient»: we can use them with both countable nouns and uncountable ones.

A lot of (lots of) replaces much and many: a lot of people (many people), lots of tea (lots of tea). Plenty of means that there is a lot of something, that is, enough or even more than necessary: plenty of people (a lot of people), plenty of tea (a lot of tea).

We bought lots of souvenirs and plenty of tea when we were on vacation in Sri Lanka. — We bought lot souvenirs and lots of tea when we were on vacation in Sri Lanka.

Features and exceptions

Much, many, few, little, a lot of with uncountable nouns
There are a number of nouns that seem to be countable, but in fact are not. Sometimes it can be difficult to determine the «countability» of a noun.

If you are not sure which noun is in front of you, it is better to check it in the dictionary.

Please note that in English, uncountable includes advice, news, work, money, research, travel, furniture.

They have much work to do. — They have lot work.

Source: https://engblog.ru/much-many-few-little-a-lot-of-plenty-usage

Less / Fewer

«Less» and «fewer»Both words indicate quantitative indicators. «Less«- the comparative form of the word»little«, but «fewer«Is the comparative form»few».

Little [ˈLɪtəl] — a little, a little.
Few [fju] — a little, a little.

we have less milk than I’d hoped. — We have less milk than I had hoped.
There are fewer people than I expected. — Of people lessthan I expected.

Less

We use «less«With uncountable nouns such as: Pollution (pollution), traffic (traffic), News (news), freedom (freedom).

there is less traffic and less pollution. — There less traffic and less pollution.
We’ve been receiving a lot less news since we switched TV providers. — We get much less news since we changed TV providers.
In more conservative societies, women have less freedom than they do here. — In more conservative societies, women have less freedom than here.

fewer

We use «fewer«With quantifiable nouns such as: restaurants (restaurants), cafes (Cafe), people (people), bags (bags).

There are fewer restaurants and fewer cafes. — Here less restaurants and cafes.
Fewer people came to the opening than we had expected! — It came to the opening less people than we expected!
There are new pills with fewer side effects. — There are new drugs with smaller the number of side effects.

An exception

When we talk about measurements of time, distance, weight and money, we use “less«.

It is less than six hours until my essay is due. — Until the delivery of the essay is left less six hours.
i live less than fifty miles from London. “I live less than fifty miles from London.

More articles about English

Source: https://english5minutes.ru/less-fewer/

Difference in the use of less and fewer in English

Why is it so easy to get confused when using «less» and «fewer» — two pointers to many English languages?

Difference between less and fewer in English

fewer

This is the comparative form of the demonstrative pronoun «few«- few; little, little. Used before countable nouns when indicating the reduction of the number of objects (elements).

Countable nouns are objects and concepts, the number of which can be counted. It is expressed in pieces, units (pieces, bottles, packs, boxes) and has the plural:

3 packets of yeast;
2 watermelons;
8 eggs;
6 tomatoes.

An amazing selection of products for a wonderful dinner.

Fewer people today carry cash. — Fewer people nowadays carry cash with them.

Less

This is the comparative form of the adverb «little«- a little, a little.

Used by:

when indicating a reduction in the number of items;
before uncountable nouns in the singular.

Uncountable nouns are objects and concepts, the number of which cannot be counted. It is expressed in terms of mass, volume, but in some cases it does not have a clear definition at all:

liquids: water (water), milk (milk), oil (oil), beer (beer);
products: cheese, bread, meat;
gaseous substances: smoke (smoke), air (air), oxygen (oxygen), hydrogen (hydrogen), nitrogen (nitrogen);
substances consisting of many small particles: flour (flour), rice (rice), dust (dust), ash (dust, ash, ash);
natural phenomena: snow (snow), light (light), rain (rain), wind (wind), fog (fog), heat (heat);
abstractions: happiness, health, education, space, work, energy, truth.

there is less privacy today because of social media. — Due to the proliferation of social networks, there is less privacy in our lives today.

Less and fewer in life

In everyday life in the United States, the word «less» is regularly misused. It applies not only to uncountable, but also countable nouns.

Films, serials, programs, advertising, news. Everything becomes a victim of simplicity and laziness. Americans concentrate on the qualitative aspect — the very fact of the reduction, and not the approach to assessing this reduction — volume, quantity.

Even big politicians who claim to be the head of state sometimes use the more widespread less in places that were not intended for that. Meath Romney — the US presidential candidate from the Republican Party in the 2012 elections said (from 02:58):

And this way you get more debt. So more debt and less work. Mitt Romney

The candidate made a reservation and used «less jobs» instead of «fewer jobs «(Less work, jobs).

Similarities between less and fewer

Less and fewer with of

It is necessary to substitute the preposition “of«Before defining words:

articles (a / an, the);
pronouns (him, it);
demonstrative pronouns (this, that);
possessive pronouns (my, her, our).

I have to spend less of my time playing computer games. — I should spend less time playing computer games.

Less without a noun

The noun after «less» or «fewer» can be omitted if it is clear what is meant.

— You bought 10 bottles of juice. — You bought 10 bottles of juice.

— No way! I am sure I bought fewer… — Can not be! I’m sure I bought less.

Use cases for less and fewer

Less, fewer and weight

The whole can also be calculated using grams, kilograms, but the habit is second nature and it tells native English speakers to use “less«Instead of» fewer «.

My weight was less than 8 pounds at birth. — At birth, my weight was less than 8 pounds.

Less, fewer and money

Money is a thing that can be easily calculated. But, in life, we think of money as a whole, as an aggregate, about a mass, and not separate units, presented in the form of banknotes and coins. Therefore, when talking about money, use “less«, Not» fewer «.

I have less than 50 bucks left in my account. — I have less than $ 50 left in my account.

You can still say — fewer than 50 bucks, but it will sound strange and unexpected to those around you.

Less, fewer and percent

Determining the right word for percentages can be problematic. To do this, you need to evaluate the whole picture and ask yourself «Is it possible to calculate what we are describing?»

Fewer than 13 percent of the US citizens have black skin. — Less than 13% of the US population is black.

Counting all citizens with a dark skin color is difficult, but doable. This means 13% is a calculated value.

On the other hand, it is impossible to count the unfinished juice.

It has left less than 30 percent juice in the pack. — The package contains less than 30% of the juice.

Less, fewer and time

It will also be common to use «less«When mentioning the time. We can count the time in seconds, minutes, hours, etc., but sentences are still built with «less».

I think they could spend less time at work. — I think they could spend less time at work.

I think they could spend fewer hours at work. — I think they could spend less hours at work.

Less or Fewer? — Short video tutorial

English subtitles are available in the video.

Less & Fewer.

Source: https://englishboost.ru/less-fewer-raznitsa/

«Little» in English

How do you say «little» in English? Find out in this article!

Source: https://enjoyenglish-blog.com/razgovornyj-anglijskij/malo-na-anglijskom.html

13 mistakes in English that each of us makes — News All Kharkiv

It doesn’t matter what level you have. Even native speakers are sometimes confused in these words.

1. Lay and lie

I love to lie down in front of the fire and read — I like to lie near the fireplace with a book.

But lie is an irregular verb, in the past tense it turns into lay.

The town lay in ruins — The town lay in ruins.

And this form is written and pronounced in the same way as an independent verb to lay. The main meaning of which is “to put”.

She laid the baby on the bed — She laid the baby on the bed.

In a word, the confusion, of course, is utter, but if you look deeply into it and remember it once, it will be much easier to avoid mistakes.

2. Continual and continuous

These words can be called paronyms: they are spelled almost the same, but differ in meaning. Continual applies to repeated actions or events.

I’m sorry, I can’t work with these continual interruptions — Sorry, but I can’t work like that, I’m constantly interrupted.

Continuous, on the other hand, is about something that lasts continuously.

He spoke continuously for more than two hours — He spoke without stopping for more than two hours.

3. Envy and jealous

Even philologists cannot always explain the difference between these words clearly. Dictionaries say that jealous is primarily about jealousy.

In a moment of jealous frenzy, she cut the sleeves off all his shirts — In a fit of jealousy, she shredded the sleeves of his shirts.

But the word also has a second meaning: “annoyance that someone has what you yourself would like”. In other words, envy. The second word, envy, is also translated as “envy”.

He had always been very jealous of his brother’s success — He was always very jealous of his brother’s success.
Some of his colleagues envy the enormous wealth that he has amassed — Some of his colleagues envy his enormous wealth.

4. Fewer and less

Less is used when we talk about something abstract and uncountable, or we don’t mention the exact amount.

I eat less chocolate and fewer biscuits than I used to — I eat less chocolate and fewer biscuits than usual.
We must try to spend less money — We must try to spend less money.

Few and fewer can be safely used when talking about specific numbers or something that can be accurately calculated.

Fewer than 3,500 tigers are left in the wild today — No more than three and a half thousand tigers live in the wild today.
We received far fewer complaints than expected — We received far fewer complaints than expected.

5. Disinterested and uninterested

It seems that both prefixes — dis- and un- — denote negation. And if so, then the meaning of the words is the same. But no. Disinterested translates to the Cambridge Dictionary: disinterested as «impartial.»

A disinterested observer / judgment

If we are talking about disinterest and indifference, it would be more correct to use the option uninterested.

He’s completely uninterested in sports — He’s completely uninterested in sports.

True, not all linguists are united on this issue. The compilers of the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, for example, believe that these words can be synonymous.

6. Anxious and excited

In Russian, the word “worry” can be used not only in a negative way (“I’m terribly worried about you!”), But also in a positive way (“I was so excited when I received your letter!”). Perhaps this is why, when we speak English, we try to use anxious in similar cases. But this word is translated as «anxious, worried, nervous.»

It’s natural that you should feel anxious when you first leave home — It’s natural to be anxious when you first leave home.

If you are happy to see your friends, telling them that you are anxious to see them would be wrong. Excited is more appropriate here. By the way, the word anxious is also appropriate if we are impatient to do something or we are striving for something.

I’m anxious to get home to open my presents — I can’t wait to come home as soon as possible and open the presents.

7. Affect and effect

To deal with this dilemma, a simple hint can be used. Affect is almost always a verb, effect is a noun. Affect can be translated as «to influence, cause, lead to something.»

Factors that affect sleep include stress and many medical conditions — Causes that affect sleep include stress and various medical conditions.

Effect is, in fact, the effect or the result of some processes or events.

I’m suffering from the effects of too little sleep — I suffer from the effects of lack of sleep.

8. Among and between

Words are similar in meaning, but still not synonymous. Between translates as «between».

A narrow path runs between the two houses — A narrow path runs between the two houses.
The shop is closed for lunch between 12.30 and 1.30 — The shop is closed for lunch from half past twelve to half past one.

Among rather means «among», «one of».

The decision will not be popular among students — This decision will not be popular among students.
She divided the cake among the children — She divided the cake among the children.

If we are talking about specific people or objects, it is more appropriate to speak between, and if it is about indefinite or generalized — among.

9. Assure and ensure

She assured them, that she would be all right — She assured them that everything would be fine with her.

But ensure is appropriate to use when we ourselves want to make sure of something.

Please ensure that all examination papers have your name at the top — Please ensure that your examination papers are signed.

10. Then and than

She trained as a teacher and then became a lawyer — She studied to be a teacher, but then became a lawyer.

Than is a preposition, it is used for comparison.

It cost less than I expected — It cost less than I thought.

11. Lose and loose

I hope he doesn’t lose his job — I hope he doesn’t lose his job.

And loose translates as «relaxed», «free», «loose».

A loose dress / sweater — loose dress / sweater.

12. A lot and the lot

Here, in general, the difference is only in the article. But in English, even he can significantly change the meaning of a word. The noun lot together with the indefinite article a can be translated as «a lot», «a large number».

I’ve got a lot to do this morning — I have a lot to do this morning.

At the same time, the lot is a British colloquial element, which means not just «a lot», but «everything.»

I made enough curry for three people and he ate the lot — I cooked curry for three, and he ate it all alone.

13. Amount and number

What is the difference between fewer and less? — everything is simple

Rules of Use

For nouns that have both singular and plural, as well as when a noun / pronoun is only thought of, its presence becomes apparent from the context, the pronouns few / a few are used.

In this case, it does not matter at all how the noun forms its plural — for all these cases, the rule will act the same.

For example:

She went to the USA for a few months… — She went to America for several months.

Few of her friends had been in the USA… — Few of her friends were in America.

Example:

She stood in the USA a little last year… — Last year she spent a little time in America.

When she first came to the USA, she little thought that she would stay there so long. — When she first arrived in America, she never thought that she would stay there for so long.

Pronoun meaning (word translation)

As we noted, the pronouns few, little, a few, and a little are used to indicate not enough of something. The difference between them appears only in the context of their use with nouns.

So, few / a few is used with countable nouns, and little / a little — with those that have only a singular, or only a plural.

However, there are still some differences in meanings, which depend on the form in which the pronoun is used, and create some difference in translation.

Moreover, in the first case, the sentence will most likely contain a somewhat negative connotation, in the second — neutral:

I can’t help you. I speak very little English… — I cannot help you, I know very little English.

I can help you, I speak a little English… — I can help you, I speak a little English.

It would seem that in both cases the first part of the sentence implies the same thing — I do not speak English very well, my knowledge is hardly enough.

His English is intermediate, he forgets about his lessons. He has very little interest in languages… — His English is not above average, he forgets about his lessons. He has no interest in languages at all.
His English is intermediate, he coaches in it every weekends. He has a little interest in language. — His English is intermediate and he trains him every weekend. He has little interest in languages.
I didn’t read this book in original, I can say very little about it… — I have not read this book in the original, I can say very little about it.
I didn’t read this book in original, I can say a little about it… — I have not read this book in the original, but I can tell you a little about it.
Very few of his friends can speak English… — Almost none of his friends speak English.
A few of his friends can speak in English not bad at all. “Some of his friends don’t speak English bad at all.

Comparative and superlative

Like adjectives, quantitative pronouns in English can create degrees of comparison.

The pronouns few / a few form comparative and superlatives according to all the rules of the English language.

In the case of the pronouns little / a little, the situation is different:

few ⇒ fewer ⇒ the fewis — few ⇒ less ⇒ least
little ⇒ less ⇒ the least — little ⇒ less ⇒ least
a few / a little ⇒ more ⇒ the most — a little ⇒ more ⇒ most

Source: https://vseprostdo.ru/v-chem-raznica-mezhdu-fewer-i-less.html

What is the difference between fewer and less. use of the words much, many, few, little, a lot of and plenty of

So, in English we use the word «few» when we mean extremely small the amount of something or the absence of something at all.

The word is translated as «very little«, I.e. «Not enough» at all. We use it, as a rule, when we are dealing with countable plural nouns, those objects and things that can be counted.

Few
Very little James’s family members leave Pittsburgh and move to New York every year.

In the above sentence, we used “few” to indicate that only two or three family members leave the city, most of the relatives remain in place.

However, if we used “a few«, Then the meaning would change:

A few members of James «family leave Pittsburgh and move to NY each year.
Some(a small number) of James’s family members leave Pittsburgh and move to New York every year.

An exception to the use of «a few» is the expression «quite a few«-«quite a bit of«,» A decent number «,» a lot. «

little / a little

In the first example, we say that we have a little time to prepare, but this time is still enough. In the second, we mean that there is time, but it is not enough to prepare thoroughly.

For a better understanding, you can compare these words with a glass of water.

If you need to focus on the fact that the glass is half full, then we say “littlewater ”(a little water, but enough in a glass).

If you want to emphasize that the glass is half empty, then “a little water ”(there is little water and not enough water in the glass).

Small

The adjective «small» translates as «small»/«small»/«небольшой«And is used when this is aboutthe size of

Source: https://film05.ru/bathroom/v-chem-raznica-mezhdu-fewer-i-less-ispolzovanie-slov-much-many-few-little-a-lot-of-i-plenty.html

Countable and uncountable nouns — video tutorial

That’s a lot of butter! — How much oil is there

Finding hundreds of pencils in a desk drawer, you say no Wow! That’s a lot of pencil !, a

That’s a lot of pencils! — Wow, how many pencils!

Uncountable nouns

They can be counted only in 3 cases:

— in the limitation of stick meters

a stick of butter — a pack of butter

— to distinguish between subspecies

3 butters — lime butter, pepper butter, chilly butter — 3 types of butter — lime, pepper, chili

— to mark packages in catering

Waiter, we need some more butters here — Waiter, more packs of butter here

Countable nouns

Countable nouns in English are subject-matter — they can always be counted, put in the plural, and numbered.

5 pencils — 5 pencils

2 cars — 2 cars

7 people — 7 people

3 children — 3 children

Quantitative nouns

There are quantitative nouns and pronouns that are combined with only 1 of 2 classes. So, an amount of requires an uncountable noun, and number of requires a countable noun.

a number of cows — several cows

less applause — less applause

less than 10 dollars — less than 10 dollars

In some illiterate supermarkets, you can see the inscription Less than 10 items express checkout. That’s right

Fewer than 10 items — Up to 10 purchases

Fun Facts

Dandelion root can be roasted and ground as a coffee substitute.

Source: https://www.lovelylanguage.ru/grammar/video-lessons/count-and-mass-nouns

13 mistakes in English that each of us makes

I love to lie down in front of the fire and read — I like to lie near the fireplace with a book.

But lie is an irregular verb, in the past tense it turns into lay.

The town lay in ruins — The town lay in ruins.

And this form is written and pronounced in the same way as an independent verb to lay. The main meaning of which is «to put».

She laid the baby on the bed — She laid the baby on the bed.

In a word, the confusion, of course, is utter, but if you look deeply into it and remember it once, it will be much easier to avoid mistakes.

2. Continual and continuous

These words can be called paronyms: they are spelled almost the same, but differ in meaning. Continual applies to repeated actions or events.

I’m sorry, I can’t work with these continual interruptions — Sorry, but I can’t work like that, I’m constantly interrupted.

But continuous is about something that lasts continuously.

He spoke continuously for more than two hours — He spoke without stopping for more than two hours.

3. Envy and jealous

Even philologists cannot always explain the difference between these words clearly. Dictionaries say that jealous is primarily about jealousy.

In a moment of jealous frenzy, she cut the sleeves off all his shirts — In a fit of jealousy, she shredded the sleeves of his shirts.

But the word has a second meaning: «annoyance because someone has what you yourself would like.» In other words, envy. It is how “envy” translates the second word, envy.

He had always been very jealous of his brother’s success — He was always very jealous of his brother’s success.
Some of his colleagues envy the enormous wealth that he has amassed — Some of his colleagues envy his enormous wealth.

4. Fewer and less

Less is used when we are talking about something abstract and uncountable, or when we don’t mention the exact amount.

I eat less chocolate and fewer biscuits than I used to — I eat less chocolate and fewer biscuits than usual.
We must try to spend less money — We must try to spend less money.

Few and fewer can be safely used when talking about specific numbers or something that can be accurately calculated.

Fewer than 3,500 tigers are left in the wild today — No more than three and a half thousand tigers live in the wild today.
We received far fewer complaints than expected — We received far fewer complaints than expected.

5. Disinterested and uninterested

It seems that both prefixes — dis- and un- — denote negation. And if so, then the meaning of the words is the same. But no. Disinterested translates to impartial.

A disinterested observer / judgment

If we are talking about disinterest and indifference, it would be more correct to use the option uninterested.

He’s completely uninterested in sports — He’s completely uninterested in sports.

True, not all linguists are united on this issue. The compilers of the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, for example, believe that these words can be synonymous.

6. Anxious and excited

It’s natural that you should feel anxious when you first leave home — It’s natural to be anxious when you first leave home.

I’m anxious to get home to open my presents — I can’t wait to come home as soon as possible and open the presents.

7. Affect and effect

To deal with this dilemma, a simple hint can be used. Affect is almost always a verb, effect is a noun. Affect can be translated as «influence, cause, lead to something.»

Factors that affect sleep include stress and many medical conditions — Causes that affect sleep include stress and various medical conditions.

Effect is, in fact, the effect or the result of some processes or events.

I’m suffering from the effects of too little sleep — I suffer from the effects of lack of sleep.

8. Among and between

Words are similar in meaning, but still not synonymous. Between translates as «between».

A narrow path runs between the two houses — A narrow path runs between the two houses.
The shop is closed for lunch between 12.30 and 1.30 — The shop is closed for lunch from half past twelve to half past one.

Among rather means «among», «one of».

The decision will not be popular among students — This decision will not be popular among students.
She divided the cake among the children — She divided the cake between the children.

If we are talking about specific people or objects, it is more appropriate to speak between, and if it is about indefinite or generalized — among.

9. Assure and ensure

She assured them, that she would be all right — She assured them that everything would be fine with her.

But ensure is appropriate to use when we ourselves want to make sure of something.

Please ensure that all examination papers have your name at the top — Please ensure that your examination papers are signed.

10. Then and than

She trained as a teacher and then became a lawyer — She studied to be a teacher, but then became a lawyer.

Than is a preposition, it is used for comparison.

It cost less than I expected — It cost less than I thought.

11. Lose and loose

I hope he doesn’t lose his job — I hope he doesn’t lose his job.

And loose translates as «relaxed», «free», «loose».

A loose dress / sweater — loose dress / sweater.

12. A lot and the lot

I’ve got a lot to do this morning — I have a lot to do this morning.

At the same time, the lot is a British colloquial element, which means not just «a lot», but «everything.»

I made enough curry for three people and he ate the lot — I cooked curry for three, and he ate it all alone.

13. Amount and number

The project will take a huge amount of time and money — This project will take a huge amount of time and money.
A small number of children are educated at home — A small number of children study at home.

UPD. Updated on October 25, 2019.

Source: `https://lifehacker.ru/20-oshibok-v-anglijskom-yazyke-kotorye-delaet-kazhdyj-iz-nas/`

13 Difficulties in English and How to Avoid Them

Incorrect use of apostrophes

Example: «The girl’s horse» — the horse belongs to the girl.

To indicate that an object belongs to several persons, the apostrophe must be placed after the end of «-s».

Example: «The girls’ horse» — the horse belongs to girls.

Your or you’re

“Your” is used when an object belongs to you.

Example: «Today is your lucky day» — Today is your lucky day.

“You’re” is used only as a shorthand for “you are”: pronoun “you” + verb “are”.

Example: “You’re beautiful” — You are beautiful.

There, their and they’re

“Their” indicates that the object belongs to others.

Example: «Can we use their boat?» — Can we use their boat?

“They’re” is a shorthand for “they are”: the pronoun “they” + the verb “are”.

Example: «They’re going to be here soon» — They will be here soon.

Fewer or less

“Fewer” is used with countable nouns, that is, words that can be counted: cake, piece, grains of sand.

Example: «Fewer grains of sand» — Fewer grains of sand.

“Less” is used with uncountable nouns, that is, those that cannot be counted: coffee, water, sand.

Example: «Less sand» — less sand.

Amount or number

The same rule applies here as in the previous example. “Number” is used with countable nouns: birds, tables, chairs.

Example: «A greater number of people» — More and more people.

“Amount” is used with uncountable nouns: water, sugar, sand.

Example: «A larger amount of water» — More water.

To, two and too

The words sound identical, which is confusing for English learners. By ear, you can distinguish them by understanding other words from the context and the general meaning of the statements.

“To” is the particle that is used to form the initial form of the verb: “to talk” — to speak. “To” is also used to mean “towards something”.

Example: «I’m going to town» — I’m going to town.

“Too” means “too”, “also”, “too”.

Example: «I’m too hot» — I’m too hot.

“Two” means “two”.

Example: «He bought two cakes» — He bought two cakes.

Then or than

“Then” and “than” are often confused not only because they sound similar, but also because they are written almost the same.

“Than” is used when we want to compare two objects.

Example: This dress is more beautiful than that one — This dress is more beautiful than that.

“Then” is used to indicate an event that will follow another, such as when making a plan or schedule.

Example: We’ll go to the cinema and then to the cafe — We will go to the cinema and then to the cafe.

Me, myself, I

To check which pronoun you need at the moment, “me” or “I”, remove the name of the person you are talking about and see which pronoun sounds more correct.

In the sentence “John and I are off to the circus” — “John and I are going to the circus” you are not only talking about yourself, so it is better to use the pronoun “I”.

«Me» can only be used when you talk about yourself as an object, that is, when an action is directed at you. Also, «me» is placed after the preposition, that is, you cannot say «with I», we say «with me».

Use the pronoun “myself” if you have already used the pronoun “I” or if you want to emphasize that you are doing an action on your own or in relation to only yourself.

Who or whom

Another tricky moment for people learning English.

“Who” refers to the one who performs the action.

Example: “Who did this? He did ”- Who did it? — He did it.

Whereas “whom” is used to refer to the object to which the action is directed.

Example: “Whom should I invite? Invite him ”. Who should I invite? — Invite him.

Who and that

Often, English learners use “that” instead of “who” or “whom,” which is incorrect. You cannot use “that” when you are talking about a person.

Example: “He was the only person who wanted to come” — He was the only one who wanted to come.

Affect or effect

The words are easy to get confused because they sound and spelled almost the same. But there is a simple rule to help you remember the difference between the two.

Example: “They were directly affected by the flooding” — The flood directly affected them.

Example: “He waited for the medicine to have an effect” — He expected the drug to be effective.

Ie or Eg

English learners often do not know the decoding of these abbreviations, so they use them incorrectly when writing.

Ie means “that is” or “in other words”, comes from the Latin expression “id est”.

Example: «He objects to the changes — ie he won’t be accepting them» — He objects to the changes, that is, he won’t accept them.

Eg means “for example,” comes from the Latin expression “exempli gratia”.

Example: “He d many different cheeses, eg cheddar, camembert and brie” — He liked many different cheeses, eg cheddar, camembert and brie.

Use these abbreviations only in informal correspondence. In official documents, it is better to write their values in expanded form: “for example” and “that is”.

Its or it’s

We wrote above that apostrophes are used to indicate that something belongs to someone or something, but there is an exception to the rule — the pronoun “it”.

“It’s” is used only as a shorthand for “it is” or “it has”. Example: “It’s snowing outside” — It is snowing outside.

“Its” denotes the belonging of an object to an inanimate object, animal or plant. As with “his” and “hers,” there is no apostrophe here.

Example: «The sofa looks great with its new cover» — The sofa looks great with its new cover.

We hope that this article has explained some of the difficulties of the English language and will serve you as an assistant in learning it!

Source: https://blog.teachmeplease.ru/posts/13-trudnostey-angliyskogo-yazyka

What is the difference between fewer and less. example sentences ca little. use of few, a few, little, a little

Use few

Pronunciation and translation:
Few / [fyu] — little

Meaning of the word:
Small amount

Few is used with (people, chairs, flowers, apples).

This word is used to emphasize a small amount of something or someone. That is, we say that we have not enough of something or someonefor a specific business.

Few has a negative meaning, we say that something is not enough and we regret it. For example, she had littleacquaintances in this city, that is, she lacked communication and was lonely.

This country has few natural resources.
This country has little natural resources.

Few politicians admit their mistakes.
Little politicians admit their mistakes.

Little

Pronunciation and translation:
Little [? L? Tl] / [little] — little

Meaning of the word:
Small amount

Little we use with items that we cannot count(time, money, water, sugar, salt).

This word has the same meaning as few, says that something or someone is not enough for some purpose. And a person is upset by such a small amount.

For example, he has little money, that is, he does not have enough money to buy groceries.

Addicting a few

Pronunciation and translation:
A few [? fju?] / [e fyu] — several

Meaning of the word:
A small amount of

A few, just like few is used with items that we can count.

For example, she had someacquaintances in this city, that is, she had someone to spend time with, this number of acquaintances was quite enough.

I have got a few suggestions.
I have some offers.

Source: https://draftee.ru/v-chem-raznica-mezhdu-fewer-i-less-primery-predlozhenii-c-a-little-upotreblenie-few-a-few/

Using less and fewer. Use of the words much, many, few, little, a lot of and plenty of

Scheme of using quantifiers:

1. Little — few quantifiers

We use «a little»With uncountable nouns, for example: I have some money. This means: a certain amount, not a lot.

We use «a few»With countable plural nouns, for example:

I know a few words of French. This means: a certain amount, not a lot.

We can use «little» and «few» without «a«, But in this case it means» almost no «or» almost nothing «, for example: We must hurry, we have little time.

His English is very good and he makes few mistakes.

We can also say “very little» or «very few«(Very little), for example:

She is very thin because she eats very little. I made very few mistakes in the test.

And here are some more examples using «a little» and «a few«:

I hope you think these sentences will ensure that you will make very few mistakes when speaking English.

2. Quantifiers much — many — a lot of

USING much, many, a lot of. We use much with uncountable nouns, for example: a lot of time, a lot of coffee, a lot of money, a lot of sugar.

We use many with countable nouns, for example: many books, many months, many years, many friends.

We use a lot of both uncountable and countable nouns, for example: a lot of friends, a lot of sugar, a lot of photos, a lot of time. However, it is important to note that:

1. We use a lot of mostly in positive sentences, for example: I drink a lot of tea. She carries many books.

3. We can use lots of instead a lot of before countable nouns, for example: She has many friends.

4. We can use a lot without the noun and in this case we use it without a particle offor example: I ate a lot yesterday.

5. Sometimes much и a lot mean often, for example: Do you often go to the movies? — Not, no so much. Yes, I love movies; I go to the movies often.

What about you: have you read a lot of English books?

3. Quantifiers some — any

And here are some more examples of use Any и some: There is some oil in the refrigerator, but no milk at all. Are there eggs? — No, there are no eggs left. There are some pictures on the wall.

They didn’t make a single mistake. And what about you? Have you made mistakes? I hope you haven’t made any mistakes.

Few / few

So, in English we use the word «few» when we mean extremely small the amount of something or the absence of something at all.

The word is translated as «very little«, I.e. «Not enough» at all. We use it, as a rule, when we are dealing with countable plural nouns, those objects and things that can be counted.

Few
Very little James’s family members leave Pittsburgh and move to New York every year.

In the above sentence, we used “few” to indicate that only two or three family members leave the city, most of the relatives remain in place.

However, if we used “a few«, Then the meaning would change:

A few members of James «family leave Pittsburgh and move to NY each year.
Some(a small number) of James’s family members leave Pittsburgh and move to New York every year.

An exception to the use of «a few» is the expression «quite a few«-«quite a bit of«,» A decent number «,» a lot. «

little / a little

In the first example, we say that we have a little time to prepare, but this time is still enough. In the second, we mean that there is time, but it is not enough to prepare thoroughly.

For a better understanding, you can compare these words with a glass of water.

If you need to focus on the fact that the glass is half full, then we say “littlewater ”(a little water, but enough in a glass).

If you want to emphasize that the glass is half empty, then “a little water ”(there is little water and not enough water in the glass).

Small

The adjective «small» translates as «small»/«small»/«небольшой«And is used when this is aboutthe size of

Source: https://chaos-heart.ru/upotreblenie-less-i-fewer-ispolzovanie-slov-much-many-few-little-a-lot-of-i-plenty.html

The use of much, many, few, little, a lot of, plenty

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This article will show you when and where to use much, many, few, little, a lot of, plenty of in English.

The noun plays a key role in the choice of the defining word. The determiner depends on which noun is in front of us, countable (countable) or uncountable (uncountable). Once again, we recall that we can count countable nouns and they have a plural form (a boy — boys). And uncountable nouns do not have a plural form (water — some water), and we cannot count them.

We have divided all words into three groups depending on which noun they are used with. We will consider each group separately.

Much / Little Many / Few A lot of / Plenty of

Uncountable nouns	Countable nouns	Countable and uncountable nouns
How much money have you got? — How much money do you have? — There is little ink left in my pen.	I have many friends. — He has got few friends. — He has few friends.	There is a lot of sugar there. — There are plenty of plants in the garden. — There are many plants in the garden.

Many, few, a few with countable nouns

The opposite of many is few: few apples, few friends, few ideas. Few often have a negative meaning: very little, not enough, so little that practically none.

A few has an intermediate meaning between many and few, translated as «a few»: a few apples (a few apples), a few friends (a few friends), a few ideas (a few ideas).

Much, little, a little with uncountable nouns

Much stands for a large amount of something uncountable: much sugar, much milk, much time.

The opposite of much is little: little sugar, little milk, little time. Little, like few, means that something is not enough, very little.

A little means a small amount of something that cannot be counted: a little sugar, a little milk, a little time.

A lot of, plenty of — universal words

The words a lot of (many) and plenty of (many) are the most «convenient»: we can use them with both countable nouns and uncountable ones.

We bought lots of souvenirs and plenty of tea when we were on vacation in Sri Lanka. — We bought lot souvenirs and lots of tea when we were on vacation in Sri Lanka.

Features and exceptions

Much, many, few, little, a lot of with uncountable nouns
There are a number of nouns that seem to be countable, but in fact are not. Sometimes it can be difficult to determine the «countability» of a noun.

If you are not sure which noun is in front of you, it is better to check it in the dictionary.

Please note that in English, uncountable includes advice, news, work, money, research, travel, furniture.

They have much work to do. — They have lot work.

Source: https://engblog.ru/much-many-few-little-a-lot-of-plenty-usage

Less / Fewer

«Less» and «fewer»Both words indicate quantitative indicators. «Less«- the comparative form of the word»little«, but «fewer«Is the comparative form»few».

Little [ˈLɪtəl] — a little, a little.
Few [fju] — a little, a little.

we have less milk than I’d hoped. — We have less milk than I had hoped.
There are fewer people than I expected. — Of people lessthan I expected.

Less

We use «less«With uncountable nouns such as: Pollution (pollution), traffic (traffic), News (news), freedom (freedom).

there is less traffic and less pollution. — There less traffic and less pollution.
We’ve been receiving a lot less news since we switched TV providers. — We get much less news since we changed TV providers.
In more conservative societies, women have less freedom than they do here. — In more conservative societies, women have less freedom than here.

fewer

We use «fewer«With quantifiable nouns such as: restaurants (restaurants), cafes (Cafe), people (people), bags (bags).

There are fewer restaurants and fewer cafes. — Here less restaurants and cafes.
Fewer people came to the opening than we had expected! — It came to the opening less people than we expected!
There are new pills with fewer side effects. — There are new drugs with smaller the number of side effects.

An exception

When we talk about measurements of time, distance, weight and money, we use “less«.

It is less than six hours until my essay is due. — Until the delivery of the essay is left less six hours.
i live less than fifty miles from London. “I live less than fifty miles from London.

More articles about English

Source: https://english5minutes.ru/less-fewer/

Difference in the use of less and fewer in English

Why is it so easy to get confused when using «less» and «fewer» — two pointers to many English languages?

Difference between less and fewer in English

fewer

This is the comparative form of the demonstrative pronoun «few«- few; little, little. Used before countable nouns when indicating the reduction of the number of objects (elements).

Countable nouns are objects and concepts, the number of which can be counted. It is expressed in pieces, units (pieces, bottles, packs, boxes) and has the plural:

3 packets of yeast;
2 watermelons;
8 eggs;
6 tomatoes.

An amazing selection of products for a wonderful dinner.

Fewer people today carry cash. — Fewer people nowadays carry cash with them.

Less

This is the comparative form of the adverb «little«- a little, a little.

Used by:

when indicating a reduction in the number of items;
before uncountable nouns in the singular.

Uncountable nouns are objects and concepts, the number of which cannot be counted. It is expressed in terms of mass, volume, but in some cases it does not have a clear definition at all:

liquids: water (water), milk (milk), oil (oil), beer (beer);
products: cheese, bread, meat;
gaseous substances: smoke (smoke), air (air), oxygen (oxygen), hydrogen (hydrogen), nitrogen (nitrogen);
substances consisting of many small particles: flour (flour), rice (rice), dust (dust), ash (dust, ash, ash);
natural phenomena: snow (snow), light (light), rain (rain), wind (wind), fog (fog), heat (heat);
abstractions: happiness, health, education, space, work, energy, truth.

there is less privacy today because of social media. — Due to the proliferation of social networks, there is less privacy in our lives today.

Less and fewer in life

In everyday life in the United States, the word «less» is regularly misused. It applies not only to uncountable, but also countable nouns.

And this way you get more debt. So more debt and less work. Mitt Romney

The candidate made a reservation and used «less jobs» instead of «fewer jobs «(Less work, jobs).

Similarities between less and fewer

Less and fewer with of

It is necessary to substitute the preposition “of«Before defining words:

articles (a / an, the);
pronouns (him, it);
demonstrative pronouns (this, that);
possessive pronouns (my, her, our).

I have to spend less of my time playing computer games. — I should spend less time playing computer games.

Less without a noun

The noun after «less» or «fewer» can be omitted if it is clear what is meant.

— You bought 10 bottles of juice. — You bought 10 bottles of juice.

— No way! I am sure I bought fewer… — Can not be! I’m sure I bought less.

Use cases for less and fewer

Less, fewer and weight

The whole can also be calculated using grams, kilograms, but the habit is second nature and it tells native English speakers to use “less«Instead of» fewer «.

My weight was less than 8 pounds at birth. — At birth, my weight was less than 8 pounds.

Less, fewer and money

I have less than 50 bucks left in my account. — I have less than $ 50 left in my account.

You can still say — fewer than 50 bucks, but it will sound strange and unexpected to those around you.

Less, fewer and percent

Determining the right word for percentages can be problematic. To do this, you need to evaluate the whole picture and ask yourself «Is it possible to calculate what we are describing?»

Fewer than 13 percent of the US citizens have black skin. — Less than 13% of the US population is black.

Counting all citizens with a dark skin color is difficult, but doable. This means 13% is a calculated value.

On the other hand, it is impossible to count the unfinished juice.

It has left less than 30 percent juice in the pack. — The package contains less than 30% of the juice.

Less, fewer and time

It will also be common to use «less«When mentioning the time. We can count the time in seconds, minutes, hours, etc., but sentences are still built with «less».

I think they could spend less time at work. — I think they could spend less time at work.

I think they could spend fewer hours at work. — I think they could spend less hours at work.

Less or Fewer? — Short video tutorial

English subtitles are available in the video.

Less & Fewer.

Source: https://englishboost.ru/less-fewer-raznitsa/

«Little» in English

How do you say «little» in English? Find out in this article!

Source: https://enjoyenglish-blog.com/razgovornyj-anglijskij/malo-na-anglijskom.html

13 mistakes in English that each of us makes — News All Kharkiv

It doesn’t matter what level you have. Even native speakers are sometimes confused in these words.

1. Lay and lie

I love to lie down in front of the fire and read — I like to lie near the fireplace with a book.

But lie is an irregular verb, in the past tense it turns into lay.

The town lay in ruins — The town lay in ruins.

And this form is written and pronounced in the same way as an independent verb to lay. The main meaning of which is “to put”.

She laid the baby on the bed — She laid the baby on the bed.

In a word, the confusion, of course, is utter, but if you look deeply into it and remember it once, it will be much easier to avoid mistakes.

2. Continual and continuous

These words can be called paronyms: they are spelled almost the same, but differ in meaning. Continual applies to repeated actions or events.

I’m sorry, I can’t work with these continual interruptions — Sorry, but I can’t work like that, I’m constantly interrupted.

Continuous, on the other hand, is about something that lasts continuously.

He spoke continuously for more than two hours — He spoke without stopping for more than two hours.

3. Envy and jealous

Even philologists cannot always explain the difference between these words clearly. Dictionaries say that jealous is primarily about jealousy.

In a moment of jealous frenzy, she cut the sleeves off all his shirts — In a fit of jealousy, she shredded the sleeves of his shirts.

But the word also has a second meaning: “annoyance that someone has what you yourself would like”. In other words, envy. The second word, envy, is also translated as “envy”.

He had always been very jealous of his brother’s success — He was always very jealous of his brother’s success.
Some of his colleagues envy the enormous wealth that he has amassed — Some of his colleagues envy his enormous wealth.

4. Fewer and less

Less is used when we talk about something abstract and uncountable, or we don’t mention the exact amount.

I eat less chocolate and fewer biscuits than I used to — I eat less chocolate and fewer biscuits than usual.
We must try to spend less money — We must try to spend less money.

Few and fewer can be safely used when talking about specific numbers or something that can be accurately calculated.

Fewer than 3,500 tigers are left in the wild today — No more than three and a half thousand tigers live in the wild today.
We received far fewer complaints than expected — We received far fewer complaints than expected.

5. Disinterested and uninterested

A disinterested observer / judgment

If we are talking about disinterest and indifference, it would be more correct to use the option uninterested.

He’s completely uninterested in sports — He’s completely uninterested in sports.

True, not all linguists are united on this issue. The compilers of the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, for example, believe that these words can be synonymous.

6. Anxious and excited

It’s natural that you should feel anxious when you first leave home — It’s natural to be anxious when you first leave home.

I’m anxious to get home to open my presents — I can’t wait to come home as soon as possible and open the presents.

7. Affect and effect

To deal with this dilemma, a simple hint can be used. Affect is almost always a verb, effect is a noun. Affect can be translated as «to influence, cause, lead to something.»

Factors that affect sleep include stress and many medical conditions — Causes that affect sleep include stress and various medical conditions.

Effect is, in fact, the effect or the result of some processes or events.

I’m suffering from the effects of too little sleep — I suffer from the effects of lack of sleep.

8. Among and between

Words are similar in meaning, but still not synonymous. Between translates as «between».

A narrow path runs between the two houses — A narrow path runs between the two houses.
The shop is closed for lunch between 12.30 and 1.30 — The shop is closed for lunch from half past twelve to half past one.

Among rather means «among», «one of».

The decision will not be popular among students — This decision will not be popular among students.
She divided the cake among the children — She divided the cake among the children.

If we are talking about specific people or objects, it is more appropriate to speak between, and if it is about indefinite or generalized — among.

9. Assure and ensure

She assured them, that she would be all right — She assured them that everything would be fine with her.

But ensure is appropriate to use when we ourselves want to make sure of something.

Please ensure that all examination papers have your name at the top — Please ensure that your examination papers are signed.

10. Then and than

She trained as a teacher and then became a lawyer — She studied to be a teacher, but then became a lawyer.

Than is a preposition, it is used for comparison.

It cost less than I expected — It cost less than I thought.

11. Lose and loose

I hope he doesn’t lose his job — I hope he doesn’t lose his job.

And loose translates as «relaxed», «free», «loose».

A loose dress / sweater — loose dress / sweater.

12. A lot and the lot

I’ve got a lot to do this morning — I have a lot to do this morning.

At the same time, the lot is a British colloquial element, which means not just «a lot», but «everything.»

I made enough curry for three people and he ate the lot — I cooked curry for three, and he ate it all alone.

What is the difference between fewer and less? — everything is simple

Rules of Use

For nouns that have both singular and plural, as well as when a noun / pronoun is only thought of, its presence becomes apparent from the context, the pronouns few / a few are used.

In this case, it does not matter at all how the noun forms its plural — for all these cases, the rule will act the same.

For example:

She went to the USA for a few months… — She went to America for several months.

Few of her friends had been in the USA… — Few of her friends were in America.

Example:

She stood in the USA a little last year… — Last year she spent a little time in America.

When she first came to the USA, she little thought that she would stay there so long. — When she first arrived in America, she never thought that she would stay there for so long.

Pronoun meaning (word translation)

As we noted, the pronouns few, little, a few, and a little are used to indicate not enough of something. The difference between them appears only in the context of their use with nouns.

So, few / a few is used with countable nouns, and little / a little — with those that have only a singular, or only a plural.

However, there are still some differences in meanings, which depend on the form in which the pronoun is used, and create some difference in translation.

Moreover, in the first case, the sentence will most likely contain a somewhat negative connotation, in the second — neutral:

I can’t help you. I speak very little English… — I cannot help you, I know very little English.

I can help you, I speak a little English… — I can help you, I speak a little English.

It would seem that in both cases the first part of the sentence implies the same thing — I do not speak English very well, my knowledge is hardly enough.

His English is intermediate, he forgets about his lessons. He has very little interest in languages… — His English is not above average, he forgets about his lessons. He has no interest in languages at all.
His English is intermediate, he coaches in it every weekends. He has a little interest in language. — His English is intermediate and he trains him every weekend. He has little interest in languages.
I didn’t read this book in original, I can say very little about it… — I have not read this book in the original, I can say very little about it.
I didn’t read this book in original, I can say a little about it… — I have not read this book in the original, but I can tell you a little about it.
Very few of his friends can speak English… — Almost none of his friends speak English.
A few of his friends can speak in English not bad at all. “Some of his friends don’t speak English bad at all.

Comparative and superlative

Like adjectives, quantitative pronouns in English can create degrees of comparison.

The pronouns few / a few form comparative and superlatives according to all the rules of the English language.

In the case of the pronouns little / a little, the situation is different:

few ⇒ fewer ⇒ the fewis — few ⇒ less ⇒ least
little ⇒ less ⇒ the least — little ⇒ less ⇒ least
a few / a little ⇒ more ⇒ the most — a little ⇒ more ⇒ most

Source: https://vseprostdo.ru/v-chem-raznica-mezhdu-fewer-i-less.html

What is the difference between fewer and less. use of the words much, many, few, little, a lot of and plenty of

So, in English we use the word «few» when we mean extremely small the amount of something or the absence of something at all.

The word is translated as «very little«, I.e. «Not enough» at all. We use it, as a rule, when we are dealing with countable plural nouns, those objects and things that can be counted.

Few
Very little James’s family members leave Pittsburgh and move to New York every year.

In the above sentence, we used “few” to indicate that only two or three family members leave the city, most of the relatives remain in place.

However, if we used “a few«, Then the meaning would change:

A few members of James «family leave Pittsburgh and move to NY each year.
Some(a small number) of James’s family members leave Pittsburgh and move to New York every year.

An exception to the use of «a few» is the expression «quite a few«-«quite a bit of«,» A decent number «,» a lot. «

little / a little

In the first example, we say that we have a little time to prepare, but this time is still enough. In the second, we mean that there is time, but it is not enough to prepare thoroughly.

For a better understanding, you can compare these words with a glass of water.

If you need to focus on the fact that the glass is half full, then we say “littlewater ”(a little water, but enough in a glass).

If you want to emphasize that the glass is half empty, then “a little water ”(there is little water and not enough water in the glass).

Small

The adjective «small» translates as «small»/«small»/«небольшой«And is used when this is aboutthe size of

Source: https://film05.ru/bathroom/v-chem-raznica-mezhdu-fewer-i-less-ispolzovanie-slov-much-many-few-little-a-lot-of-i-plenty.html

Countable and uncountable nouns — video tutorial

That’s a lot of butter! — How much oil is there

Finding hundreds of pencils in a desk drawer, you say no Wow! That’s a lot of pencil !, a

That’s a lot of pencils! — Wow, how many pencils!

Uncountable nouns

They can be counted only in 3 cases:

— in the limitation of stick meters

a stick of butter — a pack of butter

— to distinguish between subspecies

3 butters — lime butter, pepper butter, chilly butter — 3 types of butter — lime, pepper, chili

— to mark packages in catering

Waiter, we need some more butters here — Waiter, more packs of butter here

Countable nouns

Countable nouns in English are subject-matter — they can always be counted, put in the plural, and numbered.

5 pencils — 5 pencils

2 cars — 2 cars

7 people — 7 people

3 children — 3 children

Quantitative nouns

There are quantitative nouns and pronouns that are combined with only 1 of 2 classes. So, an amount of requires an uncountable noun, and number of requires a countable noun.

a number of cows — several cows

less applause — less applause

less than 10 dollars — less than 10 dollars

In some illiterate supermarkets, you can see the inscription Less than 10 items express checkout. That’s right

Fewer than 10 items — Up to 10 purchases

Fun Facts

Dandelion root can be roasted and ground as a coffee substitute.

Source: https://www.lovelylanguage.ru/grammar/video-lessons/count-and-mass-nouns

13 mistakes in English that each of us makes

I love to lie down in front of the fire and read — I like to lie near the fireplace with a book.

But lie is an irregular verb, in the past tense it turns into lay.

The town lay in ruins — The town lay in ruins.

And this form is written and pronounced in the same way as an independent verb to lay. The main meaning of which is «to put».

She laid the baby on the bed — She laid the baby on the bed.

In a word, the confusion, of course, is utter, but if you look deeply into it and remember it once, it will be much easier to avoid mistakes.

2. Continual and continuous

These words can be called paronyms: they are spelled almost the same, but differ in meaning. Continual applies to repeated actions or events.

I’m sorry, I can’t work with these continual interruptions — Sorry, but I can’t work like that, I’m constantly interrupted.

But continuous is about something that lasts continuously.

He spoke continuously for more than two hours — He spoke without stopping for more than two hours.

3. Envy and jealous

Even philologists cannot always explain the difference between these words clearly. Dictionaries say that jealous is primarily about jealousy.

In a moment of jealous frenzy, she cut the sleeves off all his shirts — In a fit of jealousy, she shredded the sleeves of his shirts.

But the word has a second meaning: «annoyance because someone has what you yourself would like.» In other words, envy. It is how “envy” translates the second word, envy.

He had always been very jealous of his brother’s success — He was always very jealous of his brother’s success.
Some of his colleagues envy the enormous wealth that he has amassed — Some of his colleagues envy his enormous wealth.

4. Fewer and less

Less is used when we are talking about something abstract and uncountable, or when we don’t mention the exact amount.

I eat less chocolate and fewer biscuits than I used to — I eat less chocolate and fewer biscuits than usual.
We must try to spend less money — We must try to spend less money.

Few and fewer can be safely used when talking about specific numbers or something that can be accurately calculated.

Fewer than 3,500 tigers are left in the wild today — No more than three and a half thousand tigers live in the wild today.
We received far fewer complaints than expected — We received far fewer complaints than expected.

5. Disinterested and uninterested

It seems that both prefixes — dis- and un- — denote negation. And if so, then the meaning of the words is the same. But no. Disinterested translates to impartial.

A disinterested observer / judgment

If we are talking about disinterest and indifference, it would be more correct to use the option uninterested.

He’s completely uninterested in sports — He’s completely uninterested in sports.

True, not all linguists are united on this issue. The compilers of the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, for example, believe that these words can be synonymous.

6. Anxious and excited

It’s natural that you should feel anxious when you first leave home — It’s natural to be anxious when you first leave home.

I’m anxious to get home to open my presents — I can’t wait to come home as soon as possible and open the presents.

7. Affect and effect

To deal with this dilemma, a simple hint can be used. Affect is almost always a verb, effect is a noun. Affect can be translated as «influence, cause, lead to something.»

Factors that affect sleep include stress and many medical conditions — Causes that affect sleep include stress and various medical conditions.

Effect is, in fact, the effect or the result of some processes or events.

I’m suffering from the effects of too little sleep — I suffer from the effects of lack of sleep.

8. Among and between

Words are similar in meaning, but still not synonymous. Between translates as «between».

A narrow path runs between the two houses — A narrow path runs between the two houses.
The shop is closed for lunch between 12.30 and 1.30 — The shop is closed for lunch from half past twelve to half past one.

Among rather means «among», «one of».

The decision will not be popular among students — This decision will not be popular among students.
She divided the cake among the children — She divided the cake between the children.

If we are talking about specific people or objects, it is more appropriate to speak between, and if it is about indefinite or generalized — among.

9. Assure and ensure

She assured them, that she would be all right — She assured them that everything would be fine with her.

But ensure is appropriate to use when we ourselves want to make sure of something.

Please ensure that all examination papers have your name at the top — Please ensure that your examination papers are signed.

10. Then and than

She trained as a teacher and then became a lawyer — She studied to be a teacher, but then became a lawyer.

Than is a preposition, it is used for comparison.

It cost less than I expected — It cost less than I thought.

11. Lose and loose

I hope he doesn’t lose his job — I hope he doesn’t lose his job.

And loose translates as «relaxed», «free», «loose».

A loose dress / sweater — loose dress / sweater.

12. A lot and the lot

I’ve got a lot to do this morning — I have a lot to do this morning.

At the same time, the lot is a British colloquial element, which means not just «a lot», but «everything.»

I made enough curry for three people and he ate the lot — I cooked curry for three, and he ate it all alone.

13. Amount and number

The project will take a huge amount of time and money — This project will take a huge amount of time and money.
A small number of children are educated at home — A small number of children study at home.

UPD. Updated on October 25, 2019.

Source: `https://lifehacker.ru/20-oshibok-v-anglijskom-yazyke-kotorye-delaet-kazhdyj-iz-nas/`

13 Difficulties in English and How to Avoid Them

Incorrect use of apostrophes

Example: «The girl’s horse» — the horse belongs to the girl.

To indicate that an object belongs to several persons, the apostrophe must be placed after the end of «-s».

Example: «The girls’ horse» — the horse belongs to girls.

Your or you’re

“Your” is used when an object belongs to you.

Example: «Today is your lucky day» — Today is your lucky day.

“You’re” is used only as a shorthand for “you are”: pronoun “you” + verb “are”.

Example: “You’re beautiful” — You are beautiful.

There, their and they’re

“Their” indicates that the object belongs to others.

Example: «Can we use their boat?» — Can we use their boat?

“They’re” is a shorthand for “they are”: the pronoun “they” + the verb “are”.

Example: «They’re going to be here soon» — They will be here soon.

Fewer or less

“Fewer” is used with countable nouns, that is, words that can be counted: cake, piece, grains of sand.

Example: «Fewer grains of sand» — Fewer grains of sand.

“Less” is used with uncountable nouns, that is, those that cannot be counted: coffee, water, sand.

Example: «Less sand» — less sand.

Amount or number

The same rule applies here as in the previous example. “Number” is used with countable nouns: birds, tables, chairs.

Example: «A greater number of people» — More and more people.

“Amount” is used with uncountable nouns: water, sugar, sand.

Example: «A larger amount of water» — More water.

To, two and too

The words sound identical, which is confusing for English learners. By ear, you can distinguish them by understanding other words from the context and the general meaning of the statements.

“To” is the particle that is used to form the initial form of the verb: “to talk” — to speak. “To” is also used to mean “towards something”.

Example: «I’m going to town» — I’m going to town.

“Too” means “too”, “also”, “too”.

Example: «I’m too hot» — I’m too hot.

“Two” means “two”.

Example: «He bought two cakes» — He bought two cakes.

Then or than

“Then” and “than” are often confused not only because they sound similar, but also because they are written almost the same.

“Than” is used when we want to compare two objects.

Example: This dress is more beautiful than that one — This dress is more beautiful than that.

“Then” is used to indicate an event that will follow another, such as when making a plan or schedule.

Example: We’ll go to the cinema and then to the cafe — We will go to the cinema and then to the cafe.

Me, myself, I

To check which pronoun you need at the moment, “me” or “I”, remove the name of the person you are talking about and see which pronoun sounds more correct.

In the sentence “John and I are off to the circus” — “John and I are going to the circus” you are not only talking about yourself, so it is better to use the pronoun “I”.

«Me» can only be used when you talk about yourself as an object, that is, when an action is directed at you. Also, «me» is placed after the preposition, that is, you cannot say «with I», we say «with me».

Use the pronoun “myself” if you have already used the pronoun “I” or if you want to emphasize that you are doing an action on your own or in relation to only yourself.

Who or whom

Another tricky moment for people learning English.

“Who” refers to the one who performs the action.

Example: “Who did this? He did ”- Who did it? — He did it.

Whereas “whom” is used to refer to the object to which the action is directed.

Example: “Whom should I invite? Invite him ”. Who should I invite? — Invite him.

Who and that

Often, English learners use “that” instead of “who” or “whom,” which is incorrect. You cannot use “that” when you are talking about a person.

Example: “He was the only person who wanted to come” — He was the only one who wanted to come.

Affect or effect

The words are easy to get confused because they sound and spelled almost the same. But there is a simple rule to help you remember the difference between the two.

Example: “They were directly affected by the flooding” — The flood directly affected them.

Example: “He waited for the medicine to have an effect” — He expected the drug to be effective.

Ie or Eg

English learners often do not know the decoding of these abbreviations, so they use them incorrectly when writing.

Ie means “that is” or “in other words”, comes from the Latin expression “id est”.

Example: «He objects to the changes — ie he won’t be accepting them» — He objects to the changes, that is, he won’t accept them.

Eg means “for example,” comes from the Latin expression “exempli gratia”.

Example: “He d many different cheeses, eg cheddar, camembert and brie” — He liked many different cheeses, eg cheddar, camembert and brie.

Use these abbreviations only in informal correspondence. In official documents, it is better to write their values in expanded form: “for example” and “that is”.

Its or it’s

We wrote above that apostrophes are used to indicate that something belongs to someone or something, but there is an exception to the rule — the pronoun “it”.

“It’s” is used only as a shorthand for “it is” or “it has”. Example: “It’s snowing outside” — It is snowing outside.

“Its” denotes the belonging of an object to an inanimate object, animal or plant. As with “his” and “hers,” there is no apostrophe here.

Example: «The sofa looks great with its new cover» — The sofa looks great with its new cover.

We hope that this article has explained some of the difficulties of the English language and will serve you as an assistant in learning it!

Source: https://blog.teachmeplease.ru/posts/13-trudnostey-angliyskogo-yazyka

What is the difference between fewer and less. example sentences ca little. use of few, a few, little, a little

Use few

Pronunciation and translation:
Few / [fyu] — little

Meaning of the word:
Small amount

Few is used with (people, chairs, flowers, apples).

This word is used to emphasize a small amount of something or someone. That is, we say that we have not enough of something or someonefor a specific business.

Few has a negative meaning, we say that something is not enough and we regret it. For example, she had littleacquaintances in this city, that is, she lacked communication and was lonely.

This country has few natural resources.
This country has little natural resources.

Few politicians admit their mistakes.
Little politicians admit their mistakes.

Little

Pronunciation and translation:
Little [? L? Tl] / [little] — little

Meaning of the word:
Small amount

Little we use with items that we cannot count(time, money, water, sugar, salt).

This word has the same meaning as few, says that something or someone is not enough for some purpose. And a person is upset by such a small amount.

For example, he has little money, that is, he does not have enough money to buy groceries.

Addicting a few

Pronunciation and translation:
A few [? fju?] / [e fyu] — several

Meaning of the word:
A small amount of

A few, just like few is used with items that we can count.

For example, she had someacquaintances in this city, that is, she had someone to spend time with, this number of acquaintances was quite enough.

I have got a few suggestions.
I have some offers.

Source: https://draftee.ru/v-chem-raznica-mezhdu-fewer-i-less-primery-predlozhenii-c-a-little-upotreblenie-few-a-few/

Using less and fewer. Use of the words much, many, few, little, a lot of and plenty of

Scheme of using quantifiers:

1. Little — few quantifiers

We use «a little»With uncountable nouns, for example: I have some money. This means: a certain amount, not a lot.

We use «a few»With countable plural nouns, for example:

I know a few words of French. This means: a certain amount, not a lot.

We can use «little» and «few» without «a«, But in this case it means» almost no «or» almost nothing «, for example: We must hurry, we have little time.

His English is very good and he makes few mistakes.

We can also say “very little» or «very few«(Very little), for example:

She is very thin because she eats very little. I made very few mistakes in the test.

And here are some more examples using «a little» and «a few«:

I hope you think these sentences will ensure that you will make very few mistakes when speaking English.

2. Quantifiers much — many — a lot of

USING much, many, a lot of. We use much with uncountable nouns, for example: a lot of time, a lot of coffee, a lot of money, a lot of sugar.

We use many with countable nouns, for example: many books, many months, many years, many friends.

We use a lot of both uncountable and countable nouns, for example: a lot of friends, a lot of sugar, a lot of photos, a lot of time. However, it is important to note that:

1. We use a lot of mostly in positive sentences, for example: I drink a lot of tea. She carries many books.

3. We can use lots of instead a lot of before countable nouns, for example: She has many friends.

4. We can use a lot without the noun and in this case we use it without a particle offor example: I ate a lot yesterday.

5. Sometimes much и a lot mean often, for example: Do you often go to the movies? — Not, no so much. Yes, I love movies; I go to the movies often.

What about you: have you read a lot of English books?

3. Quantifiers some — any

And here are some more examples of use Any и some: There is some oil in the refrigerator, but no milk at all. Are there eggs? — No, there are no eggs left. There are some pictures on the wall.

They didn’t make a single mistake. And what about you? Have you made mistakes? I hope you haven’t made any mistakes.

Few / few

So, in English we use the word «few» when we mean extremely small the amount of something or the absence of something at all.

The word is translated as «very little«, I.e. «Not enough» at all. We use it, as a rule, when we are dealing with countable plural nouns, those objects and things that can be counted.

Few
Very little James’s family members leave Pittsburgh and move to New York every year.

In the above sentence, we used “few” to indicate that only two or three family members leave the city, most of the relatives remain in place.

However, if we used “a few«, Then the meaning would change:

A few members of James «family leave Pittsburgh and move to NY each year.
Some(a small number) of James’s family members leave Pittsburgh and move to New York every year.

An exception to the use of «a few» is the expression «quite a few«-«quite a bit of«,» A decent number «,» a lot. «

little / a little

In the first example, we say that we have a little time to prepare, but this time is still enough. In the second, we mean that there is time, but it is not enough to prepare thoroughly.

For a better understanding, you can compare these words with a glass of water.

If you need to focus on the fact that the glass is half full, then we say “littlewater ”(a little water, but enough in a glass).

If you want to emphasize that the glass is half empty, then “a little water ”(there is little water and not enough water in the glass).

Small

The adjective «small» translates as «small»/«small»/«небольшой«And is used when this is aboutthe size of

Source: https://chaos-heart.ru/upotreblenie-less-i-fewer-ispolzovanie-slov-much-many-few-little-a-lot-of-i-plenty.html

The use of much, many, few, little, a lot of, plenty

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This article will show you when and where to use much, many, few, little, a lot of, plenty of in English.

The noun plays a key role in the choice of the defining word. The determiner depends on which noun is in front of us, countable (countable) or uncountable (uncountable). Once again, we recall that we can count countable nouns and they have a plural form (a boy — boys). And uncountable nouns do not have a plural form (water — some water), and we cannot count them.

We have divided all words into three groups depending on which noun they are used with. We will consider each group separately.

Much / Little Many / Few A lot of / Plenty of

Uncountable nouns	Countable nouns	Countable and uncountable nouns
How much money have you got? — How much money do you have? — There is little ink left in my pen.	I have many friends. — He has got few friends. — He has few friends.	There is a lot of sugar there. — There are plenty of plants in the garden. — There are many plants in the garden.

Many, few, a few with countable nouns

The opposite of many is few: few apples, few friends, few ideas. Few often have a negative meaning: very little, not enough, so little that practically none.

A few has an intermediate meaning between many and few, translated as «a few»: a few apples (a few apples), a few friends (a few friends), a few ideas (a few ideas).

Much, little, a little with uncountable nouns

Much stands for a large amount of something uncountable: much sugar, much milk, much time.

The opposite of much is little: little sugar, little milk, little time. Little, like few, means that something is not enough, very little.

A little means a small amount of something that cannot be counted: a little sugar, a little milk, a little time.

A lot of, plenty of — universal words

The words a lot of (many) and plenty of (many) are the most «convenient»: we can use them with both countable nouns and uncountable ones.

We bought lots of souvenirs and plenty of tea when we were on vacation in Sri Lanka. — We bought lot souvenirs and lots of tea when we were on vacation in Sri Lanka.

Features and exceptions

Much, many, few, little, a lot of with uncountable nouns
There are a number of nouns that seem to be countable, but in fact are not. Sometimes it can be difficult to determine the «countability» of a noun.

If you are not sure which noun is in front of you, it is better to check it in the dictionary.

Please note that in English, uncountable includes advice, news, work, money, research, travel, furniture.

They have much work to do. — They have lot work.

Source: https://engblog.ru/much-many-few-little-a-lot-of-plenty-usage

Less / Fewer

«Less» and «fewer»Both words indicate quantitative indicators. «Less«- the comparative form of the word»little«, but «fewer«Is the comparative form»few».

Little [ˈLɪtəl] — a little, a little.
Few [fju] — a little, a little.

we have less milk than I’d hoped. — We have less milk than I had hoped.
There are fewer people than I expected. — Of people lessthan I expected.

Less

We use «less«With uncountable nouns such as: Pollution (pollution), traffic (traffic), News (news), freedom (freedom).

there is less traffic and less pollution. — There less traffic and less pollution.
We’ve been receiving a lot less news since we switched TV providers. — We get much less news since we changed TV providers.
In more conservative societies, women have less freedom than they do here. — In more conservative societies, women have less freedom than here.

fewer

We use «fewer«With quantifiable nouns such as: restaurants (restaurants), cafes (Cafe), people (people), bags (bags).

There are fewer restaurants and fewer cafes. — Here less restaurants and cafes.
Fewer people came to the opening than we had expected! — It came to the opening less people than we expected!
There are new pills with fewer side effects. — There are new drugs with smaller the number of side effects.

An exception

When we talk about measurements of time, distance, weight and money, we use “less«.

It is less than six hours until my essay is due. — Until the delivery of the essay is left less six hours.
i live less than fifty miles from London. “I live less than fifty miles from London.

More articles about English

Source: https://english5minutes.ru/less-fewer/

Difference in the use of less and fewer in English

Why is it so easy to get confused when using «less» and «fewer» — two pointers to many English languages?

Difference between less and fewer in English

fewer

This is the comparative form of the demonstrative pronoun «few«- few; little, little. Used before countable nouns when indicating the reduction of the number of objects (elements).

Countable nouns are objects and concepts, the number of which can be counted. It is expressed in pieces, units (pieces, bottles, packs, boxes) and has the plural:

3 packets of yeast;
2 watermelons;
8 eggs;
6 tomatoes.

An amazing selection of products for a wonderful dinner.

Fewer people today carry cash. — Fewer people nowadays carry cash with them.

Less

This is the comparative form of the adverb «little«- a little, a little.

Used by:

when indicating a reduction in the number of items;
before uncountable nouns in the singular.

Uncountable nouns are objects and concepts, the number of which cannot be counted. It is expressed in terms of mass, volume, but in some cases it does not have a clear definition at all:

liquids: water (water), milk (milk), oil (oil), beer (beer);
products: cheese, bread, meat;
gaseous substances: smoke (smoke), air (air), oxygen (oxygen), hydrogen (hydrogen), nitrogen (nitrogen);
substances consisting of many small particles: flour (flour), rice (rice), dust (dust), ash (dust, ash, ash);
natural phenomena: snow (snow), light (light), rain (rain), wind (wind), fog (fog), heat (heat);
abstractions: happiness, health, education, space, work, energy, truth.

there is less privacy today because of social media. — Due to the proliferation of social networks, there is less privacy in our lives today.

Less and fewer in life

In everyday life in the United States, the word «less» is regularly misused. It applies not only to uncountable, but also countable nouns.

And this way you get more debt. So more debt and less work. Mitt Romney

The candidate made a reservation and used «less jobs» instead of «fewer jobs «(Less work, jobs).

Similarities between less and fewer

Less and fewer with of

It is necessary to substitute the preposition “of«Before defining words:

articles (a / an, the);
pronouns (him, it);
demonstrative pronouns (this, that);
possessive pronouns (my, her, our).

I have to spend less of my time playing computer games. — I should spend less time playing computer games.

Less without a noun

The noun after «less» or «fewer» can be omitted if it is clear what is meant.

— You bought 10 bottles of juice. — You bought 10 bottles of juice.

— No way! I am sure I bought fewer… — Can not be! I’m sure I bought less.

Use cases for less and fewer

Less, fewer and weight

The whole can also be calculated using grams, kilograms, but the habit is second nature and it tells native English speakers to use “less«Instead of» fewer «.

My weight was less than 8 pounds at birth. — At birth, my weight was less than 8 pounds.

Less, fewer and money

I have less than 50 bucks left in my account. — I have less than $ 50 left in my account.

You can still say — fewer than 50 bucks, but it will sound strange and unexpected to those around you.

Less, fewer and percent

Determining the right word for percentages can be problematic. To do this, you need to evaluate the whole picture and ask yourself «Is it possible to calculate what we are describing?»

Fewer than 13 percent of the US citizens have black skin. — Less than 13% of the US population is black.

Counting all citizens with a dark skin color is difficult, but doable. This means 13% is a calculated value.

On the other hand, it is impossible to count the unfinished juice.

It has left less than 30 percent juice in the pack. — The package contains less than 30% of the juice.

Less, fewer and time

It will also be common to use «less«When mentioning the time. We can count the time in seconds, minutes, hours, etc., but sentences are still built with «less».

I think they could spend less time at work. — I think they could spend less time at work.

I think they could spend fewer hours at work. — I think they could spend less hours at work.

Less or Fewer? — Short video tutorial

English subtitles are available in the video.

Less & Fewer.

Source: https://englishboost.ru/less-fewer-raznitsa/

«Little» in English

How do you say «little» in English? Find out in this article!

Source: https://enjoyenglish-blog.com/razgovornyj-anglijskij/malo-na-anglijskom.html

13 mistakes in English that each of us makes — News All Kharkiv

It doesn’t matter what level you have. Even native speakers are sometimes confused in these words.

1. Lay and lie

I love to lie down in front of the fire and read — I like to lie near the fireplace with a book.

But lie is an irregular verb, in the past tense it turns into lay.

The town lay in ruins — The town lay in ruins.

And this form is written and pronounced in the same way as an independent verb to lay. The main meaning of which is “to put”.

She laid the baby on the bed — She laid the baby on the bed.

In a word, the confusion, of course, is utter, but if you look deeply into it and remember it once, it will be much easier to avoid mistakes.

2. Continual and continuous

These words can be called paronyms: they are spelled almost the same, but differ in meaning. Continual applies to repeated actions or events.

I’m sorry, I can’t work with these continual interruptions — Sorry, but I can’t work like that, I’m constantly interrupted.

Continuous, on the other hand, is about something that lasts continuously.

He spoke continuously for more than two hours — He spoke without stopping for more than two hours.

3. Envy and jealous

Even philologists cannot always explain the difference between these words clearly. Dictionaries say that jealous is primarily about jealousy.

In a moment of jealous frenzy, she cut the sleeves off all his shirts — In a fit of jealousy, she shredded the sleeves of his shirts.

But the word also has a second meaning: “annoyance that someone has what you yourself would like”. In other words, envy. The second word, envy, is also translated as “envy”.

He had always been very jealous of his brother’s success — He was always very jealous of his brother’s success.
Some of his colleagues envy the enormous wealth that he has amassed — Some of his colleagues envy his enormous wealth.

4. Fewer and less

Less is used when we talk about something abstract and uncountable, or we don’t mention the exact amount.

I eat less chocolate and fewer biscuits than I used to — I eat less chocolate and fewer biscuits than usual.
We must try to spend less money — We must try to spend less money.

Few and fewer can be safely used when talking about specific numbers or something that can be accurately calculated.

Fewer than 3,500 tigers are left in the wild today — No more than three and a half thousand tigers live in the wild today.
We received far fewer complaints than expected — We received far fewer complaints than expected.

5. Disinterested and uninterested

A disinterested observer / judgment

If we are talking about disinterest and indifference, it would be more correct to use the option uninterested.

He’s completely uninterested in sports — He’s completely uninterested in sports.

True, not all linguists are united on this issue. The compilers of the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, for example, believe that these words can be synonymous.

6. Anxious and excited

It’s natural that you should feel anxious when you first leave home — It’s natural to be anxious when you first leave home.

I’m anxious to get home to open my presents — I can’t wait to come home as soon as possible and open the presents.

7. Affect and effect

To deal with this dilemma, a simple hint can be used. Affect is almost always a verb, effect is a noun. Affect can be translated as «to influence, cause, lead to something.»

Factors that affect sleep include stress and many medical conditions — Causes that affect sleep include stress and various medical conditions.

Effect is, in fact, the effect or the result of some processes or events.

I’m suffering from the effects of too little sleep — I suffer from the effects of lack of sleep.

8. Among and between

Words are similar in meaning, but still not synonymous. Between translates as «between».

A narrow path runs between the two houses — A narrow path runs between the two houses.
The shop is closed for lunch between 12.30 and 1.30 — The shop is closed for lunch from half past twelve to half past one.

Among rather means «among», «one of».

The decision will not be popular among students — This decision will not be popular among students.
She divided the cake among the children — She divided the cake among the children.

If we are talking about specific people or objects, it is more appropriate to speak between, and if it is about indefinite or generalized — among.

9. Assure and ensure

She assured them, that she would be all right — She assured them that everything would be fine with her.

But ensure is appropriate to use when we ourselves want to make sure of something.

Please ensure that all examination papers have your name at the top — Please ensure that your examination papers are signed.

10. Then and than

She trained as a teacher and then became a lawyer — She studied to be a teacher, but then became a lawyer.

Than is a preposition, it is used for comparison.

It cost less than I expected — It cost less than I thought.

11. Lose and loose

I hope he doesn’t lose his job — I hope he doesn’t lose his job.

And loose translates as «relaxed», «free», «loose».

A loose dress / sweater — loose dress / sweater.

12. A lot and the lot

I’ve got a lot to do this morning — I have a lot to do this morning.

At the same time, the lot is a British colloquial element, which means not just «a lot», but «everything.»

I made enough curry for three people and he ate the lot — I cooked curry for three, and he ate it all alone.

13. Amount and number

What is the difference between fewer and less? — everything is simple

Rules of Use

For nouns that have both singular and plural, as well as when a noun / pronoun is only thought of, its presence becomes apparent from the context, the pronouns few / a few are used.

In this case, it does not matter at all how the noun forms its plural — for all these cases, the rule will act the same.

For example:

She went to the USA for a few months… — She went to America for several months.

Few of her friends had been in the USA… — Few of her friends were in America.

Example:

She stood in the USA a little last year… — Last year she spent a little time in America.

When she first came to the USA, she little thought that she would stay there so long. — When she first arrived in America, she never thought that she would stay there for so long.

Pronoun meaning (word translation)

As we noted, the pronouns few, little, a few, and a little are used to indicate not enough of something. The difference between them appears only in the context of their use with nouns.

So, few / a few is used with countable nouns, and little / a little — with those that have only a singular, or only a plural.

However, there are still some differences in meanings, which depend on the form in which the pronoun is used, and create some difference in translation.

Moreover, in the first case, the sentence will most likely contain a somewhat negative connotation, in the second — neutral:

I can’t help you. I speak very little English… — I cannot help you, I know very little English.

I can help you, I speak a little English… — I can help you, I speak a little English.

It would seem that in both cases the first part of the sentence implies the same thing — I do not speak English very well, my knowledge is hardly enough.

His English is intermediate, he forgets about his lessons. He has very little interest in languages… — His English is not above average, he forgets about his lessons. He has no interest in languages at all.
His English is intermediate, he coaches in it every weekends. He has a little interest in language. — His English is intermediate and he trains him every weekend. He has little interest in languages.
I didn’t read this book in original, I can say very little about it… — I have not read this book in the original, I can say very little about it.
I didn’t read this book in original, I can say a little about it… — I have not read this book in the original, but I can tell you a little about it.
Very few of his friends can speak English… — Almost none of his friends speak English.
A few of his friends can speak in English not bad at all. “Some of his friends don’t speak English bad at all.

Comparative and superlative

Like adjectives, quantitative pronouns in English can create degrees of comparison.

The pronouns few / a few form comparative and superlatives according to all the rules of the English language.

In the case of the pronouns little / a little, the situation is different:

few ⇒ fewer ⇒ the fewis — few ⇒ less ⇒ least
little ⇒ less ⇒ the least — little ⇒ less ⇒ least
a few / a little ⇒ more ⇒ the most — a little ⇒ more ⇒ most

Source: https://vseprostdo.ru/v-chem-raznica-mezhdu-fewer-i-less.html

What is the difference between fewer and less. use of the words much, many, few, little, a lot of and plenty of

So, in English we use the word «few» when we mean extremely small the amount of something or the absence of something at all.

The word is translated as «very little«, I.e. «Not enough» at all. We use it, as a rule, when we are dealing with countable plural nouns, those objects and things that can be counted.

Few
Very little James’s family members leave Pittsburgh and move to New York every year.

In the above sentence, we used “few” to indicate that only two or three family members leave the city, most of the relatives remain in place.

However, if we used “a few«, Then the meaning would change:

A few members of James «family leave Pittsburgh and move to NY each year.
Some(a small number) of James’s family members leave Pittsburgh and move to New York every year.

An exception to the use of «a few» is the expression «quite a few«-«quite a bit of«,» A decent number «,» a lot. «

little / a little

In the first example, we say that we have a little time to prepare, but this time is still enough. In the second, we mean that there is time, but it is not enough to prepare thoroughly.

For a better understanding, you can compare these words with a glass of water.

If you need to focus on the fact that the glass is half full, then we say “littlewater ”(a little water, but enough in a glass).

If you want to emphasize that the glass is half empty, then “a little water ”(there is little water and not enough water in the glass).

Small

The adjective «small» translates as «small»/«small»/«небольшой«And is used when this is aboutthe size of

Source: https://film05.ru/bathroom/v-chem-raznica-mezhdu-fewer-i-less-ispolzovanie-slov-much-many-few-little-a-lot-of-i-plenty.html

Countable and uncountable nouns — video tutorial

That’s a lot of butter! — How much oil is there

Finding hundreds of pencils in a desk drawer, you say no Wow! That’s a lot of pencil !, a

That’s a lot of pencils! — Wow, how many pencils!

Uncountable nouns

They can be counted only in 3 cases:

— in the limitation of stick meters

a stick of butter — a pack of butter

— to distinguish between subspecies

3 butters — lime butter, pepper butter, chilly butter — 3 types of butter — lime, pepper, chili

— to mark packages in catering

Waiter, we need some more butters here — Waiter, more packs of butter here

Countable nouns

Countable nouns in English are subject-matter — they can always be counted, put in the plural, and numbered.

5 pencils — 5 pencils

2 cars — 2 cars

7 people — 7 people

3 children — 3 children

Quantitative nouns

There are quantitative nouns and pronouns that are combined with only 1 of 2 classes. So, an amount of requires an uncountable noun, and number of requires a countable noun.

a number of cows — several cows

less applause — less applause

less than 10 dollars — less than 10 dollars

In some illiterate supermarkets, you can see the inscription Less than 10 items express checkout. That’s right

Fewer than 10 items — Up to 10 purchases

Fun Facts

Dandelion root can be roasted and ground as a coffee substitute.

Source: https://www.lovelylanguage.ru/grammar/video-lessons/count-and-mass-nouns

13 mistakes in English that each of us makes

I love to lie down in front of the fire and read — I like to lie near the fireplace with a book.

But lie is an irregular verb, in the past tense it turns into lay.

The town lay in ruins — The town lay in ruins.

And this form is written and pronounced in the same way as an independent verb to lay. The main meaning of which is «to put».

She laid the baby on the bed — She laid the baby on the bed.

In a word, the confusion, of course, is utter, but if you look deeply into it and remember it once, it will be much easier to avoid mistakes.

2. Continual and continuous

These words can be called paronyms: they are spelled almost the same, but differ in meaning. Continual applies to repeated actions or events.

I’m sorry, I can’t work with these continual interruptions — Sorry, but I can’t work like that, I’m constantly interrupted.

But continuous is about something that lasts continuously.

He spoke continuously for more than two hours — He spoke without stopping for more than two hours.

3. Envy and jealous

Even philologists cannot always explain the difference between these words clearly. Dictionaries say that jealous is primarily about jealousy.

In a moment of jealous frenzy, she cut the sleeves off all his shirts — In a fit of jealousy, she shredded the sleeves of his shirts.

But the word has a second meaning: «annoyance because someone has what you yourself would like.» In other words, envy. It is how “envy” translates the second word, envy.

He had always been very jealous of his brother’s success — He was always very jealous of his brother’s success.
Some of his colleagues envy the enormous wealth that he has amassed — Some of his colleagues envy his enormous wealth.

4. Fewer and less

Less is used when we are talking about something abstract and uncountable, or when we don’t mention the exact amount.

I eat less chocolate and fewer biscuits than I used to — I eat less chocolate and fewer biscuits than usual.
We must try to spend less money — We must try to spend less money.

Few and fewer can be safely used when talking about specific numbers or something that can be accurately calculated.

Fewer than 3,500 tigers are left in the wild today — No more than three and a half thousand tigers live in the wild today.
We received far fewer complaints than expected — We received far fewer complaints than expected.

5. Disinterested and uninterested

It seems that both prefixes — dis- and un- — denote negation. And if so, then the meaning of the words is the same. But no. Disinterested translates to impartial.

A disinterested observer / judgment

If we are talking about disinterest and indifference, it would be more correct to use the option uninterested.

He’s completely uninterested in sports — He’s completely uninterested in sports.

True, not all linguists are united on this issue. The compilers of the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, for example, believe that these words can be synonymous.

6. Anxious and excited

It’s natural that you should feel anxious when you first leave home — It’s natural to be anxious when you first leave home.

I’m anxious to get home to open my presents — I can’t wait to come home as soon as possible and open the presents.

7. Affect and effect

To deal with this dilemma, a simple hint can be used. Affect is almost always a verb, effect is a noun. Affect can be translated as «influence, cause, lead to something.»

Factors that affect sleep include stress and many medical conditions — Causes that affect sleep include stress and various medical conditions.

Effect is, in fact, the effect or the result of some processes or events.

I’m suffering from the effects of too little sleep — I suffer from the effects of lack of sleep.

8. Among and between

Words are similar in meaning, but still not synonymous. Between translates as «between».

A narrow path runs between the two houses — A narrow path runs between the two houses.
The shop is closed for lunch between 12.30 and 1.30 — The shop is closed for lunch from half past twelve to half past one.

Among rather means «among», «one of».

The decision will not be popular among students — This decision will not be popular among students.
She divided the cake among the children — She divided the cake between the children.

If we are talking about specific people or objects, it is more appropriate to speak between, and if it is about indefinite or generalized — among.

9. Assure and ensure

She assured them, that she would be all right — She assured them that everything would be fine with her.

But ensure is appropriate to use when we ourselves want to make sure of something.

Please ensure that all examination papers have your name at the top — Please ensure that your examination papers are signed.

10. Then and than

She trained as a teacher and then became a lawyer — She studied to be a teacher, but then became a lawyer.

Than is a preposition, it is used for comparison.

It cost less than I expected — It cost less than I thought.

11. Lose and loose

I hope he doesn’t lose his job — I hope he doesn’t lose his job.

And loose translates as «relaxed», «free», «loose».

A loose dress / sweater — loose dress / sweater.

12. A lot and the lot

I’ve got a lot to do this morning — I have a lot to do this morning.

At the same time, the lot is a British colloquial element, which means not just «a lot», but «everything.»

I made enough curry for three people and he ate the lot — I cooked curry for three, and he ate it all alone.

13. Amount and number

The project will take a huge amount of time and money — This project will take a huge amount of time and money.
A small number of children are educated at home — A small number of children study at home.

UPD. Updated on October 25, 2019.

Source: `https://lifehacker.ru/20-oshibok-v-anglijskom-yazyke-kotorye-delaet-kazhdyj-iz-nas/`

13 Difficulties in English and How to Avoid Them

Incorrect use of apostrophes

Example: «The girl’s horse» — the horse belongs to the girl.

To indicate that an object belongs to several persons, the apostrophe must be placed after the end of «-s».

Example: «The girls’ horse» — the horse belongs to girls.

Your or you’re

“Your” is used when an object belongs to you.

Example: «Today is your lucky day» — Today is your lucky day.

“You’re” is used only as a shorthand for “you are”: pronoun “you” + verb “are”.

Example: “You’re beautiful” — You are beautiful.

There, their and they’re

“Their” indicates that the object belongs to others.

Example: «Can we use their boat?» — Can we use their boat?

“They’re” is a shorthand for “they are”: the pronoun “they” + the verb “are”.

Example: «They’re going to be here soon» — They will be here soon.

Fewer or less

“Fewer” is used with countable nouns, that is, words that can be counted: cake, piece, grains of sand.

Example: «Fewer grains of sand» — Fewer grains of sand.

“Less” is used with uncountable nouns, that is, those that cannot be counted: coffee, water, sand.

Example: «Less sand» — less sand.

Amount or number

The same rule applies here as in the previous example. “Number” is used with countable nouns: birds, tables, chairs.

Example: «A greater number of people» — More and more people.

“Amount” is used with uncountable nouns: water, sugar, sand.

Example: «A larger amount of water» — More water.

To, two and too

The words sound identical, which is confusing for English learners. By ear, you can distinguish them by understanding other words from the context and the general meaning of the statements.

“To” is the particle that is used to form the initial form of the verb: “to talk” — to speak. “To” is also used to mean “towards something”.

Example: «I’m going to town» — I’m going to town.

“Too” means “too”, “also”, “too”.

Example: «I’m too hot» — I’m too hot.

“Two” means “two”.

Example: «He bought two cakes» — He bought two cakes.

Then or than

“Then” and “than” are often confused not only because they sound similar, but also because they are written almost the same.

“Than” is used when we want to compare two objects.

Example: This dress is more beautiful than that one — This dress is more beautiful than that.

“Then” is used to indicate an event that will follow another, such as when making a plan or schedule.

Example: We’ll go to the cinema and then to the cafe — We will go to the cinema and then to the cafe.

Me, myself, I

To check which pronoun you need at the moment, “me” or “I”, remove the name of the person you are talking about and see which pronoun sounds more correct.

In the sentence “John and I are off to the circus” — “John and I are going to the circus” you are not only talking about yourself, so it is better to use the pronoun “I”.

«Me» can only be used when you talk about yourself as an object, that is, when an action is directed at you. Also, «me» is placed after the preposition, that is, you cannot say «with I», we say «with me».

Use the pronoun “myself” if you have already used the pronoun “I” or if you want to emphasize that you are doing an action on your own or in relation to only yourself.

Who or whom

Another tricky moment for people learning English.

“Who” refers to the one who performs the action.

Example: “Who did this? He did ”- Who did it? — He did it.

Whereas “whom” is used to refer to the object to which the action is directed.

Example: “Whom should I invite? Invite him ”. Who should I invite? — Invite him.

Who and that

Often, English learners use “that” instead of “who” or “whom,” which is incorrect. You cannot use “that” when you are talking about a person.

Example: “He was the only person who wanted to come” — He was the only one who wanted to come.

Affect or effect

The words are easy to get confused because they sound and spelled almost the same. But there is a simple rule to help you remember the difference between the two.

Example: “They were directly affected by the flooding” — The flood directly affected them.

Example: “He waited for the medicine to have an effect” — He expected the drug to be effective.

Ie or Eg

English learners often do not know the decoding of these abbreviations, so they use them incorrectly when writing.

Ie means “that is” or “in other words”, comes from the Latin expression “id est”.

Example: «He objects to the changes — ie he won’t be accepting them» — He objects to the changes, that is, he won’t accept them.

Eg means “for example,” comes from the Latin expression “exempli gratia”.

Example: “He d many different cheeses, eg cheddar, camembert and brie” — He liked many different cheeses, eg cheddar, camembert and brie.

Use these abbreviations only in informal correspondence. In official documents, it is better to write their values in expanded form: “for example” and “that is”.

Its or it’s

We wrote above that apostrophes are used to indicate that something belongs to someone or something, but there is an exception to the rule — the pronoun “it”.

“It’s” is used only as a shorthand for “it is” or “it has”. Example: “It’s snowing outside” — It is snowing outside.

“Its” denotes the belonging of an object to an inanimate object, animal or plant. As with “his” and “hers,” there is no apostrophe here.

Example: «The sofa looks great with its new cover» — The sofa looks great with its new cover.

We hope that this article has explained some of the difficulties of the English language and will serve you as an assistant in learning it!

Source: https://blog.teachmeplease.ru/posts/13-trudnostey-angliyskogo-yazyka

What is the difference between fewer and less. example sentences ca little. use of few, a few, little, a little

Use few

Pronunciation and translation:
Few / [fyu] — little

Meaning of the word:
Small amount

Few is used with (people, chairs, flowers, apples).

This word is used to emphasize a small amount of something or someone. That is, we say that we have not enough of something or someonefor a specific business.

Few has a negative meaning, we say that something is not enough and we regret it. For example, she had littleacquaintances in this city, that is, she lacked communication and was lonely.

This country has few natural resources.
This country has little natural resources.

Few politicians admit their mistakes.
Little politicians admit their mistakes.

Little

Pronunciation and translation:
Little [? L? Tl] / [little] — little

Meaning of the word:
Small amount

Little we use with items that we cannot count(time, money, water, sugar, salt).

This word has the same meaning as few, says that something or someone is not enough for some purpose. And a person is upset by such a small amount.

For example, he has little money, that is, he does not have enough money to buy groceries.

Addicting a few

Pronunciation and translation:
A few [? fju?] / [e fyu] — several

Meaning of the word:
A small amount of

A few, just like few is used with items that we can count.

For example, she had someacquaintances in this city, that is, she had someone to spend time with, this number of acquaintances was quite enough.

I have got a few suggestions.
I have some offers.

Source: https://draftee.ru/v-chem-raznica-mezhdu-fewer-i-less-primery-predlozhenii-c-a-little-upotreblenie-few-a-few/

Using less and fewer. Use of the words much, many, few, little, a lot of and plenty of

Scheme of using quantifiers:

1. Little — few quantifiers

We use «a little»With uncountable nouns, for example: I have some money. This means: a certain amount, not a lot.

We use «a few»With countable plural nouns, for example:

I know a few words of French. This means: a certain amount, not a lot.

We can use «little» and «few» without «a«, But in this case it means» almost no «or» almost nothing «, for example: We must hurry, we have little time.

His English is very good and he makes few mistakes.

We can also say “very little» or «very few«(Very little), for example:

She is very thin because she eats very little. I made very few mistakes in the test.

And here are some more examples using «a little» and «a few«:

I hope you think these sentences will ensure that you will make very few mistakes when speaking English.

2. Quantifiers much — many — a lot of

USING much, many, a lot of. We use much with uncountable nouns, for example: a lot of time, a lot of coffee, a lot of money, a lot of sugar.

We use many with countable nouns, for example: many books, many months, many years, many friends.

We use a lot of both uncountable and countable nouns, for example: a lot of friends, a lot of sugar, a lot of photos, a lot of time. However, it is important to note that:

1. We use a lot of mostly in positive sentences, for example: I drink a lot of tea. She carries many books.

3. We can use lots of instead a lot of before countable nouns, for example: She has many friends.

4. We can use a lot without the noun and in this case we use it without a particle offor example: I ate a lot yesterday.

5. Sometimes much и a lot mean often, for example: Do you often go to the movies? — Not, no so much. Yes, I love movies; I go to the movies often.

What about you: have you read a lot of English books?

3. Quantifiers some — any

And here are some more examples of use Any и some: There is some oil in the refrigerator, but no milk at all. Are there eggs? — No, there are no eggs left. There are some pictures on the wall.

They didn’t make a single mistake. And what about you? Have you made mistakes? I hope you haven’t made any mistakes.

Few / few

So, in English we use the word «few» when we mean extremely small the amount of something or the absence of something at all.

The word is translated as «very little«, I.e. «Not enough» at all. We use it, as a rule, when we are dealing with countable plural nouns, those objects and things that can be counted.

Few
Very little James’s family members leave Pittsburgh and move to New York every year.

In the above sentence, we used “few” to indicate that only two or three family members leave the city, most of the relatives remain in place.

However, if we used “a few«, Then the meaning would change:

A few members of James «family leave Pittsburgh and move to NY each year.
Some(a small number) of James’s family members leave Pittsburgh and move to New York every year.

An exception to the use of «a few» is the expression «quite a few«-«quite a bit of«,» A decent number «,» a lot. «

little / a little

In the first example, we say that we have a little time to prepare, but this time is still enough. In the second, we mean that there is time, but it is not enough to prepare thoroughly.

For a better understanding, you can compare these words with a glass of water.

If you need to focus on the fact that the glass is half full, then we say “littlewater ”(a little water, but enough in a glass).

If you want to emphasize that the glass is half empty, then “a little water ”(there is little water and not enough water in the glass).

Small

The adjective «small» translates as «small»/«small»/«небольшой«And is used when this is aboutthe size of

Source: https://chaos-heart.ru/upotreblenie-less-i-fewer-ispolzovanie-slov-much-many-few-little-a-lot-of-i-plenty.html

The use of much, many, few, little, a lot of, plenty

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This article will show you when and where to use much, many, few, little, a lot of, plenty of in English.

The noun plays a key role in the choice of the defining word. The determiner depends on which noun is in front of us, countable (countable) or uncountable (uncountable). Once again, we recall that we can count countable nouns and they have a plural form (a boy — boys). And uncountable nouns do not have a plural form (water — some water), and we cannot count them.

We have divided all words into three groups depending on which noun they are used with. We will consider each group separately.

Much / Little Many / Few A lot of / Plenty of

Uncountable nouns	Countable nouns	Countable and uncountable nouns
How much money have you got? — How much money do you have? — There is little ink left in my pen.	I have many friends. — He has got few friends. — He has few friends.	There is a lot of sugar there. — There are plenty of plants in the garden. — There are many plants in the garden.

Many, few, a few with countable nouns

The opposite of many is few: few apples, few friends, few ideas. Few often have a negative meaning: very little, not enough, so little that practically none.

A few has an intermediate meaning between many and few, translated as «a few»: a few apples (a few apples), a few friends (a few friends), a few ideas (a few ideas).

Much, little, a little with uncountable nouns

Much stands for a large amount of something uncountable: much sugar, much milk, much time.

The opposite of much is little: little sugar, little milk, little time. Little, like few, means that something is not enough, very little.

A little means a small amount of something that cannot be counted: a little sugar, a little milk, a little time.

A lot of, plenty of — universal words

The words a lot of (many) and plenty of (many) are the most «convenient»: we can use them with both countable nouns and uncountable ones.

We bought lots of souvenirs and plenty of tea when we were on vacation in Sri Lanka. — We bought lot souvenirs and lots of tea when we were on vacation in Sri Lanka.

Features and exceptions

Much, many, few, little, a lot of with uncountable nouns
There are a number of nouns that seem to be countable, but in fact are not. Sometimes it can be difficult to determine the «countability» of a noun.

If you are not sure which noun is in front of you, it is better to check it in the dictionary.

Please note that in English, uncountable includes advice, news, work, money, research, travel, furniture.

They have much work to do. — They have lot work.

Source: https://engblog.ru/much-many-few-little-a-lot-of-plenty-usage

Less / Fewer

«Less» and «fewer»Both words indicate quantitative indicators. «Less«- the comparative form of the word»little«, but «fewer«Is the comparative form»few».

Little [ˈLɪtəl] — a little, a little.
Few [fju] — a little, a little.

we have less milk than I’d hoped. — We have less milk than I had hoped.
There are fewer people than I expected. — Of people lessthan I expected.

Less

We use «less«With uncountable nouns such as: Pollution (pollution), traffic (traffic), News (news), freedom (freedom).

there is less traffic and less pollution. — There less traffic and less pollution.
We’ve been receiving a lot less news since we switched TV providers. — We get much less news since we changed TV providers.
In more conservative societies, women have less freedom than they do here. — In more conservative societies, women have less freedom than here.

fewer

We use «fewer«With quantifiable nouns such as: restaurants (restaurants), cafes (Cafe), people (people), bags (bags).

There are fewer restaurants and fewer cafes. — Here less restaurants and cafes.
Fewer people came to the opening than we had expected! — It came to the opening less people than we expected!
There are new pills with fewer side effects. — There are new drugs with smaller the number of side effects.

An exception

When we talk about measurements of time, distance, weight and money, we use “less«.

It is less than six hours until my essay is due. — Until the delivery of the essay is left less six hours.
i live less than fifty miles from London. “I live less than fifty miles from London.

More articles about English

Source: https://english5minutes.ru/less-fewer/

Difference in the use of less and fewer in English

Why is it so easy to get confused when using «less» and «fewer» — two pointers to many English languages?

Difference between less and fewer in English

fewer

This is the comparative form of the demonstrative pronoun «few«- few; little, little. Used before countable nouns when indicating the reduction of the number of objects (elements).

Countable nouns are objects and concepts, the number of which can be counted. It is expressed in pieces, units (pieces, bottles, packs, boxes) and has the plural:

3 packets of yeast;
2 watermelons;
8 eggs;
6 tomatoes.

An amazing selection of products for a wonderful dinner.

Fewer people today carry cash. — Fewer people nowadays carry cash with them.

Less

This is the comparative form of the adverb «little«- a little, a little.

Used by:

when indicating a reduction in the number of items;
before uncountable nouns in the singular.

Uncountable nouns are objects and concepts, the number of which cannot be counted. It is expressed in terms of mass, volume, but in some cases it does not have a clear definition at all:

liquids: water (water), milk (milk), oil (oil), beer (beer);
products: cheese, bread, meat;
gaseous substances: smoke (smoke), air (air), oxygen (oxygen), hydrogen (hydrogen), nitrogen (nitrogen);
substances consisting of many small particles: flour (flour), rice (rice), dust (dust), ash (dust, ash, ash);
natural phenomena: snow (snow), light (light), rain (rain), wind (wind), fog (fog), heat (heat);
abstractions: happiness, health, education, space, work, energy, truth.

there is less privacy today because of social media. — Due to the proliferation of social networks, there is less privacy in our lives today.

Less and fewer in life

In everyday life in the United States, the word «less» is regularly misused. It applies not only to uncountable, but also countable nouns.

And this way you get more debt. So more debt and less work. Mitt Romney

The candidate made a reservation and used «less jobs» instead of «fewer jobs «(Less work, jobs).

Similarities between less and fewer

Less and fewer with of

It is necessary to substitute the preposition “of«Before defining words:

articles (a / an, the);
pronouns (him, it);
demonstrative pronouns (this, that);
possessive pronouns (my, her, our).

I have to spend less of my time playing computer games. — I should spend less time playing computer games.

Less without a noun

The noun after «less» or «fewer» can be omitted if it is clear what is meant.

— You bought 10 bottles of juice. — You bought 10 bottles of juice.

— No way! I am sure I bought fewer… — Can not be! I’m sure I bought less.

Use cases for less and fewer

Less, fewer and weight

The whole can also be calculated using grams, kilograms, but the habit is second nature and it tells native English speakers to use “less«Instead of» fewer «.

My weight was less than 8 pounds at birth. — At birth, my weight was less than 8 pounds.

Less, fewer and money

I have less than 50 bucks left in my account. — I have less than $ 50 left in my account.

You can still say — fewer than 50 bucks, but it will sound strange and unexpected to those around you.

Less, fewer and percent

Determining the right word for percentages can be problematic. To do this, you need to evaluate the whole picture and ask yourself «Is it possible to calculate what we are describing?»

Fewer than 13 percent of the US citizens have black skin. — Less than 13% of the US population is black.

Counting all citizens with a dark skin color is difficult, but doable. This means 13% is a calculated value.

On the other hand, it is impossible to count the unfinished juice.

It has left less than 30 percent juice in the pack. — The package contains less than 30% of the juice.

Less, fewer and time

It will also be common to use «less«When mentioning the time. We can count the time in seconds, minutes, hours, etc., but sentences are still built with «less».

I think they could spend less time at work. — I think they could spend less time at work.

I think they could spend fewer hours at work. — I think they could spend less hours at work.

Less or Fewer? — Short video tutorial

English subtitles are available in the video.

Less & Fewer.

Source: https://englishboost.ru/less-fewer-raznitsa/

«Little» in English

How do you say «little» in English? Find out in this article!

Source: https://enjoyenglish-blog.com/razgovornyj-anglijskij/malo-na-anglijskom.html

13 mistakes in English that each of us makes — News All Kharkiv

It doesn’t matter what level you have. Even native speakers are sometimes confused in these words.

1. Lay and lie

I love to lie down in front of the fire and read — I like to lie near the fireplace with a book.

But lie is an irregular verb, in the past tense it turns into lay.

The town lay in ruins — The town lay in ruins.

And this form is written and pronounced in the same way as an independent verb to lay. The main meaning of which is “to put”.

She laid the baby on the bed — She laid the baby on the bed.

In a word, the confusion, of course, is utter, but if you look deeply into it and remember it once, it will be much easier to avoid mistakes.

2. Continual and continuous

These words can be called paronyms: they are spelled almost the same, but differ in meaning. Continual applies to repeated actions or events.

I’m sorry, I can’t work with these continual interruptions — Sorry, but I can’t work like that, I’m constantly interrupted.

Continuous, on the other hand, is about something that lasts continuously.

He spoke continuously for more than two hours — He spoke without stopping for more than two hours.

3. Envy and jealous

Even philologists cannot always explain the difference between these words clearly. Dictionaries say that jealous is primarily about jealousy.

In a moment of jealous frenzy, she cut the sleeves off all his shirts — In a fit of jealousy, she shredded the sleeves of his shirts.

But the word also has a second meaning: “annoyance that someone has what you yourself would like”. In other words, envy. The second word, envy, is also translated as “envy”.

He had always been very jealous of his brother’s success — He was always very jealous of his brother’s success.
Some of his colleagues envy the enormous wealth that he has amassed — Some of his colleagues envy his enormous wealth.

4. Fewer and less

Less is used when we talk about something abstract and uncountable, or we don’t mention the exact amount.

I eat less chocolate and fewer biscuits than I used to — I eat less chocolate and fewer biscuits than usual.
We must try to spend less money — We must try to spend less money.

Few and fewer can be safely used when talking about specific numbers or something that can be accurately calculated.

Fewer than 3,500 tigers are left in the wild today — No more than three and a half thousand tigers live in the wild today.
We received far fewer complaints than expected — We received far fewer complaints than expected.

5. Disinterested and uninterested

A disinterested observer / judgment

If we are talking about disinterest and indifference, it would be more correct to use the option uninterested.

He’s completely uninterested in sports — He’s completely uninterested in sports.

True, not all linguists are united on this issue. The compilers of the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, for example, believe that these words can be synonymous.

6. Anxious and excited

It’s natural that you should feel anxious when you first leave home — It’s natural to be anxious when you first leave home.

I’m anxious to get home to open my presents — I can’t wait to come home as soon as possible and open the presents.

7. Affect and effect

To deal with this dilemma, a simple hint can be used. Affect is almost always a verb, effect is a noun. Affect can be translated as «to influence, cause, lead to something.»

Factors that affect sleep include stress and many medical conditions — Causes that affect sleep include stress and various medical conditions.

Effect is, in fact, the effect or the result of some processes or events.

I’m suffering from the effects of too little sleep — I suffer from the effects of lack of sleep.

8. Among and between

Words are similar in meaning, but still not synonymous. Between translates as «between».

A narrow path runs between the two houses — A narrow path runs between the two houses.
The shop is closed for lunch between 12.30 and 1.30 — The shop is closed for lunch from half past twelve to half past one.

Among rather means «among», «one of».

The decision will not be popular among students — This decision will not be popular among students.
She divided the cake among the children — She divided the cake among the children.

If we are talking about specific people or objects, it is more appropriate to speak between, and if it is about indefinite or generalized — among.

9. Assure and ensure

She assured them, that she would be all right — She assured them that everything would be fine with her.

But ensure is appropriate to use when we ourselves want to make sure of something.

Please ensure that all examination papers have your name at the top — Please ensure that your examination papers are signed.

10. Then and than

She trained as a teacher and then became a lawyer — She studied to be a teacher, but then became a lawyer.

Than is a preposition, it is used for comparison.

It cost less than I expected — It cost less than I thought.

11. Lose and loose

I hope he doesn’t lose his job — I hope he doesn’t lose his job.

And loose translates as «relaxed», «free», «loose».

A loose dress / sweater — loose dress / sweater.

12. A lot and the lot

I’ve got a lot to do this morning — I have a lot to do this morning.

At the same time, the lot is a British colloquial element, which means not just «a lot», but «everything.»

I made enough curry for three people and he ate the lot — I cooked curry for three, and he ate it all alone.

13. Amount and number

Here the story is similar to fewer and less. Both words refer to quantity, but amount is used when we are talking about something indefinite and uncountable, and number when we are talking about objects or people that can be counted.

The project will take a huge amount of time and money — This project will take a huge amount of time and money.
A small number of children are educated at home — A small number of children study at home.

Source: https://allkharkov.ua/news/science/13-oshibok-v-angliiskom-iazyke-kotorye-delaet-kajdyi-iz-nas.html

Источник

Asked by: Monty Lesch

Score: 4.8/5
(7 votes)

Spoke to means “held a conversation with.” Talked to means “communicated ideas, information, or feelings in spoken words.” … However, talked to is deemed a little more forceful as it implies more of a one-sided conversation.

What kind of word is talked?

Talked is a verb — Word Type.

Is talk or talked?

Talk is tolerated in this context. It makes the reader feel the power of the present, even in a past context, or it makes him feel that the habit still continues today. Talked is more formal. I am talking about a habit.

Is talked right?

Both are ‘proper‘, just the register may not fit ‘talk’ with the situations you would use it in.

What can I use instead of talked?

articulate,
bring out,
enunciate,
pass,
say,
speak,
state,
tell,

33 related questions found

What is a slang word for talk?

Chat: an idle or inconsequential conversation; to engage in such talk. Chatter: quick, extensive, and/or aimless talk; to talk in such a manner. Chin music: see chat (noun only) Chinwag: informal talking; to talk informally. Chitchat: see badinage.

Is talk transitive?

talk. [intransitive, transitive] to say things; to speak in order to give information or to express feelings, ideas, etc. Stop talking and listen! We talked on the phone for over an hour.

Is talking a action?

After all, talking is a type of action — one needs to move their body parts in order to produce the sounds required for talking. So perhaps what the belief means is: Every type of of action (except talking) is greater than the act of talking.

Do you say spoke to or spoke with?

«Spoke with» is a more intimate conversation between two people. There’s usually an exchange, it’s two-way communication. Eg, «I spoke with my friend» «I spoke with my mother last night.» «Spoke to» is more «at» people.

Can we talk meaning?

«Can we talk?» taken literally means «Are we able to talk» to which the answer is «Yes» unless there is some impediment.

Where can I use speak and talk?

Speak usually only focuses on the person who is producing the words: He spoke about the importance of taking exercise and having a good diet. Talk focuses on a speaker and at least one listener, and can mean ‘have a conversation’: I hope I can meet you to talk about my plans for the company.

What is the suffix of talk?

You need to add the suffix ‘ing’ so that the word ‘talk’ makes better sense grammatically: «I was talking to Samina». … Probably the most common are ‘ed’ and ‘ing’.

What is the verb of talk?

intransitive verb. 1a : to express or exchange ideas by means of spoken words. b : to convey information or communicate in any way (as with signs or sounds) can make a trumpet talk make the computer talk to the printer. 2 : to use speech : speak.

Had a talk Meaning?

to admonish or caution. See full dictionary entry for talk.

How is talk an action?

From this perspective, language cannot be separated from action, nor can action be separated from language. Action is a form of language and vice versa, language is a form of action. Every time we speak, we perform some aspect of ourselves out into the world to be interpreted by others and ourselves.

What is less talk more action?

It is the people that talk less and act more, the people that are smart and deliberate with their words and follow through with their actions, that make a lasting impression.

Is talk a noun or a verb?

Talk means to use speech in order to communicate or exchange ideas. Talk also means to gossip. As a noun talk refers to a conversation. Talk has many other senses as both a verb and a noun.

What is sentence talk?

[M] [T] I can talk about anything with my best friend. [M] [T] She was determined never to talk to him again. [M] [T] Tom doesn’t really talk about his problems much. [M] [T] I’ll talk to him at the earliest possible moment. [M] [T] She advised him to talk about his life in America.

What does talking mean in dating?

Talking. Perhaps one of the easiest terms to decipher, talking means the couple is getting to know one another and sometimes even casually dating. Both parties are interested in having a relationship and are trying to determine what they have in common and if it should go any further.

What is it called when you talk on and on?

jabber. verbtalk incessantly and trivially. babble. blather.

What’s another word for back talk?

rudeness, insolence, impertinence, cheek, sass.

What has the same meaning as talk?

conversation, chat, discussion, tête-à-tête, heart-to-heart, dialogue, colloquy, parley, consultation, conference, meeting. informal confab, jaw, chit-chat, rap, powwow, gossip.

Источник

На основании Вашего запроса эти примеры могут содержать грубую лексику.

На основании Вашего запроса эти примеры могут содержать разговорную лексику.

He also invented a word called «blas,» meaning astral radiation.

Он также придумал слово бласс, означающее звездное излучение.

The theory that I particularly honed in was a word called «compersion,» a word coined by polyamorous people to mean the opposite of jealousy.

В теории, на которой я сосредоточилась в особенности, существует слово «комперсия», слово, придуманное полиамурными людьми для обозначения противоположности ревности.

There is a word called honor.

He also invented a word called blass, meaning astral radiation.

Он также изобрёл термин «блас», означающее астральную радиацию.

Have you ever heard a word called credit?

Stilettos word is derived from a word called stylus but more or less it is related to the Italian knife with that name.

Английское название шпилек ‘стилеты’ является производным от ‘стилус’, но более или менее это связано с названием итальянского ножа.

The Finns have a word called saunatonttu — a sauna elf who, if you behave badly in the sauna, will become angry and burn it down.

В Финском языке есть такое слово, как «saunatonttu«, что означает «эльф сауны», который, если вы будете плохо себя вести в сауне, разозлится и сожжет ее:)

There is a word called — «What is not in Bharata, that is not in the entire world».

He also invented a word called «blas,»

And finally, in German, of course in German, they have a word called «zielschmerz» which is the dread of getting what you want.

И наконец, в немецком, куда уж без него, — слово «цильшмерц», что означает боязнь получить желаемое.

Другие результаты

I think you’re forgetting a little word called trust.

There is a wonderful word called «infrastructure».

In Brazil there is a slang word called folgado.

These meaningful words of a word are called morphemes.

Такие значимые части слова принято называть морфемами.

The sequence of states encountered by the automaton when processing a word is called a run.

Последовательность государств, с которыми сталкивается автомат, обрабатывая слово, называют пробегом.

He then spoke a word and called creation into existence.

In the early days of the PC, a word processor called WordPerfect became one of the most widely used applications of any kind.

В первые годы существования ПК текстовый процессор под названием WordPerfect стал одним из наиболее широко используемых приложений любого рода.

There is a word (called the special word) that appears in the sentence and possibly the question.

Существует слово (так называемое специальное слово), которое появляется в предложении и, возможно, вопрос.

Before, a less adventurous word called ‘traveling’ could be used in its place.

Раньше вместо этого можно было использовать менее авантюрное слово под названием «путешествие».

Ничего не найдено для этого значения.

Результатов: 29084. Точных совпадений: 10. Затраченное время: 496 мс

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Индекс слова: 1-300, 301-600, 601-900

Индекс выражения: 1-400, 401-800, 801-1200

Индекс фразы: 1-400, 401-800, 801-1200

Источник

In today’s lesson, I’m going to answer the question, what is a syllable? And more importantly, I’ll also teach you how to count the syllables inside words.

The topic of counting syllables gets introduced to people in primary school, but it is often poorly taught. Consequently, many people can’t count the number of syllables inside a word properly. To clear up the confusion around counting syllables, I made this lesson! Watch the video version below:

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We will begin with a basic definition of the syllable:

A syllable is a section of a word. The number of syllables equals the number of sections that the word can be split into.

The number of syllables in a word corresponds to the number of sections that ‘stand out’ inside that word. The sounds that stand out are the vowels and syllabic consonants l, m, n. When a vowel sound stands out inside a word (is prominent), it has a kind of magnetic attraction, which is capable of drawing consonants to it.

Vowels can attract consonants to form syllables.

Importantly, we are not going to the smallest possible level of detail and counting every individual sound/phoneme in a word. To count the number of syllables in a word, we must count at the level above that. For example, consider the word ‘problems’…

At the smallest level of sound, the word ‘problems’ /ˈprɒb.ləmz /contains 8 individual sounds/phonemes. p-r-ɒ-b-l-e-m-z

If we then zoom out a little, the word ‘problems’/ˈprɒb.ləmz /consists of two syllables: PROB-LEMS.

Finally, if we zoom out further, we can say that the word ‘problems’ /ˈprɒb.ləmz / is a single word.

IMPORTANT: you were probably taught at school that the number of syllables inside a word corresponds to the number of vowels that it contains. However, this is an oversimplification which can lead to mistakes when counting syllables. This is because the syllabic consonants l, m, and n are powerful enough to form syllables that don’t require a vowel. Examples of words containing syllabic consonants are:

little → /ˈlɪtl̩/ (2 syllable word)

mmm → /m̩ː/ (1 syllable interjection with no vowel sound)

button → /ˈbʌtn̩/ (2 syllable word)

Notice that in the example words above, the mark under the l̩, m̩, and n̩ symbols is there to denote a syllabic consonant. If you have never seen these strange phonetic symbols before, don’t be overwhelmed by them! Most dictionaries don’t think that it is necessary to go into this level of detail when transcribing words.

Why Knowing About Syllables Is Important for Your English

Learning how to properly count the number of syllables inside a word benefits your English in a number of ways:

PRONUNCIATION BENEFITS: Understanding syllables makes your English sound much more natural because it improves your sense of English rhythm. For upper-intermediate and advanced students – you can’t apply word stress properly unless you have a good understanding of syllables.
READING BENEFITS: Correctly segmenting words into syllables makes you a faster reader who can tackle extremely long words such as ‘antidisestablishmentarianism’ (12 syllables!).
SPELLING BENEFITS: Breaking up words into chunks/syllables makes you a far better speller.
ARTISTIC BENEFITS: Knowing about syllables will make you a much better poet!

Why Counting Syllables Is Difficult for Some Students

Counting the number of syllables inside a word is difficult for some students of English. There are a few main reasons for this.

Firstly, the length of English syllables is uneven. Some are short and some are long. This could be different to how syllables operate in your native language. Take for example the words ‘a’ and ‘strengths’. Remarkably, both words are one-syllable words!

A second reason is that the widely taught clapping technique for counting syllables doesn’t always work.

A third reason that some students struggle with the topic is because they have invented their own pronunciation of English words! This happens a lot to students who mostly taught themselves English by reading books and following along with subtitles. This leads them to pronounce words according to the number of vowels that are present in the spelling of a word, which in many cases doesn’t correspond to the pronunciation. A common example of this is found in the one-syllable word ‘called’ /kɔːld/, which many students incorrectly pronounce as ‘CALL-ED’ (two syllables).

And lastly, students with audio processing difficulties find it more difficult than most to break words up into syllables. This is because they ‘hear’ sounds differently, which makes the boundaries between syllables seem blurry or unclear. For help with this issue, see my English Jade course.

How to Count Syllables

The best way to learn how to count the number of syllables in a word is to follow along with a demonstration. Watch the video at the top of the page, skipping to 5.10 min to practise counting syllables with me.

Let’s talk now about the solution… How do we make counting the number of syllables in words easy? Here are some factors we must consider:

Sound exploration: The first step is exploring the sounds inside words; this requires practice.
Syllable breaks: We have to learn to recognise where syllables break. Some rules and patterns can help us with this, but there will still be some ‘grey areas’. At times it is unclear where a syllable break occurs.
Open syllables VS closed syllables: We also have to know the difference between two types of syllables, as explained below.

Open Syllables

An open syllable describes a syllable in a word that is not followed by a consonant sound. This type of consonant is easy to identify at the end of a word, but can also occur in other positions. For example, the word ‘see’ /siː/ contains a vowel that is not followed by a consonant. This makes it an open syllable word. Now consider the word ‘seed’ /siːd/, which is a closed syllable word because it ends with a final /d/ consonant. The words ‘see’ and ‘seed’ are both one-syllable words.

It’s easy to count the number of syllables in words that consist of open syllables. Even the unreliable clapping technique to count syllables works for words like this.

Open Syllable Examples (1 Syllable in Length) ➔ see, by, there

Open Syllable Examples (2 Syllables in Length) ➔ before, later, coma

Closed Syllables

Words that contain closed syllables are more difficult for us to count. A closed syllable refers to a vowel that is followed by one or more consonants. Take for example the closed syllable word ‘his’ /hɪz/. We have the consonant /h/ before the vowel and a /z/ after it. The vowel /ɪ/ is in the middle of the syllable, making three sounds in a kind of sandwich.

Closed Syllable Examples (1 syllable in length):

bag /bæg/
need /niːd/
make /meɪk/
part /pɑːt/
could /kʊd/
search /sɜːʧ/ *Notice how there are 6 letters in the spelling, but it’s still only one syllable.
earth /ɜːθ/

Tip: When counting syllables, say each word as naturally as you can. If your pronunciation is too slow and perfect, it can confuse your brain!

Jade Joddle

Closed Syllable Examples (2 Syllables in Length) ➔ sentence, children, mountain.

The place where the syllables break is shown here with a dash ➔ sen-tence chil-dren moun-tain

The three words above have a common pattern. Notice that the syllables break where two consonants meet. Also, pay special attention to the word ‘mountain’ because this word shows us that a single vowel sound can be spelt with more than one letter.

Finally, we will look at two words in closer detail…

FRIENDS /frendz/ – Think of the vowel in the word as a magnet to which consonants can be attracted. In the case of ‘friends’, we have two consonants before the vowel and three after it, which creates a complex syllable. It is common to simplify the pronunciation of this word by dropping the /d/ ➔ /frenz/.

STRENGTHS /streŋkθs/ – This special word provides an example of the most complex syllable that can be created in English! It has three consonants before the vowel, and four after the vowel. This is a very difficult word to pronounce, even for most native speakers. If you want to cheat with the pronunciation, you can say /strenθs/ instead (non-standard pronunciation).

Thank you for learning to count syllables with me!

Extend Your Learning

▶︎ Learn more about English rhythm by practising the schwa sound.

▶︎ Advanced students are advised to watch my lesson on the confusing topic of syllable breaks…

Источник

Практически во всей английской речи, устной и письменной, встречается оборот there is/there are. Этот оборот широко распространен, поскольку в общении часто возникает необходимость сообщить о местонахождении предметов, объектов или лиц.

Предложения начинающиеся с конструкции there is/are выражают наличие в определенном месте или отрезке времени какого-либо лица или предмета, факта, или явления еще неизвестного собеседнику или читателю.

Несколько примеров:

There is a vase on the floor.

На полу находится ваза (или: На полу ваза)

There are books on the shelf.

На полке лежат книги (или: На полке книги).

Так же рекомендуем посмотреть видео вариант этого урока.

Когда употреблять there is, а когда there are
- Some и any
- Перечисление разных предметов
Правило перевода оборота there is/are на русский язык
Отрицательная форма оборота there is/there are
Вопросы с оборотом there is/there are
Оборот there is/are в разных грамматических временах
Замена there is/are на be-construction
Примеры ситуаций с употреблением оборота there is/there are
- Ситуация 1. Аренда квартиры, вопросы о наличии предметов и удобств
- Ситуация 2. Спрашиваем местонахождение объектов внутри здания, в офисе
- Ситуация 3. Спрашиваем местонахождение объектов на улице в незнакомом городе
- Ситуация 4. Спрашиваем об удобствах, сервисах, объектах в гостинице
Примечание 1. Замена оборота there is/are другими глаголами
Примечание 2. There + другие глаголы
Видео урок
Заключение

Когда употреблять there is, а когда there are

Если мы хотим сказать что в определенном месте находится какой-то один предмет, то употребляем there is, если хотим сказать что в определенном месте находится несколько предметов, то используем there are.

There is употребляется перед существительным или местоимением в единственном числе, there are — перед существительным во множественном числе.

There is a cup on the table.

На столе стоит чашка.

There are cups on the table.

На столе стоят чашки.

Напомним, что все существительные в английском языке делятся на исчисляемые и неисчисляемые. Исчисляемые (те, что можно считать: один, два, три) могут быть в единственном числе или множественном (одна собака, две собаки).

Неисчисляемые всегда имеют форму единственного числа, поэтому перед неисчисляемыми существительными (вода, рис, молоко и др.) всегда ставится there is. Например:

There is juice on the shelf.

На полке есть сок.

There is some milk in the fridge.

В холодильнике есть немного молока.

There is sauce in the fridge.

В холодильнике есть соус.

There is some sour cream in the fridge.

В холодильнике есть немного сметаны.

Some и any

Нередко перед существительным может стоять some или any, что вызывает затруднения какой оборот использовать — there is или there are. Some и any обозначают небольшое количество чего-нибудь — «немного», и на русский язык обычно не переводятся.

Основное назначение some и any указать на небольшое количество предметов или вещества, которые могут быть выражены неисчисляемым существительным или множественным числом исчисляемого. Поэтому перед some может быть как there is (если далее стоит неисчисляемое существительное — some milk, some butter), так и there are (если далее стоит исчисляемое во множественном числе — some cups, some plates).

There is some milk in the fridge.

В холодильнике есть немного молока.

There is some sugar on the table.

На столе есть cахар.

There are some apples in the bag.

В сумке есть немного яблок.

Неопределенное местоимение any используется в вопросах и отрицаниях. В остальном тут все то же. Перед any надо ставить there is, если после any стоит неисчисляемое существительное и there are, если существительное исчисляемое во множественном числе.

There are not any apples in the bag.

В сумке нет никаких яблок.

There is not any juice in the kitchen.

На кухне нет никакого сока.

There are not any pens on the table.

На столе нет ручек.

Перечисление разных предметов

Если необходимо перечислить несколько разных предметов, то в зависимости от типа первого предмета надо выбирать оборот there is или there are — если перечисление начинается с единственного числа, то используем there is; если с множественного числа — there are. Примеры:

There is a fridge and two stools in my kitchen.

На моей кухне есть холодильник и два табурета.

There are some plates, cups, knives and a microwave oven in my kitchen.

На моей кухне есть тарелки, чашки, ножи и микроволновка.

Правило перевода оборота there is/are на русский язык

Перевод таких предложений начинается с конца, с обстоятельства места (отвечает на вопрос «где?») или сказуемого, если обстоятельство отсутствует. Примеры предложений с переводом с оборотом there is/there are:

There is a window in the room.

В комнате есть окно.

There is some butter in the fridge.

В холодильнике есть немного масла.

There is a meeting tonight.

Сегодня вечером будет собрание.

There are some ways of solving this task.

Есть несколько способов решения этой задачи.

There is nothing to laugh at.

Здесь не над чем смеяться.

There is something to eat in the kitchen.

На кухне есть что поесть.

There is no need to discuss this again.

Нет необходимости обсуждать это снова.

There is something important to deal with.

Есть кое-что важное.

Элемент конструкции there является формальным, он не переводится и не имеет самостоятельного значения. С помощью there начинается предложение и вводится смысловое подлежащее, обычно выраженное существительным (реже местоимением) или целым предложением.

Вы заметили, что при переводе предложений с оборотом there is/are на русский могут использоваться глаголы типа: есть, находится, лежит, стоит, сидит и др. Мы можем их опустить и сказать: «На столе книга», «На окне цветы», «В зале окно», но чаще для выражения этой мысли мы используем соответствующий глагол «На столе лежит книга», «На окне стоят цветы», «В зале есть окно». Оба варианта перевода допустимы.

Как видно из примеров конструкцию there is/are невозможно переводить подстрочно, то есть дословно. Перевод на русский язык начинается с конца предложения.

Отрицательная форма оборота there is/there are

Отрицательные предложения с оборотом there is/there are могут быть построены двумя способами:

при помощи частицы not — there isn’t/there aren’t
или при помощи местоимения no, которое ставится перед существительным; данные существительные употребляются без артикля и без местоимения any.

Посмотрим примеры:

NOT

There isn’t any milk in the fridge.

В холодильнике нет молока.

There aren’t any dogs near the house.

Рядом с домом нет собак.

There is not any food at home.

Дома нет еды.

There is no milk in the fridge.

В холодильнике нет молока.

There are no dogs near the house.

Рядом с домом нет собак.

There is no food at home.

Дома нет еды.

Вопросы с оборотом there is/there are

Поскольку в данной конструкции есть глагол to be, для построения вопросительных предложений глагол to be (is/are, was/were) ставится на первое место в предложении. Другими словами, чтобы задать вопрос нам надо взять утвердительное предложение с этим оборотом и поменять местами «there» и «is/are» (или «was/were» если предложение в прошедшем времени):

There is a cat on the sofa.

На диване кошка.

Is there a cat on the sofa?

На диване есть кошка?

Еще пара примеров:

Is there a book on the desk?

На столе есть книга?

Were there flowers in the room?

В комнате были цветы?

Это относится к формированию общих вопросов, другие типы вопросов с конструкцией there is/are формируются с учетом порядка слов соответствующего данному типу вопроса.

Вопросительная форма оборота there is/there are широко применяется в случаях, когда мы интересуемся местоположением некоего объекта или наличием чего-либо где-либо.

Например, мы можем интересоваться наличием в городе/деревне каких-то объектов или предметов, информацией об аренде жилья, наличием и расположением определенных удобств в отеле; вопросы могут касаться наличия в нашем багаже/машине/комнате/сумке/кармане определенных вещей и предметов.

Случаев применения данного оборота много, но все они по сути представляют собой вопрос о наличии/расположении в определенном месте определенного предмета/объекта.

Оборот there is/are в разных грамматических временах

Оборот there is/there are показывает время Present Simple, то есть мы говорим о том, что где-то что-то есть (находится) сейчас, то есть в настоящем. Но мы можем сказать и о том, что предмет или лицо находились (Past Simple), или будут (Future Simple) находиться в определенном месте.

Другими словами, данный оборот применяется в настоящем, прошедшем и будущем времени, при этом соответственно меняется глагол to be, который и показывает в каком (или о каком) времени идет речь:

There is/there are — Present Simple
There was/there were — Past Simple
There will be — Future Simple

There was nothing to say.

Тут нечего было сказать.

There were cups on the table.

На столе стояли чашки.

There will be flowers on the window sill.

На подоконнике будут цветы.

Примечание. Если по смыслу предложения требуется наличие наречия there (там), то оно повторяется в конце предложения.

Когда место обозначается словом «там» (there) то в предложении с оборотом there is/are слово there появиться в начале и конце предложения, но в русском переводе наречие «там» используется один раз:

There is a new hospital (over) there.

Там новая больница.

There was a great deal of money there.

Там было много денег.

Рассмотрим ряд примеров с оборотами there is/are для различных времен (Present Simple, Past Simple, Future Simple, Present Perfect):

What is there in your right pocket? — There are my flat’s keys.

Что у тебя в правом кармане? — Вот ключи от моей квартиры.

Were there many guests at your party? — No, there weren’t.

Было много гостей на вашей вечеринке? — Нет, не много.

Will there be your ceremony on Friday? — Yes, there will. Please come.

Будет ли твоя церемония в пятницу? — Да, будет. Пожалуйста, приезжайте.

How many people are there in your party?

Сколько людей в твоей компании?

There is some coffee and sugar in the kitchen, isn’t there?

На кухне есть кофе и сахар, не так ли?

There has been a lot of snow for the last five days, hasn’t there?

Последние пять дней было много снега, не так ли?

I wonder if there is some bread in the kitchen.

Интересно, есть ли хлеб на кухне?

Замена there is/are на be-construction

Местонахождение объекта или лица может выражаться другими способами, в частности при помощи глагола to be. Но между этими предложениями существует смысловая разница. Сравните примеры:

There is a book on the desk.

На столе книга (смысловой акцент на месте — на столе, которое как бы занято книгой). В этом случае мы как бы даем ответ на вопрос: что находится на столе?

The book is on the desk.

Книга на столе (смысловой акцент на книге). В этом случае мы как бы отвечаем на вопрос: где находится книга.

Примеры ситуаций с употреблением оборота there is/there are

На практике данный оборот встречается повсеместно, мы приведем несколько типичных ситуаций, когда вам него не обойтись.

Ситуация 1. Аренда квартиры, вопросы о наличии предметов и удобств

Вы хотите снять с семьей квартиру или недорогой семейный отель, вас будут интересовать предметы, которые вы хотели бы иметь. Вы читаете объявление:

A three-room flat, 30 min by bus from London a shower, 2 bed rooms, a small kitchen, the Internet. There is a well-equiped play ground next to the house, two parking spaces for each flat. There is 24 hour security service.

Трехкомнатная квартира, 30 минут на автобусе от Лондона, душ, 2 спальни, небольшая кухня, интернет. Рядом с домом есть хорошо оборудованная игровая площадка, два парковочных места для каждой квартиры. Имеется круглосуточная охрана.

Если объявление вас заинтересовало, то следующий ваш шаг — звонок и уточняющие вопросы относительно предметов и удобств в квартире. Вы можете спросить о наличии бытовой техники, мебели, бытовых предметов. Во всех перечисленных случаях уместно использовать вопросительную форму оборота there is/there are:

Is there a fridge in the kitchen?

На кухне есть холодильник?

Is there a dishwasher in the kitchen?

На кухне есть посудомоечная машина?

Is there a microwave oven in the kitchen?

На кухне есть микроволновая печь?

Is there a gas cooker in the kitchen?

На кухне есть газовая плита?

Is there a vacuum cleaner in the flat?

В помещении есть пылесос?

Are there any plates in the kitchen?

На кухне есть тарелки?

Are there any knives in the kitchen?

На кухне есть ножи?

Are there any forks in the kitchen?

На кухне есть вилки?

Are there any frying pans in the kitchen?

На кухне есть сковородки?

Специальный вопрос:

What modern conveniences are there in your flat/house? — There is gas, hot and cold running water, a private telephone, a bath (a shower), a fireplace, central heating.

Какие современные удобства есть в вашей квартире/доме? — Есть газ, горячая и холодная вода, личный телефон, ванна (душ), камин, центральное отопление.

Ситуация 2. Спрашиваем местонахождение объектов внутри здания, в офисе

Если вы впервые пришли в некое здание или офис вам может потребоваться задать несколько вопросов:

Is there a lift in your building?

В вашем здании есть лифт?

Is there a coffee shop in the building?

В здании есть кофейня?

Is there a toilet in the building?

В здании есть туалет?

Is there a hair and beauty salon in the building?

В здании есть парикмахерская и салон красоты?

Is there a bank branch in the building?

В здании есть отделение банка?

Is there a travel agent’s in the building?

В здании есть турагентство?

Is there a coffee machine in the building?

В здании есть кофеварка?

Are there any good programmers in your office?

В вашем офисе есть хорошие программисты?

Are there any good engineers in your office?

В вашем офисе есть хорошие инженеры?

Are there any good managers in your office?

В вашем офисе есть хорошие менеджеры?

Are there any good cleaners in your office?

В вашем офисе есть хорошие уборщики?

Are there any good security personnel in your office?

В вашем офисе есть хорошие охранники?

Are there any good doctors in your office?

В вашем офисе есть хорошие врачи?

Are there many immigrants from Ukraine in your country?

Много ли в вашей стране иммигрантов из Украины?

Ситуация 3. Спрашиваем местонахождение объектов на улице в незнакомом городе

Если вы оказались в незнакомом городе, то обязательно дано знать как спросить где что находится. Например:

Is there a good restaurant in this street?

На этой улице есть хороший ресторан?

Is there a tennis court in the vicinity?

Поблизости есть теннисный корт?

Is there a playground in the vicinity?

Поблизости есть детская площадка?

Is there a hospital in the street?

На улице есть больница?

Is there a library in the vicinity?

А поблизости есть библиотека?

Is there a post-office in the street?

На улице есть почта?

Ситуация 4. Спрашиваем об удобствах, сервисах, объектах в гостинице

Находясь в гостинице вам также может потребоваться узнать местонахождение различных объектов и сервисов. Например:

Is there a gym in the hotel?

В отеле есть спортзал?

Is there a sports ground in the hotel?

В отеле есть спортивная площадка?

Is there a car hire service in the hotel?

В отеле есть служба проката автомобилей?

Is there a swimming pool in the hotel?

В отеле есть бассейн?

Is there a coffee shop in the hotel?

В отеле есть кафе?

Is there a coffee machine in the hotel?

В отеле есть кофеварка?

Is there a laundry room in the hotel?

В отеле есть прачечная?

Is there a security service in the hotel?

В отеле есть служба безопасности?

Is there a conference room in the hotel?

В отеле есть конференц-зал?

Примечание 1. Замена оборота there is/are другими глаголами

Значение оборота there is/are может быть выражено эквивалентной структурой с глаголом to be или to have и некоторыми другими глаголами to see, to know, to notice. Посмотрим примеры:

There is/are

There are two children in the Browns’ family.

В семье Браунов двое детей.

There were only two women in the office familiar to me.

В офисе было только две женщины, знакомые мне.

There is a dog in the living room.

В гостиной есть собака.

There were only a few French books in your home library.

В вашей домашней библиотеке было всего несколько французских книг.

Эквивалентная замена

The Browns have two children.

У Браунов двое детей.

I knew only two women in the office.

Я знал только двух женщин в офисе.

I see a dog in the living room.

Я вижу собаку в гостиной.

I noticed only a few French books in your home library.

Я заметил только несколько французских книг в вашей домашней библиотеке.

Примечание 2. There + другие глаголы

После there могут употребляться и другие глаголы, например, to live, to exist, to stand, to come, to appear, to go и другие (не обязательно требующие после себя обстоятельство места (отвечает на вопрос «Где?», а также модальные глаголы). Приведем примеры:

Once upon a time there lived an old man and an old woman near the seaside.

Жили-были старик со старухой у самого моря.

Then there came some claps of thunder.

Затем раздались раскаты грома.

Look! There has appeared a helicopter at last.

Наконец появился вертолет!

There exist many other species of birds.

Тут существуют и другие виды птиц.

Look! Someone is knocking at the door. There must be John.

Кто-то стучит в дверь. Это должно быть Джон.

Look at the sign! There must be a bus stop near the hotel.

Взгляни на знак. Возле отеля должно быть есть автобусные остановки.

Видео урок

Заключение

В уроке подробно рассмотрены правила и случаи употребления оборота there is — there are в настоящем, прошедшем и будущем времени, а также в вопросительной и отрицательной форме.

Если у вас остались вопросы по теме, то задавайте их в комментариях к статье.

Thank you for reading my grammar lesson.

«I remembered God and was troubled; I complained and my spirit was overwhelmed. (Psalm. 76:3)

Источник

Ответы на госы по лексикологии

ЭКЗАМЕНАЦИОННЫЙ БИЛЕТ № 1

1. Lexicology, its aims and significance

Lexicology is a branch of linguistics which deals with a systematic description and study of the vocabulary of the language as regards its origin, development, meaning and current use. The term is composed of 2 words of Greek origin: lexis + logos. A word about words, or the science of a word. It also concerns with morphemes, which make up words and the study of a word implies reference to variable and fixed groups because words are components of such groups. Semantic properties of such words define general rules of their joining together. The general study of the vocabulary irrespective of the specific features of a particular language is known as general lexicology. Therefore, English lexicology is called special lexicology because English lexicology represents the study into the peculiarities of the present-day English vocabulary.

Lexicology is inseparable from: phonetics, grammar, and linguostylistics b-cause phonetics also investigates vocabulary units but from the point of view of their sounds. Grammar- grammatical peculiarities and grammatical relations between words. Linguostylistics studies the nature, functioning and structure of stylistic devices and the styles of a language.

Language is a means of communication. Thus, the social essence is inherent in the language itself. The branch of linguistics which deals with relations between the language functions on the one hand and the facts of social life on the other hand is termed sociolinguistics.

Modern English lexicology investigates the problems of word structure and word formation; it also investigates the word structure of English, the classification of vocabulary units, replenishment3 of the vocabulary; the relations between different lexical layers4 of the English vocabulary and some other. Lexicology came into being to meet the demands of different branches of applied linguistic! Namely, lexicography — a science and art of compiling dictionaries. It is also important for foreign language teaching and literary criticism.

2. Referential approach to meaning

SEMASIOLOGY

There are different approaches to meaning and types of meaning

Meaning is the object of semasiological study -> semasiology is a branch of lexicology which is concerned with the study of the semantic structure of vocabulary units. The study of meaning is the basis of all linguistic investigations.

Russian linguists have also pointed to the complexity of the phenomenon of meaning (Потебня, Щерба, Смирницкий, Уфимцева и др.)

There are 3 main types of definition of meaning:

(a) Analytical or referential definition

(b) Functional or contextual approach

REFERENTIAL APPROACH

Within the referential approach linguists attempt at establishing interdependence between words and objects of phenomena they denote. The idea is illustrated by the so-called basic triangle:

Concept

Sound – form_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Referent

[kæt] (concrete object)

The diagram illustrates the correlation between the sound form of a word, the concrete object it denotes and the underlying concept. The dotted line suggests that there is no immediate relation between sound form and referent + we can say that its connection is conventional (human cognition).

However the diagram fails to show what meaning really is. The concept, the referent, or the relationship between the main and the concept.

The merits: it links the notion of meaning to the process of namegiving to objects, process of phenomena. The drawbacks: it cannot be applied to sentences and additional meanings that arise in the conversation. It fails to account for polysemy and synonymy and it operates with subjective and intangible mental process as neither reference nor concept belong to linguistic data.

ЭКЗАМЕНАЦИОННЫЙ БИЛЕТ № 2

1. Functional approach to meaning

SEMASIOLOGY

There are different approaches to meaning and types of meaning

Russian linguists have also pointed to the complexity of the phenomenon of meaning (Потебня, Щерба, Смирницкий, Уфимцева и др.)

There are 3 main types of definition of meaning:

(a) Analytical or referential definition

(b) Functional or contextual approach

FUNCTIONAL (CONTEXTUAL) APPROACH

The supporters of this approach define meaning as the use of word in a language. They believe that meaning should be studied through contexts. If the distribution (position of a linguistic unit to other linguictic units) of two words is different we can conclude that heir meanings are different too (Ex. He looked at me in surprise; He’s been looking for him for a half an hour.)

However, it is hardly possible to collect all contexts for reliable conclusion. In practice a scholar is guided by his experience and intuition. On the whole, this approach may be called complimentary to the referential definition and is applied mainly in structural linguistics.

2. Classification of morphemes

A morpheme is the smallest indivisible two-facet language unit which implies an association of a certain meaning with a certain sound form. Unlike words, morphemes cannot function independently (they occur in speech only as parts of words).

Classification of Morphemes

Within the English word stock maybe distinguished morphologically segment-able and non-segment-able words (soundless, rewrite – segmentable; book, car — non-segmentable).

Morphemic segmentability may be of three types:

a) Complete segmentability is characteristic of words with transparent morphemic structure (morphemes can be easily isolated, e.g. heratless).

b) Conditional segmentability characterizes words segmentation of which into constituent morphemes is doubtful for semantic reasons (retain, detain, contain). Pseudo-morphemes

c) Defective morphemic segmentability is the property of words whose component morphemes seldom or never occur in other words. Such morphemes are called unique morphemes (cran – cranberry (клюква), let- hamlet (деревушка)).

· Semantically morphemes may be classified into: 1) root morphemes – radicals (remake, glassful, disorder — make, glass, order- are understood as the lexical centres of the words) and 2) non-root morphemes – include inflectional (carry only grammatical meaning and relevant only for the formation of word-forms) and affixational morphemes (relevant for building different types of stems).

· Structurally, morphemes fall into: free morphemes (coincides with the stem or a word-form. E.g. friend- of thenoun friendship is qualified as a free morpheme), bound morphemes (occurs only as a constituent part of a word. Affixes are bound for they always make part of a word. E.g. the suffixes –ness, -ship, -ize in the words darkness, friendship, to activize; the prefixes im-, dis-, de- in the words impolite, to disregard, to demobilize) and semi-free or semi-bound morphemes (can function both as affixes and free morphemes. E.g. well and half on the one hand coincide with the stem – to sleep well, half an hour, and on the other in the words – well-known, half-done).

ЭКЗАМЕНАЦИОННЫЙ БИЛЕТ № 3

1. Types of meaning

The word «meaning» is not homogeneous. Its components are described as «types of meaning». The two main types of meaning are grammatical and lexical meaning.

The grammatical meaning is the component of meaning, recurrent in identical sets of individual forms of words (e.g. reads, draws, writes – 3d person, singular; books, boys – plurality; boy’s, father’s – possessive case).

The lexical meaning is the meaning proper to the linguistic unit in all its forms and distribution (e.g. boy, boys, boy’s, boys’ – grammatical meaning and case are different but in all of them we find the semantic component «male child»).

Both grammatical meaning and lexical meaning make up the word meaning and neither of them can exist without the other.

There’s also the 3d type: lexico-grammatical (part of speech) meaning. Third type of meaning is called lexico-grammatical meaning (or part-of-speech meaning). It is a common denominator of all the meanings of words belonging to a lexical-grammatical class (nouns, verbs, adjectives etc. – all nouns have common meaning oа thingness, while all verbs express process or state).

Denotational meaning – component of the lexical meaning which makes communication possible. The second component of the lexical meaning is the connotational component – the emotive charge and the stylistic value of the word.

2. Syntactic structure and pattern of word-groups

The meaning of word groups can be defined as the combined lexical meaning of the component words but it is not a mere additive result of all the lexical meanings of components. The meaning of the word group itself dominates the meaning of the component members (Ex. an easy rule, an easy person).

The meaning of the word group is further complicated by the pattern of arrangement of its constituents (Ex. school grammar- grammar school).

That’s why we should bear in mind the existence of lexical and structural components of meaning in word groups, since these components are independent and inseparable. The syntactic structure (formula) implies the description of the order and arrangement of member-words as parts of speech («to write novels» — verb + noun; «clever at mathematics»- adjective + preposition + noun).

As a rule, the difference in the meaning of the head word is presupposed by the difference in the pattern of the word group in which the word is used (to get + noun = to get letters / presents; to get + to + noun = to get to town). If there are different patterns, there are different meanings. BUT: identity of patterns doesn’t imply identity of meanings.

Semanticallv. English word groups are analyzed into motivated word groups and non-motivated word groups. Word groups are lexically motivated if their meanings are deducible from the meanings of components. The degree of motivation may be different.

A blind man — completely motivated

A blind print — the degree of motivation is lower

A blind alley (= the deadlock) — the degree of motivation is still less.

Non-motivated word-groups are usually described as phraseological units.

ЭКЗАМЕНАЦИОННЫЙ БИЛЕТ № 4

1. Classification of phraseological units

The term «phraseological unit» was introduced by Soviet linguist (Виноградов) and it’s generally accepted in this country. It is aimed at avoiding ambiguity with other terms, which are generated by different approaches, are partially motivated and non-motivated.

The first classification of phraseological units was advanced for the Russian language by a famous Russian linguist Виноградов. According to the degree of idiomaticity phraseological units can be classified into three big groups: phraseological collocations (сочетания), phraseological unities (единства) and phraseological fusions (сращения).

Phraseological collocations are not motivated but contain one component used in its direct meaning, while the other is used metaphorically (e.g. to break the news, to attain success).

Phraseological unities are completely motivated as their meaning is transparent though it is transferred (e.g. to shoe one’s teeth, the last drop, to bend the knee).

Phraseological fusions are completely non-motivated and stable (e.g. a mare’s nest (путаница, неразбериха; nonsense), tit-for-tat – revenge, white elephant – expensive but useless).

But this classification doesn’t take into account the structural characteristic, besides it is rather subjective.

Prof. Смирнитский treats phraseological units as word’s equivalents and groups them into: (a) one-summit units => they have one meaningful component (to be tied, to make out); (b) multi-summit units => have two or more meaningful components (black art, to fish in troubled waters).

Within each of these groups he classifies phraseological units according to the part of speech of the summit constituent. He also distinguishes proper phraseological units or units with non-figurative meaning and idioms that have transferred meaning based on metaphor (e.g. to fall in love; to wash one’s dirty linen in public).

This classification was criticized as inconsistent, because it contradicts the principle of idiomaticity advanced by the linguist himself. The inclusion of phrasal verbs into phraseology wasn’t supported by any convincing argument.

Prof. Амазова worked out the so-called contextual approach. She believes that if 3 word groups make up a variable context. Phraseological units make up the so-called fixed context and they are subdivided into phrases and idioms.

2. Procedure of morphemic analysis

Morphemic analysis deals with segmentable words. Its procedure flows to split a word into its constituent morphemes, and helps to determine their number and type. It’s called the method of immediate and ultimate constituents. This method is based on the binary principle which allows to break morphemic structure of a word into 2 components at each stage. The analysis is completed when we arrive at constituents unable of any further division. E.g. Louis Bloomfield — classical example:

ungentlemanly

I. un-(IC/UC) +gentlemanly (IC) (uncertain, unhappy)

II. gentleman (IC) + -ly (IC/UC) (happily, certainly)

III. gentle (IC) +man (IC/UC) (sportsman, seaman)

IV. gent (IC/UC) + le (IC/UC) (gentile, genteel)

The aim of the analysis is to define the number and the type of morphemes.

As we break the word we obtain at any level only 2 immediate constituents, one of which is the stem of the given word. The morphemic analysis may be based either on the identification of affixational morphemes within a set of words, or root morphemes.

ЭКЗАМЕНАЦИОННЫЙ БИЛЕТ № 5

1. Causes, nature and results of semantic change

The set of meanings the word possesses isn’t fixed. If approached diachronically, the polysemy reflects sources and types of semantic changes. The causes of such changes may be either extra-linguistic including historical and social factors, foreign influence and the need for a new name, or linguistic, which are due to the associations that words acquire in speech (e.g. «atom» has a Greek origin, now is used in physics; «to engage» in the meaning «to invite» appeared in English due to French influence = > to engage for a dance). To unleash war – развязать войну – but originally – to unleash dogs)

The nature of semantic changes may be of two main types: 1) Similarity of meaning (metaphor). It implies a hidden comparison (bitter style – likeness of meaning or metonymy). It is the process of associating two references, one of which is part of the other, or is closely connected with it. In other words, it is nearest in type, space or function (e.g. «table» in the meaning of “food” or “furniture” [metonymy]).

The semantic change may bring about following results: 1. narrowing of meaning (e.g. “success” – was used to denote any kind of result, but today it is onle “good results”);

2. widening of meaning (e.g. “ready” in Old English was derived from “ridan” which went to “ride” – ready for a ride; but today there are lots of meanings),

3. degeneration of meaning — acquisition by a word of some derogatory or negative emotive charge (e.g. «villain» was borrowed from French “farm servant”; but today it means “a wicked person”).

4. amelioration of meaning — acquisition by a word of some positive emotive charge (e.g. «kwen» in Old English meant «a woman» but in Modern English it is «queen»).

It is obvious that 3, 4 result illustrate the change in both denotational and connotational meaning. 1, 2 change in the denotational.

The change of meaning can also be expressed through a change in the number and arrangement of word meanings without any other changes in the semantic structure of a word.

2. Productivity of word-formation means

According to Смирницкий, word-formation is the system of derivative types of words and the process of creating new words from the material available in the language. Words are formed after certain structural and semantic patterns. The main two types of word-formation are: word-derivation and word-composition (compounding).

The degree of productivity of word-formation and factors that favor it make an important aspect of synchronic description of every derivational pattern within the two types of word-formation. The two general restrictions imposed on the derivational patterns are: 1. the part of speech in which the pattern functions; 2. the meaning which is attached to it.

Three degrees of productivity are distinguished for derivational patterns and individual derivational affixes: highly productive, productive or semi-productive and non-productive.

Productivity of derivational patterns and affixes shouldn’t be identified with frequency of occurrence in speech (e.g.-er — worker, -ful – beautiful are active suffixes because they are very frequently used. But if -er is productive, it is actively used to form new words, while -ful is non-productive since no new words are built).

ЭКЗАМЕНАЦИОННЫЙ БИЛЕТ № 6

1. Morphological, phonetical and semantic motivation

A new meaning of a word is always motivated. Motivation — is the connection between the form of the word (i.e. its phonetic, morphological composition and structural pattern) and its meaning. Therefore a word may be motivated phonetically, morphologically and semantically.

Phonetically motivated words are not numerous. They imitate the sounds (e.g. crash, buzz, ring). Or sometimes they imitate quick movement (e.g. rain, swing).

Morphological motivation is expressed through the relationship of morphemes => all one-morpheme words aren’t motivated. The words like «matter» are called non-motivated or idiomatic while the words like «cranberry» are partially motivated because structurally they are transparent, but «cran» is devoid of lexical meaning; «berry» has its lexical meaning.

Semantic motivation is the relationship between the direct meaning of the word and other co-existing meanings or lexico-semantic variants within the semantic structure of a polysemantic word (e.g. «root»— «roots of evil» — motivated by its direct meaning, «the fruits of peace» — is the result).

Motivation is a historical category and it may fade or completely disappear in the course of years.

2. Classification of compounds

The meaning of a compound word is made up of two components: structural meaning of a compound and lexical meaning of its constituents.

Compound words can be classified according to different principles.

1. According to the relations between the ICs compound words fall into two classes: 1) coordinative compounds and 2) subordinative compounds.

In coordinative compounds the two ICs are semantically equally important. The coordinative compounds fall into three groups:

a) reduplicative compounds which are made up by the repetition of the same base, e.g. pooh-pooh (пренебрегать), fifty-fifty;

b) compounds formed by joining the phonically variated rhythmic twin forms, e.g. chit-chat, zig-zag (with the same initial consonants but different vowels); walkie-talkie (рация), clap-trap (чепуха) (with different initial consonants but the same vowels);

c) additive compounds which are built on stems of the independently functioning words of the same part of speech, e.g. actor-manager, queen-bee.

In subordinative compounds the components are neither structurally nor semantically equal in importance but are based on the domination of the head-member which is, as a rule, the second IС, e.g. stone-deaf, age-long. The second IС preconditions the part-of-speech meaning of the whole compound.

2. According to the part of speech compounds represent they fall into:

1) compound nouns, e.g. sunbeam, maidservant;

2) compound adjectives, e.g. heart-free, far-reaching;

3) compound pronouns, e.g. somebody, nothing;

4) compound adverbs, e.g. nowhere, inside;

5) compound verbs, e.g. to offset, to bypass, to mass-produce.

From the diachronic point of view many compound verbs of the present-day language are treated not as compound verbs proper but as polymorphic verbs of secondary derivation. They are termed pseudo-compounds and are represented by two groups: a) verbs formed by means of conversion from the stems of compound nouns, e.g. to spotlight (from spotlight); b) verbs formed by back-derivation from the stems of compound nouns, e.g. to babysit (from baby-sitter).

However synchronically compound verbs correspond to the definition of a compound as a word consisting of two free stems and functioning in the sentence as a separate lexical unit. Thus, it seems logical to consider such words as compounds by right of their structure.

3. According to the means of composition compound words are classified into:

1) compounds composed without connecting elements, e.g. heartache, dog-house;

2)compounds composed with the help of a vowel or a consonant as a linking element, e.g. handicraft, speedometer, statesman;

3) compounds composed with the help of linking elements represented by preposition or conjunction stems, e.g. son-in-law, pepper-and-salt.

4. According to the type of bases that form compounds the following classes can be singled out:

1) compounds proper that are formed by joining together bases built on the stems or on the word-forms with or without a linking element, e.g. door-step, street-fighting;

2) derivational compounds that are formed by joining affixes to the bases built on the word-groups or by converting the bases built on the word-groups into other parts of speech, e.g. long-legged —> (long legs) + -ed; a turnkey —> (to turn key) + conversion. Thus, derivational compounds fall into two groups: a) derivational compounds mainly formed with the help of the suffixes -ed and -er applied to bases built, as a rule, on attributive phrases, e.g. narrow-minded, doll-faced, lefthander; b) derivational compounds formed by conversion applied to bases built, as a rule, on three types of phrases — verbal-adverbial phrases (a breakdown), verbal-nominal phrases (a kill-joy) and attributive phrases (a sweet-tooth).

ЭКЗАМЕНАЦИОННЫЙ БИЛЕТ № 7

1. Diachronic and synchronic approaches to polysemy

Diachronically, polysemy is understood as the growth and development of the semantic structure of the word. Historically we differentiate between the primary and secondary meanings of words.

The relation between these meanings isn’t only the one of order of appearance but it is also the relation of dependence = > we can say that secondary meaning is always the derived meaning (e.g. dog – 1. animal, 2. despicable person)

Synchronically it is possible to distinguish between major meaning of the word and its minor meanings. However it is often hard to grade individual meaning of the word in order of their comparative value (e.g. to get the letter — получить письмо; to get to London — прибыть в Лондон — minor).

The only more or less objective criterion in this case is the frequency of occurrence in speech (e.g. table – 1. furniture, 2. food). The semantic structure is never static and the primary meaning of a word may become synchronically one of the minor meanings and vice versa. Stylistic factors should always be taken into consideration

Polysemy of words: «yellow»- sensational (Am., sl.)

The meaning which has the highest frequency is the one representative of the whole semantic structure of the word. The Russian equivalent of «a table» which first comes to your mind and when you hear this word is ‘cтол» in the meaning «a piece of furniture». And words that correspond in their major meanings in two different languages are referred to as correlated words though their semantic structures may be different.

Primary meaning — historically first.

Major meaning — the most frequently used meaning of the word synchronically.

2. Typical semantic relations between words in conversion pairs

We can single out the following typical semantic relation in conversion pairs:

1) Verbs converted from nouns (denominal verbs):

a) Actions characteristic of the subject (e.g. ape – to ape – imitate in a foolish way);

b) Instrumental use of the object (e.g. whip — to whip – strike with a whip);

c) Acquisition or addition of the objects (e.g. fish — to fish — to catch fish);

d) Deprivation of the object (e.g. dust — to dust – remove dust).

2) Nouns converted from verbs (deverbal nouns):

a) Instance of the action (e.g. to move — a move = change of position);

b) Agent of an action (e.g. to cheat — a cheat – a person who cheats);

c) Place of the action (e.g. to walk-a walk – a place for walking);

d) Object or result of the action (e.g. to find- a find – something found).

ЭКЗАМЕНАЦИОННЫЙ БИЛЕТ № 8

1. Classification of homonyms

Homonyms are words that are identical in their sound-form or spelling but different in meaning and distribution.

1) Homonyms proper are words similar in their sound-form and graphic but different in meaning (e.g. «a ball»- a round object for playing; «a ball»- a meeting for dances).

2) Homophones are words similar in their sound-form but different in spelling and meaning (e.g. «peace» — «piece», «sight»- «site»).

3) Homographs are words which have similar spelling but different sound-form and meaning (e.g. «a row» [rau]- «a quarrel»; «a row» [rəu] — «a number of persons or things in a more or less straight line»)

There is another classification by Смирницкий. According to the type of meaning in which homonyms differ, homonyms proper can be classified into:

I. Lexical homonyms — different in lexical meaning (e.g. «ball»);

II. Lexical-grammatical homonyms which differ in lexical-grammatical meanings (e.g. «a seal» — тюлень, «to seal» — запечатывать).

III. Grammatical homonyms which differ in grammatical meaning only (e.g. «used» — Past Indefinite, «used»- Past Participle; «pupils»- the meaning of plurality, «pupil’s»- the meaning of possessive case).

All cases of homonymy may be subdivided into full and partial homonymy. If words are identical in all their forms, they are full homonyms (e.g. «ball»-«ball»). But: «a seal» — «to seal» have only two homonymous forms, hence, they are partial homonyms.

2. Classification of prefixes

Prefixation is the formation of words with the help of prefixes. There are about 51 prefixes in the system of modern English word-formation.

1. According to the type they are distinguished into: a) prefixes that are correlated with independent words (un-, dis-), and b) prefixes that are correlated with functional words (e.g. out, over. under).

There are about 25 convertive prefixes which can transfer words to a different part of speech (E.g. embronze59).

Prefixes may be classified on different principles. Diachronically they may be divided into native and foreign origin, synchronically:

1. According to the class they preferably form: verbs (im, un), adjectives (un-, in-, il-, ir-) and nouns (non-, sub-, ex-).

2. According to the lexical-grammatical type of the base they are added to:

a). Deverbal — rewrite, overdo;

b). Denominal — unbutton, detrain, ex-president,

c). Deadjectival — uneasy, biannual.

It is of interest to note that the most productive prefixal pattern for adjectives is the one made up of the prefix un- and the base built either on adjectival stems or present and past participle, e.g. unknown, unsmiling, unseen etc.

3. According to their semantic structure prefixes may fall into monosemantic and polysemantic.

4. According to the generic-denotational meaning they are divided into different groups:

a). Negative prefixes: un-, dis-, non-, in-, a- (e.g. unemployment, non-scientific, incorrect, disloyal, amoral, asymmetry).

b). Reversative or privative60 prefixes: un-, de-, dis- (e.g. untie, unleash, decentralize, disconnect).

c). Pejorative prefixes: mis-, mal-, pseudo- (e.g. miscalculate, misinform, maltreat, pseudo-classicism).

d). Prefixes of time and order: fore-, pre-, post-, ex- (e.g. foretell, pre-war, post-war, ex-president).

e). Prefix of repetition re- (e.g. rebuild, rewrite).

f). Locative prefixes: super-, sub-, inter-, trans- (e.g. superstructure, subway, inter-continental, transatlantic).

5. According to their stylistic reference:

a). Neutral: un-, out-, over-, re-, under- (e.g. outnumber, unknown, unnatural, oversee, underestimate).

b). Stylistically marked: pseudo-, super-, ultra-, uni-, bi- (e.g. pseudo-classical, superstructure, ultra-violet, unilateral) they are bookish.

6. According to the degree of productivity: a). highly productive, b). productive, c). non-productive.

ЭКЗАМЕНАЦИОННЫЙ БИЛЕТ № 9

1. Types of linguistic contexts

The term “context” denotes the minimal stretch of speech determining each individual meaning of the word. Contexts may be of two types: linguistic (verbal) and extra-linguistic (non-verbal).

Linguistic contexts may be subdivided into lexical and grammatical.

In lexical contexts of primary importance are the groups of lexical items combined with polysemantic word under consideration (e.g. adj. “heavy” is used with the words “load, table” means ‘of great weight’ ; but with natural phenomena “rain, storm, snow, wind’ it is understood as ‘abundant, striking, falling with force’; and if with “industry, artillery, arms” – ‘the larger kind of smth’). The meaning at the level of lexical contexts is sometimes described as meaning by collocation.

In grammatical meaning it is the grammatical (syntactic) structure of the context that serves to determine various individual meanings of a polysemantic word (e.g. the meaning of the verb “to make” – ‘to force, to induce’ is found only in the syntactic structure “to make + prn. +verb”; another meaning ‘to become’ – “to make + adj. + noun” (to make a good teacher, wife)). Such meanings are sometimes described as grammatically bound meanings.

2. Classification of suffixes

Suffixation is the formation of words with the help of suffixes. Suffixes usually modify the lexical meaning of the base and transfer words to a different part of speech. There are suffixes, however, which do not shift words from one part of speech into another; a suffix of this kind usually transfers a word into a different semantic group, e.g. a concrete noun becomes an abstract one, as in the case with child — childhood, friend- friendship etc. Suffixes may be classified:

1. According to the part of speech they form

a). Noun-suffixes: -er, -dom, -ness, -ation (e.g. teacher, freedom, brightness, justification).

b). Adjective-suffixes: -able, -less, -ful, -ic, -ous (e.g. agreeable, careless, doubtful, poetic, courageous).

c). Verb-suffixes: -en, -fy, -ize (e.g. darken, satisfy, harmonize).

d). Adverb-suffixes: -ly, -ward (e.g. quickly, eastward).

2. According to the lexico-grammatical character of the base the suffixes are usually added to:

a). Deverbal suffixes (those added to the verbal base):-er, -ing, -ment, -able (speaker, reading, agreement, suitable).

b). Denominal suffixes (those added to the noun base):-less, -ish, -ful, -ist, -some (handless, childish, mouthful, troublesome).

c). Deadjectival suffixes (those affixed to the adjective base):-en, -ly, -ish, -ness (blacken, slowly, reddish, brightness).

3. According to the meaning expressed by suffixes:

a). The agent of an action: -er, -ant (e.g. baker, dancer, defendant), b). Appurtenance64: -an, -ian, -ese (e.g. Arabian, Elizabethan, Russian, Chinese, Japanese).

c). Collectivity: -age, -dom, -ery (-ry) (e.g. freightage, officialdom, peasantry).

d). Diminutiveness: -ie, -let, -ling (birdie, girlie, cloudlet, booklet, darling).

4. According to the degree of productivity:

a). Highly productive

b). Productive

c). Non-productive

5. According to the stylistic value:

a). Stylistically neutral:-able, -er, -ing.

b). Stylistically marked:-oid, -i/form, -aceous, -tron (e.g. asteroid)

ЭКЗАМЕНАЦИОННЫЙ БИЛЕТ № 10

1. Semantic equivalence and synonymy

The traditional initial category of words that can be singled out on the basis of proximity is synonyms. The degree of proximity varies from semantic equivalence to partial semantic similarity. The classes of full synonyms are very rare and limited mainly two terms.

The greatest degree of similarity is found in those words that are identical in their denotational aspect of meaning and differ in connotational one (e.g. father- dad; imitate – monkey). Such synonyms are called stylistic synonyms. However, in the major of cases the change in the connotational aspect of meaning affects in some way the denotational aspect. These synonyms of the kind are called ideographic synonyms (e.g. clever – bright, smell – odor). Differ in their denotational aspect ideographic synonyms (kill-murder, power – strength, etc.) – these synonyms are most common.

It is obvious that synonyms cannot be completely interchangeable in all contexts. Synonyms are words different in their sound-form but similar in their denotational aspect of meaning and interchangeable at least in some contexts.

Each synonymic group comprises a dominant element. This synonymic dominant is general term which has no additional connotation (e.g. famous, celebrated, distinguished; leave, depart, quit, retire, clear out).

Syntactic dominants have high frequency of usage, vast combinability and lack connotation.

2. Derivational types of words

The basic units of the derivative structure of words are: derivational basis, derivational affixes, and derivational patterns.

The relations between words with a common root but of different derivative structure are known as derivative relations.

The derivational base is the part of the word which establishes connections with the lexical unit that motivates the derivative and defines its lexical meaning. It’s to this part of the word (derivational base) that the rule of word formation is applied. Structurally, derivational bases fall into 3 classes: 1. Bases that coincide with morphological stems (beautiful, beautifully); 2. Bases that coincide with word-forms (unknown- limited mainly to verbs); 3. Bases that coincide with word groups. They are mainly active in the class of adjectives and nouns (blue-eyed, easy-going).

According to their derivational structure words fall into: simplexes (simple, non-derived words) and complexes (derivatives). Complexes are grouped into: derivatives and compounds. Derivatives fall into: affixational (suffixal and affixal) types and conversions. Complexes constitute the largest class of words. Both morphemic and derivational structure of words is subject to various changes in the course of time.

ЭКЗАМЕНАЦИОННЫЙ БИЛЕТ № 11

1. Semantic contrasts and antonymy

The semantic relations of opposition are the basis for grouping antonyms. The term «antonym» is of Greek origin and means “opposite name”. It is used to describe words different in some form and characterised by different types of semantic contrast of denotational meaning and interchangeability at least in some contexts.

Structurally, all antonyms can be subdivided into absolute (having different roots) and derivational (of the same root), (e.g. «right»- «wrong»; «to arrive»- «to leave» are absolute antonyms; but «to fit» — «to unfit» are derivational).

Semantically, all antonyms can be divided in at least 3 groups:

a) Contradictories. They express contradictory notions which are mutually opposed and deny each other. Their relations can be described by the formula «A versus NOT A»: alive vs. dead (not alive); patient vs. impatient (not patient). Contradictories may be polar or relative (to hate- to love [not to love doesn’t mean «hate»]).

b) Contraries are also mutually opposed, but they admit some possibility between themselves because they are gradable (e.g. cold – hot, warm; hot – cold, cool). This group also includes words opposed by the presence of such components of meaning as SEX and AGE (man -woman; man — boy etc.).

c) Incompatibles. The relations between them are not of contradiction but of exclusion. They exclude possibilities of other words from the same semantic set (e.g. «red»- doesn’t mean that it is opposed to white it means all other colors; the same is true to such words as «morning», «day», «night» etc.).

There is another type of opposition which is formed with reversive antonyms. They imply the denotation of the same referent, but viewed from different points (e.g. to buy – to sell, to give – to receive, to cause – to suffer)

A polysemantic word may have as many antonyms as it has meanings. But not all words and meanings have antonyms!!! (e.g. «a table»- it’s difficult to find an antonym, «a book»).

Relations of antonymy are limited to a certain context + they serve to differentiate meanings of a polysemantic word (e.g. slice of bread — «thick» vs. «thin» BUT: person — «fat» vs. «thin»).

2. Types of word segmentability

Within the English word stock maybe distinguished morphologically segment-able and non-segmentable words (soundless, rewrite — segmentable; book, car — non-segmentable).

Morphemic segmentability may be of three types: 1. complete, 2. conditional, 3. defective.

A). Complete segmentability is characteristic of words with transparent morphemic structure. Their morphemes can be easily isolated which are called morphemes proper or full morphemes (e.g. senseless, endless, useless). The transparent morphemic structure is conditioned by the fact that their constituent morphemes recur with the same meaning in a number of other words.

B). Conditional segmentability characterizes words segmentation of which into constituent morphemes is doubtful for semantic reasons (e.g. retain, detain, contain). The sound clusters «re-, de-, con-» seem to be easily isolated since they recur in other words but they have nothing in common with the morphemes «re, de-, con-» which are found in the words «rewrite», «decode», «condensation». The sound-clusters «re-, de-, con-» can possess neither lexical meaning nor part of speech meaning, but they have differential and distributional meaning. The morphemes of the kind are called pseudo-morphemes (quasi morphemes).

C). Defective morphemic segmentability is the property of words whose component morphemes seldom or never recur in other words. Such morphemes are called unique morphemes. A unique morpheme can be isolated and displays a more or less clear meaning which is upheld by the denotational meaning of the other morpheme of the word (cranberry, strawberry, hamlet).

ЭКЗАМЕНАЦИОННЫЙ БИЛЕТ № 12

1. The main features of A.V.Koonin’s approach to phraseology

Phraseology is regarded as a self-contained branch of linguistics and not as a part of lexicology.

His classification is based on the combined structural-semantic principle and also considers the level of stability of phraseological units.

Кунин subdivides set-expressions into: phraseological units or idioms(e.g. red tape, mare’s nest, etc.), semi-idioms and phraseomatic units(e.g. win a victory, launch a campaign, etc.).

Phraseological units are structurally separable language units with completely or partially transferred meanings (e.g. to kill two birds with one stone, to be in a brown stubby – to be in low spirits). Semi-idioms have both literal and transferred meanings. The first meaning is usually terminological or professional and the second one is transferred (e.g. to lay down one’s arms). Phraseomatic units have literal or phraseomatically bound meanings (e.g. to pay attention to smth; safe and sound).

Кунин assumes that all types of set expressions are characterized by the following aspects of stability: stability of usage (not created in speech and are reproduced ready-made); lexical stability (components are irreplaceable (e.g. red tape, mare’s nest) or partly irreplaceable within the limits of lexical meaning, (e.g. to dance to smb tune/pipe; a skeleton in the cupboard/closet; to be in deep water/waters)); semantic complexity (despite all occasional changes the meaning is preserved); syntactic fixity.

Idioms and semi-idioms are much more complex in structure than phraseological units. They have a broad stylistic range and they admit of more complex occasional changes.

An integral part of this approach is a method of phraseological identification which helps to single out set expressions in Modern English.

2. Types and ways of forming words

According to Смирницкий word-formation is a system of derivative types of words and the process of creating new words from the material available in the language after certain structural and semantic patterns. The main two types are: word-derivation and word-composition (compounding).

The basic ways of forming words in word-derivation are affixation and conversion (the formation of a new word by bringing a stem of this word into a different formal paradigm, e.g. a fall from to fall).

There exist other types: semantic word-building (homonymy, polysemy), sound and stress interchange (e.g. blood – bleed; increase), acronymy (e.g. NATO), blending (e.g. smog = smoke + fog) and shortening of words (e.g. lab, maths). But they are different in principle from derivation and compound because they show the result but not the process.

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1. Origin of derivational affixes

From the point of view of their origin, derivational affixes are subdivided into native (e.g suf.- nas, ish, dom; pref.- be, mis, un) and foreign (e.g. suf.- ation, ment, able; pref.- dis, ex, re).

Many original affixes historically were independent words, such as dom, hood and ship. Borrowed words brought with them their derivatives, formed after word-building patterns of their languages. And in this way many suffixes and prefixes of foreign origin have become the integral part of existing word-formation (e.g. suf.- age; pref.- dis, re, non). The adoption of foreign words resulted into appearance of hybrid words in English vocabulary. Sometimes a foring stem is combined with a native suffix (e.g. colourless) and vise versa (e.g. joyous).

Reinterpretation of verbs gave rise to suffix-formation source language (e.g. “scape” – seascape, moonscape – came from landscape. And it is not a suffix.).

2. Correlation types of compounds

Motivation and regularity of semantic and structural correlation with free word-groups are the basic factors favouring a high degree of productivity of composition and may be used to set rules guiding spontaneous, analogic formation of new compound words.

The description of compound words through the correlation with variable word-groups makes it possible to classify them into four major classes: 1) adjectival-nominal, 2) verbal-nominal, 3) nominal and 4) verbal-adverbial.

I. Adjectival-nominal comprise for subgroups of compound adjectives:

1) the polysemantic n+a pattern that gives rise to two types:

a) Compound adjectives based on semantic relations of resemblance: snow-white, skin-deep, age-long, etc. Comparative type (as…as).

b) Compound adjectives based on a variety of adverbial relations: colour-blind, road-weary, care-free, etc.

2) the monosemantic pattern n+v_enbased mainly on the instrumental, locative and temporal relations, e.g. state-owned, home-made. The type is highly productive. Correlative relations are established with word-groups of the V_en+ with/by + N type.

3) the monosemantic num + npattern which gives rise to a small and peculiar group of adjectives, which are used only attributively, e.g. (a) two-day (beard), (a) seven-day (week), etc. The quantative type of relations.

4) a highly productive monosemantic pattern of derivational compound adjectives based on semantic relations of possession conveyed by the suffix -ed. The basic variant is [(a+n)+ -ed], e.g. long-legged. The pattern has two more variants: [(num + n) + -ed), l(n+n)+ -ed],e.g. one-sided, bell-shaped, doll-faced. The type correlates accordingly with phrases with (having) + A+N, with (having) + Num + N, with + N + N or with + N + of + N.

The three other types are classed as compound nouns. All the three types are productive.

II. Verbal-nominal compounds may be described through one derivational structure n+n_v, i.e. a combination of a noun-base (in most cases simple) with a deverbal, suffixal noun-base. All the patterns correlate in the final analysis with V+N and V+prp+N type which depends on the lexical nature of the verb:

1) [n+(v+-er)],e.g. bottle-opener, stage-manager, peace-fighter. The pattern is monosemantic and is based on agentive relations that can be interpreted ‘one/that/who does smth’.

2) [n+(v+-ing)],e.g. stage-managing, rocket-flying. The pattern is monosemantic and may be interpreted as ‘the act of doing smth’.

3) [n+(v+-tion/ment)],e.g. office-management, price-reduction.

4) [n+(v + conversion)],e.g. wage-cut, dog-bite, hand-shake, the pattern is based on semantic relations of result, instance, agent, etc.

III. Nominal compounds are all nouns with the most polysemantic and highly-productive derivational pattern n+n; both bases are generally simple stems, e.g. windmill, horse-race, pencil-case. The pattern conveys a variety of semantic relations; the most frequent are the relations of purpose and location. The pattern correlates with nominal word-groups of the N+prp+N type.

IV. Verb-adverb compounds are all derivational nouns, highly productive and built with the help of conversion according to the pattern [(v + adv) + conversion].The pattern correlates with free phrases V + Adv and with all phrasal verbs of different degree of stability. The pattern is polysemantic and reflects the manifold semantic relations of result.

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1. Hyponymic structures and lexico-semantic groups

The grouping out of English word stock based on the principle of proximity, may be graphically presented by means of “concentric circles”.

lexico-semantic groups

lexical sets

synonyms

semantic field

The relations between layers are that of inclusion.

The most general term – hyperonym, more special – hyponym (member of the group).

The meaning of the word “plant” includes the idea conveyed by “flower”, which in its turn include the notion of any particular flower. Flower – hyperonim to… and plant – hyponym to…

Hyponymic relations are always hierarchic. If we imply substitution rules we shall see the hyponyms may be replaced be hyperonims but not vice versa (e.g. I bought roses yesterday. “flower” – the sentence won’t change its meaning).

Words describing different sides of one and the same general notion are united in a lexico-semantic group if: a) the underlying notion is not too generalized and all-embracing, like the notions of “time”, “life”, “process”; b) the reference to the underlying is not just an implication in the meaning of lexical unit but forms an essential part in its semantics.

Thus, it is possible to single out the lexico-semantic group of names of “colours” (e.g. pink, red, black, green, white); lexico-semantic group of verbs denoting “physical movement” (e.g. to go, to turn, to run) or “destruction” (e.g. to ruin, to destroy, to explode, to kill).

2. Causes and ways of borrowing

The great influx of borrowings from Latin, English and Scandinavian can be accounted by a number of historical causes. Due to the great influence of the Roman civilisation Latin was for a long time used in England as the language of learning and religion. Old Norse was the language of the conquerors who were on the same level of social and cultural development and who merged rather easily with the local population in the 9th, 10th and the first half of the 11th century. French (Norman dialect) was the language of the other conquerors who brought with them a lot of new notions of a higher social system (developed feudalism), it was the language of upper classes, of official documents and school instruction from the middle of the 11th century to the end of the 14th century.

In the study of the borrowed element in English the main emphasis is as a rule placed on the Middle English period. Borrowings of later periods became the object of investigation only in recent years. These investigations have shown that the flow of borrowings has been steady and uninterrupted. The greatest number has come from French. They refer to various fields of social-political, scientific and cultural life. A large portion of borrowings is scientific and technical terms.

The number and character of borrowed words tell us of the relations between the peoples, the level of their culture, etc.

Some borrowings, however, cannot be explained by the direct influence of certain historical conditions, they do not come along with any new objects or ideas. Such were for instance the words air, place, brave, gay borrowed from French.

Also we can say that the closer the languages, the deeper is the influence. Thus under the influence of the Scandinavian languages, which were closely related to Old English, some classes of words were borrowed that could not have been adopted from non-related or distantly related languages (the pronouns they, their, them); a number of Scandinavian borrowings were felt as derived from native words (they were of the same root and the connection between them was easily seen), e.g. drop(AS.) — drip (Scand.), true (AS.)-tryst (Scand.); the Scandinavian influence even accelerated to a certain degree the development of the grammatical structure of English.

Borrowings enter the language in two ways: through oral speech (early periods of history, usually short and they undergo changes) and through written speech (recent times, preserve spelling and peculiarities of the sound form).

Borrowings may be direct or indirect (e.g., through Latin, French).

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1. Types of English dictionaries

English dictionaries may all be roughly divided into two groups — encyclopaedic and linguistic.

The encyclopaedic dictionaries, (The Encyclopaedia Britannica and The Encyclopedia Americana) are scientific reference books dealing with every branch of knowledge, or with one particular branch, usually in alphabetical order. They give information about the extra-linguistic world; they deal with facts and concepts. Linguistic dictionaries are wоrd-books the subject-matter of which is lexical units and their linguistic properties such as pronunciation, meaning, peculiarities of use, etc.

Linguistic dictionaries may be divided into different categories by different criteria.

1. According to the nature of their word-listwe may speak about general dictionaries (include frequency dictionary, a rhyming dictionary, a Thesaurus) and restricted (belong terminological, phraseological, dialectal word-books, dictionaries of new words, of foreign words, of abbreviations, etc).

2. According to the information they provide all linguistic dictionaries fall into two groups: explanatory and specialized.

Explanatory dictionaries present a wide range of data, especially with regard to the semantic aspect of the vocabulary items entered (e.g. New Oxford Dictionary of English).

Specialized dictionaries deal with lexical units only in relation to some of their characteristics (e.g. etymology, frequency, pronunciation, usage)

3. According to the language of explanations all dictionaries are divided into: monolingual and bilingual.

4. Dictionaries also fall into diachronic and synchronic with regard of time. Diachronic (historical) dictionaries reflect the development of the English vocabulary by recording the history of form and meaning for every word registered (e.g. Oxford English Dictionary). Synchronic (descriptive) dictionaries are concerned with the present-day meaning and usage of words (e.g. Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English).

(Phraseological dictionaries, New Words dictionaries, Dictionaries of slang, Usage dictionaries, Dictionaries of word-frequency, A Reverse dictionary, Pronouncing dictionaries, Etymological dictionaries, Ideographic dictionaries, synonym-books, spelling reference books, hard-words dictionaries, etc.)

2. The role of native and borrowed elements in English

The number of borrowings in Old English was small. In the Middle English period there was an influx of loans. It is often contended that since the Norman Conquest borrowing has been the chief factor in the enrichment of the English vocabulary and as a result there was a sharp decline in the productivity of word-formation. Historical evidence, however, testifies to the fact that throughout its entire history, even in the periods of the mightiest influxes of borrowings, other processes, no less intense, were in operation — word-formation and semantic development, which involved both native and borrowed elements.

If the estimation of the role of borrowings is based on the study of words recorded in the dictionary, it is easy to overestimate the effect of the loan words, as the number of native words is extremely small compared with the number of borrowings recorded. The only true way to estimate the relation of the native to the borrowed element is to consider the two as actually used in speech. If one counts every word used, including repetitions, in some reading matter, the proportion of native to borrowed words will be quite different. On such a count, every writer uses considerably more native words than borrowings. Shakespeare, for example, has 90%, Milton 81%, Tennyson 88%. It shows how important is the comparatively small nucleus of native words.

Different borrowings are marked by different frequency value. Those well established in the vocabulary may be as frequent in speech as native words, whereas others occur very rarely.

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1. The main variants of the English language

In Modern linguistics the distinction is made between Standard English and territorial variants and local dialects of the English language.

Standard English may be defined as that form of English which is current and literary, substantially uniform and recognized as acceptable wherever English is spoken or understood. Most widely accepted and understood either within an English-speaking country or throughout the entire English-speaking world.

Variants of English are regional varieties possessing a literary norm. There are distinguished variants existing on the territory of the United Kingdom (British English, Scottish English and Irish English), and variants existing outside the British Isles (American English, Canadian English, Australian English, New Zealand English, South African English and Indian English). British English is often referred to the Written Standard English and the pronunciation known as Received Pronunciation (RP).

Local dialects are varieties of English peculiar to some districts, used as means of oral communication in small localities; they possess no normalized literary form.

Variants of English in the United Kingdom

Scottish English and Irish English have a special linguistic status as compared with dialects because of the literature composed in them.

Variants of English outside the British Isles

Outside the British Isles there are distinguished the following variants of the English language: American English, Canadian English, Australian English, New Zealand English, South African English, Indian English and some others. Each of these has developed a literature of its own, and is characterized by peculiarities in phonetics, spelling, grammar and vocabulary.

2. Basic problems of dictionary-compiling

Lexicography, the science, of dictionary-compiling, is closely connected with lexicology, both dealing with the same problems — the form, meaning, usage and origin of vocabulary units — and making use of each other’s achievements.

Some basic problems of dictionary-compiling:

1) the selection of lexical units for inclusion,

2) their arrangement,

3) the setting of the entries,

4) the selection and arrangement (grouping) of word-meanings,

5) the definition of meanings,

6) illustrative material,

7) supplementary material.

1) The selection of lexical units for inclusion.

It is necessary to decide: a) what types of lexical units will be chosen for inclusion; b) the number of items; c) what to select and what to leave out in the dictionary; d) which form of the language, spoken or written or both, the dictionary is to reflect; e) whether the dictionary should contain obsolete units, technical terms, dialectisms, colloquialisms, and so forth.

The choice depends upon the type to which the dictionary will belong, the aim the compilers pursue, the prospective user of the dictionary, its size, the linguistic conceptions of the dictionary-makers and some other considerations.

2) Arrangement of entries.

There are two modes of presentation of entries: the alphabetical order and the cluster-type (arranged in nests, based on some principle – words of the same root).

3) The setting of the entries.

Since different types of dictionaries differ in their aim, in the information they provide, in their size, etc., they of necessity differ in the structure and content of the entry.

The most complicated type of entry is that found in general explanatory dictionaries of the synchronic type (the entry usually presents the following data: accepted spelling and pronunciation; grammatical characteristics including the indication of the part of speech of each entry word, whether nouns are countable or uncountable, the transitivity and intransitivity of verbs and irregular grammatical forms; definitions of meanings; modern currency; illustrative examples; derivatives; phraseology; etymology; sometimes also synonyms and antonyms.

4) The selection and arrangement (grouping) of word-meanings.

The number of meanings a word is given and their choice in this or that dictionary depend, mainly, on two factors: 1) on what aim the compilers set themselves and 2) what decisions they make concerning the extent to which obsolete, archaic, dialectal or highly specialised meanings should be recorded, how the problem of polysemy and homonymy is solved, how cases of conversion are treated, how the segmentation of different meanings of a polysemantic word is made, etc.

There are at least three different ways in which the word meanings are arranged: a) in the sequence of their historical development (called historical order), b) in conformity with frequency of use that is with the most common meaning first (empirical or actual order), c) in their logical connection (logical order).

5) The definition of meanings.

Meanings of words may be defined in different ways: 1) by means of linguistic definitions that are only concerned with words as speech material, 2) by means of encyclopaedic definitions that are concerned with things for which the words are names (nouns, proper nouns and terms), 3) be means of synonymous words and expressions (verbs, adjectives), 4) by means of cross-references (derivatives, abbreviations, variant forms). The choice depends on the nature of the word (the part of speech, the aim and size of the dictionary).

6) Illustrative material.

It depends on the type of the dictionary and on the aim the compliers set themselves.

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1. Sources of compounds

The actual process of building compound words may take different forms: 1) Compound words as a rule are built spontaneously according to productive distributional formulas of the given period. Formulas productive at one time may lose their productivity at another period. Thus at one time the process of building verbs by compounding adverbial and verbal stems was productive, and numerous compound verbs like, e.g. outgrow, offset, inlay (adv + v), were formed. The structure ceased to be productive and today practically no verbs are built in this way.

2) Compounds may be the result of a gradual process of semantic isolation and structural fusion of free word-groups. Such compounds as forget-me-not; bull’s-eye—’the centre of a target; a kind of hard, globular candy’; mainland—‘acontinent’ all go back to free phrases which became semantically and structurally isolated in the course of time. The words that once made up these phrases have lost their integrity, within these particular formations, the whole phrase has become isolated in form, «specialized in meaning and thus turned into an inseparable unit—a word having acquired semantic and morphological unity. Most of the syntactic compound nouns of the (a+n) structure, e.g. bluebell, blackboard, mad-doctor, are the result of such semantic and structural isolation of free word-groups; to give but one more example, highway was once actually a high way for it was raised above the surrounding countryside for better drainage and ease of travel. Now we use highway without any idea of the original sense of the first element.

2. Lexical differences of territorial variants of English

All lexical units may be divided into general English (common to all the variants) and locally-marked (specific to present-day usage in one of the variants and not found in the others). Different variants of English use different words for the same objects (BE vs. AE: flat/apartment, underground/subway, pavement/sidewalk, post/mail).

Speaking about lexical differences between the two variants of the English language, the following cases are of importance:

1. Cases where there are no equivalent words in one of the variant! (British English has no equivalent to the American word drive-in (‘a cinema or restaurant that one can visit without leaving one’s car’)).

2. Cases where different words are used for the same denotatum, e.g. sweets (BrE) — candy (AmE); reception clerk (BrE) — desk clerk (AmE).

3. Cases where some words are used in both variants but are much commoner in one of them. For example, shop and store are used in both variants, but the former is frequent in British English and the latter in American English.

4. Cases where one (or more) lexico-semantic variant(s) is (are) specific to either British English or American English (e.g. faculty, denoting ‘all the teachers and other professional workers of a university or college’ is used only in American English; analogous opposition in British English or Standard English — teaching staff).

5. Cases where one and the same word in one of its lexico-semantic variants is used oftener in British English than in American English (brew — ‘a cup of tea’ (BrE), ‘a beer or coffee drink’ (AmE).

Cases where the same words have different semantic structure in British English and American English (homely — ‘home-loving, domesticated, house-proud’ (BrE), ‘unattractive in appearance’ (AmE); politician ‘a person who is professionally involved in politics’, neutral, (BrE), ‘a person who acts in a manipulative and devious way, typically to gain advancement within an organisation’ (AmE).

Besides, British English and American English have their own derivational peculiarities (some of the affixes more frequently used in American English are: -ее (draftee — ‘a young man about to be enlisted’), -ster (roadster — ‘motor-car for long journeys by road’), super- (super-market — ‘a very large shop that sells food and other products for the home’); AmE favours morphologically more complex words (transportation), BrE uses clipped forms (transport); AmE prefers to form words by means of affixes (burglarize), BrE uses back-formation (burgle from burglar).

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1. Methods and procedures of lexicological analysis

The process of scientific investigation may be subdivided into several stages:

1. Observation (statements of fact must be based on observation)

2. Classification (orderly arrangement of the data)

3. Generalization (formulation of a generalization or hypothesis, rule a law)

4. The verifying process. Here, various procedures of linguistic analysis are commonly applied:

1). Contrastive analysis attempts to find out similarities and differences in both philogenically related and non-related languages. In fact contrastive analysis grew as the result of the errors which are made recurrently by foreign language students. They can be often traced back to the differences in structure between the target language and the language of the learner, detailed comparison of these two languages has been named contrastive analysis.

Contrastive analysis brings to light the essence of what is usually described as idiomatic English, idiomatic Russian etc., i.e. the peculiar way in which every language combines and structures in lexical units various concepts to denote extra-linguistic reality.

2). Statistical analysis is the quantitative study of a language phenomenon. Statistical linguistics is nowadays generally recognised as one of the major branches of linguistics. (frequency – room, collocability)

3). Immediate constituents analysis. The theory of Immediate Constituents (IC) was originally elaborated as an attempt to determine the ways in which lexical units are relevantly related to one another. The fundamental aim of IC analysis is to segment a set of lexical units into two maximally independent sequences or ICs thus revealing the hierarchical structure of this set.

4). Distributional analysis and co-occurrence. By the term distribution we understand the occurrence of a lexical unit relative to other lexical units of the same level (the position which lexical units occupy or may occupy in the text or in the flow of speech). Distributional analysis is mainly applied by the linguist to find out sameness or difference of meaning.

5). Transformational analysis can be definedas repatterning of various distributional structures in order to discover difference or sameness of meaning of practically identical distributional patterns. It may be also described as a kind of translation (transference of a message by different means).

6). Componental analysis (1950’s). In this analysis linguists proceed from the assumption that the smallest units of meaning are sememes (семема — семантическая единица) or semes (сема (минимальная единица содержания)) and that sememes and lexemes (or lexical items) are usually not in one-to-one but in one-to-many correspondence (e.g. in lexical item “woman”, semems are – human, female, adult). This analysis deals with individual meanings.

7). Method of Semantic Differential (set up by American psycholinguists). The analysis is concerned with measurement of differences of the connotational meaning, or the emotive charge, which is very hard to grasp.

2. Ways and means of enriching the vocabulary of English

Development of the vocabulary can be described a process of the never-ending growth. There are two ways of enriching the vocabulary:

A. Vocabulary extension — the appearance of new lexical items. New vocabulary units appear mainly as a result of: 1) productive or patterned ways of word-formation (affixation, conversion, composition); 2) non-patterned ways of word-creation (lexicalization – transformation of a word-form into a word, e.g. arms-arm, customs (таможня)-custom); shortening — transformation of a word-group into a word or a change of the word-structure resulting in a new lexical item, e.g. RD for Road, St for Street; substantivization – the finals to the final exams, acronyms (NATO) and letter abbreviation (D.J. – disk jokey), blendings (brunch – breakfast and lunch), clipping – shortening of a word of two or more syllables (bicycle – bike, pop (clipping plus substativization) – popular music)); 3) borrowing from other languages.

Borrowing as a means of replenishing the vocabulary of present-day English is of much lesser importance and is active mainly in the field of scientific terminology. 1) Words made up of morphemes of Latin and Greek origin (e.g. –tron: mesotron; tele-: telelecture; -in: protein). 2) True borrowings which reflect the way of life, the peculiarities of development of speech communities from which they come. (e.g. kolkhoz, sputnik). 3) Loan-translations also reflect the peculiarities of life and easily become stable units of the vocabulary (e.g. fellow-traveler, self-criticism)

B. Semantic extension — the appearance of new meanings of existing words which may result in homonyms. The semantic development of words already available in the language is the main source of the qualitative growth of the vocabulary but does not essentially change the vocabulary quantatively.

The most active ways of word creation are clippings and acronyms.

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1. Means of composition

From the point of view of the means by which the components are joined together compound words may be classified into:

1) Words formed by merely placing one constituent after another (e.g. house-dog, pot-pie) can be: asyntactic (the order of bases runs counter to the order in which the words can be brought together under the rules of syntax of the language, e.g. red-hot, pale-blue, oil-rich) and syntactic (the order of words arranged according to the rules of syntax, e.g. mad-doctor, blacklist).

2) Compound words whose ICs are joined together with a special linking-element — linking vowels (o) and consonants (s), e.g. speedometer, tragicomic, statesman.

The additive compound adjectives linked with the help of the vowel [ou] are limited to the names of nationalities and represent a specific group with a bound root for the first component, e.g. Sino-Japanese, Afro-Asian, Anglo-Saxon.

2. Synchronic and diachronic approaches to conversion

Conversion is the formation of a new word through changes in its paradigm (category of a part of speech). As a paradigm is a morphological category, conversion can be described as a morphological way of forming words (Смирницкий). The term was introduced by Henry Sweet.

The causes that made conversion so widely spread are to be approached diachronically. Nouns and verbs have become identical in form firstly as a result of the loss of endings. The similar phenomenon can be observed in words borrowed from the French language. Thus, from the diachronic point of view distinctions should be made between homonymous word-pairs, which appeared as a result of the loss of inflections (окончание, изменяемая часть слова).

In the course of time the semantic structure of the base nay acquire a new meaning or several meanings under the influence of the meanings of the converted word (reconversion).

Synchronically we deal with pairs of words related through conversion that coexist in contemporary English. A careful examination of the relationship between the lexical meaning of the root-morpheme and the part-of-speech meaning of the stem within a conversion pair reveals that in one of the two words the former does not correspond to the latter.

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1. Denotational and connotational aspects of meaning

The lexical meaning comprises two main components: the denotational aspect of meaning and the connotational aspect of meaning. The term «denotational aspect of meaning» is derived from «to denote» and it is through this component of meaning that the main information is conveyed in the process of communication. Besides, it helps to insure references to things common to all the speakers of the given language (e.g. «chemistry»- I’m not an expert in it, but I know what it is about, «dentist», «spaceship»).

The connotational aspect may be called «optional». It conveys additional information in the process of communication. And it may denote the emotive charge and the stylistic value of the word. The emotive charge is the emotive evaluation inherent in the connotational component of the lexical meaning (e.g. «notorious» => [widely known] => for criminal acts, bad behaviour, bad traits of character; «famous» => [widely known] => for special achievement etc.).

Positive/Negative evaluation; emotive charge/stylistic value.

«to love» — neutral

«to adore» — to love greatly => the emotive charge is higher than in «to love»

«to shake» — neutral.

«to shiver» — is stronger => higher emotive charge.

Mind that the emotive charge is not a speech characteristic of the word. It’s a language phenomenon => it remains stable within the basical meaning of the word.

If associations with the lexical meaning concern the situation, the social circumstances (formal/informal), the social relations between the interlocutors (polite/rough), the type or purpose of communication (poetic/official)the connotation is stylistically coloured. It is termed as stylistic reference. The main stylistic layers of the vocabulary are:

Literary «parent» «to pass into the next world» — bookish

Neutral «father» «to die»

Colloquial «dad» «to kick the bucket»

But the denotational meaning is the same.

2. Semantic fields

lexico-semantic groups

lexical sets

synonyms

semantic field

The broadest semantic group is usually referred to as the semantic field. It is a closely neat section of vocabulary characterized by a common concept (e.g. emotions). The common semantic component of the field is called the common dominator. All members of the field are semantically independent, as the meaning of each is determined by the presence of others. Semantic field may be very impressive, covering big conceptual areas (emotions, movements, space). Words comprising the field may belong to different parts of speech.

If the underlying notion is broad enough to include almost all-embracing sections of vocabulary we deal with semantic fields (e.g. cosmonaut, spacious, to orbit – belong to the semantic field of ‘space’).

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1. Assimilation of borrowings

The term ‘assimilation of borrowings’ is used to denote a partial or total conformation to the phonetical, graphical and morphological standards of the English language and its semantic system.

According to the degree of assimilation all borrowed words can be divided into three groups:

1) completely assimilated borrowings;

2) partially assimilated borrowings;

3) unassimilated borrowings or barbarisms.

1. Completely assimilated borrowed words follow all morphological, phonetical and orthographic standards, take an active part in word-formation. The morphological structure and motivation of completely assimilated borrowings remain usually transparent, so that they are morphologically analyzable and therefore supply the English vocabulary not only with free forms but also with bound forms, as affixes are easily perceived and separated in series of borrowed words that contain them (e.g. the French suffixes —age, -ance and -ment).

They are found in all the layers of older borrowings, e. g. cheese (the first layer of Latin borrowings), husband (Scand),face (Fr), animal (Latin, borrowed during the revival of learning).

A loan word never brings into the receiving language the whole of its semantic structure if it is polysemantic in the original language (e.g., ‘sport’in Old French — ‘pleasures, making merry and entertainments in general’, now — outdoor games and exercise).

2. Partially assimilated borrowed words may be subdivided depending on the aspect that remains unaltered into:

a) borrowings not completely assimilated graphically (e.g., Fr. ballet, buffet;some may keep a diacritic mark: café, cliché;retained digraphs (ch, qu, ou, etc.): bouquet, brioche);

b) borrowings not completely assimilated phonetically (e.g., Fr. machine, cartoon, police(accent is on the final syllable), [3] — bourgeois, prestige, regime(stress + contain sounds or combinations of sounds that are not standard for the English language));

c) borrowings not assimilated grammatically (e.g., Latin or Greek borrowings retain original plural forms: crisis — crises, phenomenon — phenomena;

d) borrowings not assimilated semantically because they denote objects and notions peculiar to the country from which they come (e. g. sari, sombrero, shah, rajah, toreador, rickshaw(Chinese), etc.

3. Unassimilated borrowings or barbarisms. This group includes words from other languages used by English people in conversation or in writing but not assimilated in any way, and for which there are corresponding English equivalents, e.g. the Italian addio, ciao— ‘good-bye’.

Etymological doublets are two or more words originating from the same etymological source, but differing in phonetic shape and meaning (e.g. the words ‘whole’(originally meant ‘healthy’, ‘free from disease’) and ‘hale’both come from OE ‘hal’:one by the normal development of OE ‘a’ into ‘o’, the other from a northern dialect in which this modification did not take place. Only the latter has servived in its original meaning).

2. Semi-affixes

There is a specific group of morphemes whose derivational function does not allow one to refer them unhesitatingly either to the derivational affixes or bases. In words like half-done, half-broken, half-eaten and ill-fed, ill-housed, ill-dressed the ICs ‘half-‘ and ‘ill-‘ are given in linguistic literature different interpretations: they are described both as bases and as derivational prefixes. The comparison of these ICs with the phonetically identical stems in independent words ‘ill’ and ‘half’ as used in such phrases as to speak ill of smb, half an hour ago makes it obvious that in words like ill-fed, ill-mannered, half-done the ICs ‘ill-‘ and ‘half-‘ are losing both their semantic and structural identity with the stems of the independent words. They are all marked by a different distributional meaning which is clearly revealed through the difference of their collocability as compared with the collocability of the stems of the independently functioning words. As to their lexical meaning they have become more indicative of a generalizing meaning of incompleteness and poor quality than the individual meaning proper to the stems of independent words and thus they function more as affixational morphemes similar to the prefixes ‘out-, over-, under-, semi-, mis-‘ regularly forming whole classes of words.

Besides, the high frequency of these morphemes in the above-mentioned generalized meaning in combination with the numerous bases built on past participles indicates their closer ties with derivational affixes than bases. Yet these morphemes retain certain lexical ties with the root-morphemes in the stems of independent words and that is why are felt as occupying an intermediate position, as morphemes that are changing their class membership regularly functioning as derivational prefixes but still retaining certain features of root-morphemes. That is why they are sometimes referred to as semi-affixes. To this group we should also refer ‘well-‘ and ‘self-‘ (well-fed, well-done, self-made), ‘-man’ in words like postman, cabman, chairman, ‘-looking’ in words like foreign-looking, alive-looking, strange-looking, etc.

ЭКЗАМЕНАЦИОННЫЙ БИЛЕТ № 22

1. Degrees of assimilation of borrowings and factors determining it

Even a superficial examination of the English word-stock shows that there are words among them that are easily recognized as foreign. And there are others that have become so firmly rooted in the language that it is sometimes extremely difficult to distinguish them from words of Anglo-Saxon origin (e.g. pupil, master, city, river, etc.).

Unassimilated words differ from assimilated ones in their pronunciation, spelling, semantic structure, frequency and sphere of application. There are also words that are assimilated in some respects and unassimilated in others – partially assimilated words (graphically, phonetically, grammatically, semantically).

The degree of assimilation depends on the first place upon the time of borrowing: the older the borrowing, the more thoroughly it tends to follow normal English habits of accentuation, pronunciation and etc. (window, chair, dish, box).

Also those of recent date may be completely made over to conform to English patterns if they are widely and popularly employed (French – clinic, diplomat).

Another factor determining the process of assimilation is the way in which the borrowings were taken over into the language. Words borrowed orally are assimilated more readily; they undergo greater changes, whereas with words adopted through writing the process of assimilation is longer and more laborious.

2. Lexical, grammatical valency of words

There are two factors that influence the ability of words to form word-groups. They are lexical and grammatical valency of words. The point is that compatibility of words is determined by restrictions imposed by the inner structure of the English word stock (e.g. a bright idea = a good idea; but it is impossible to say «a bright performance», or «a bright film»; «heavy metal» means difficult to digest, but it is impossible to say «heavy cheese»; to take [catch] a chance, but it is possible to say only «to take precautions»).

The range of syntactic structures or patterns in which words may appear is defined as their grammatical valency. The grammatical valency depends on the grammatical structure of the language (e.g. to convince smb. of smth/that smb do smth; to persuade smb to do smth).

Any departure from the norms of lexical or grammatical valency can either make a phrase unintelligible or be felt as a stylistic device.

ЭКЗАМЕНАЦИОННЫЙ БИЛЕТ № 23

1. Classification of homonyms

Homonyms are words that are identical in their sound-form or spelling but different in meaning and distribution.

1) Homonyms proper are words similar in their sound-form and graphic but different in meaning (e.g. «a ball»- a round object for playing; «a ball»- a meeting for dances).

2) Homophones are words similar in their sound-form but different in spelling and meaning (e.g. «peace» — «piece», «sight»- «site»).

There is another classification by Смирницкий. According to the type of meaning in which homonyms differ, homonyms proper can be classified into:

I. Lexical homonyms — different in lexical meaning (e.g. «ball»);

II. Lexical-grammatical homonyms which differ in lexical-grammatical meanings (e.g. «a seal» — тюлень, «to seal» — запечатывать).

2. Lexical and grammatical meanings of word-groups

1. The lexical meaning of the word-group may be defined as the combined lexical meaning of the component words. Thus, the lexical meaning of the word-group “red flower” may be described denotationally as the combined meaning of the words “red” and “flower”. It should be pointed out, however, that the term combined lexical meaning is not to imply that the meaning of the word-group is a mere additive result of all the lexical meanings of the component members. The lexical meaning of the word-group predominates over the lexical meanings of its constituents.

2. The structural meaning of the word-group is the meaning conveyed mainly by the pattern of arrangement of its constituents (e.g. “school grammar” – школьная грамматика and “grammar school” – грамматическая школа, are semantically different because of the difference in the pattern of arrangement of the component words. The structural meaning is the meaning expressed by the pattern of the word-group but not either by the word school or the word grammar.

The lexical and structural components of meaning in word-groups are interdependent and inseparable, e.g. the structural pattern of the word-groups all day long, all night long, all week long in ordinary usage and the word-group all the sun long is identical. Replacing day, night, week by another noun – sun doesn’t change the structural meaning of the pattern. But the noun sun continues to carry the semantic value, the lexical meaning that it has in word-groups of other structural patterns.

ЭКЗАМЕНАЦИОННЫЙ БИЛЕТ № 24

1. Derivational bases

The derivational bases is the part of the word which establishes connections with the lexical unit that motivates the derivative and defines its lexical meaning. The rule of word formation is applied. Structurally, they fall into 3 classes: 1. bases that coincide with morphological stems (e.g. beautiful (d.b.) — beautifully); 2. bases that coincide with word-forms (e.g. unknown — known); 3. bases that coincide with word groups; adjectives and nouns (e.g. blue-eyed – having blue eyes, easy-going).

2. Emotive charge and stylistic reference

The emotive charge is the emotive evaluation inherent in the connotational component of the lexical meaning (e.g. «notorious» => [widely known] => for criminal acts, bad behaviour, bad traits of character; «famous» => [widely known] => for special achievement etc.).

Positive/Negative evaluation; emotive charge/stylistic value.

«to love» — neutral

«to adore» — to love greatly => the emotive charge is higher than in «to love»

«to shake» — neutral.

«to shiver» — is stronger => higher emotive charge.

Mind that the emotive charge is not a speech characteristic of the word. It’s a language phenomenon => it remains stable within the basical meaning of the word.

The emotive charge varies in different word-classes. In some of them, in interjections (междометия), e.g., the emotive element prevails, whereas in conjunctions the emotive charge is as a rule practically non-existent. The emotive implication of the word is to a great extent subjective as it greatly depends of the personal experience of the speaker, the mental imagery the word evokes in him. (hospital – architect, invalid or the man living across the road)

Literary «parent» «to pass into the next world» — bookish

Neutral «father» «to die»

Colloquial «dad» «to kick the bucket»

In literary (bookish) words we can single out: 1) terms or scientific words (e.g. renaissance, genocide, teletype); 2) poetic words and archaisms (e.g. aught—’anything’, ere—’before’, nay—’no’); 3) barbarisms and foreign words (e.g. bouquet).

The colloquial words may be, subdivided into:

1) Common colloquial words.

2) Slang (e.g. governor for ‘father’, missus for ‘wife’, a gag for ‘a joke’, dotty for ‘insane’).

3) Professionalisms — words used in narrow groups bound by the same occupation (e.g., lab for ‘laboratory’, a buster for ‘a bomb’).

4) Jargonisms — words marked by their use within a particular social group and bearing a secret and cryptic character (e.g. a sucker — ‘a person who is easily deceived’).

5) Vulgarisms — coarse words that are notgenerally used in public (e.g. bloody, hell, damn, shut up)

5) Dialectical words (e.g. lass – девчушка, kirk — церковь).

6) Colloquial coinages (e.g. newspaperdom, allrightnik)

Stylistic reference and emotive charge of words are closely connected and to a certain degree interdependent. As a rule stylistically coloured words — words belonging to all stylistic layers except the neutral style are observed to possess a considerable emotive charge (e.g. daddy, mammy are more emotional than the neutral father, mother).

ЭКЗАМЕНАЦИОННЫЙ БИЛЕТ № 25

1. Historical changeability of word-structure

The derivational structure of a word is liable to various changes in the course of time. Certain morphemes may become fused together or may be lost altogether (simplification). As a result of this process, radical changes in the word may take place: root morphemes may turn into affixational and semi-affixational morphemes, compound words may be transformed into derived or even simple words, polymorphic words may become monomorphic.

E.g. derived word wisdom goes back to the compound word wīsdom in which – dom was a root-morpheme and a stem of independent word with the meaning ‘decision, judgment’. The whole compound word meant ‘a wise decision’. In the course of time the meaning of the second component dom became more generalized and turned into the suffix forming abstract nouns (e.g. freedom, boredom).

Sometimes the spelling, of some Modern English words as compared with their sound-form reflects the changes these words have undergone (e.g. cupboard — [‘kʌbəd] is a monomorphic non-motivated simple word. But earlier it consisted of two bases — [kʌp] and [bɔːd] and signified ‘a board to put cups on’. Nowadays, it denotes neither cup nor board: a boot cupboard, a clothes cupboard).

2. Criteria of synonymity

1. It is sometimes argued that the meaning of two words is identical if they can denote the same referent (if an object or a certain class of objects can always be denoted by either of the two words.

This approach to synonymy does not seem acceptable because the same referent in different speech situations can always be denoted by different words which cannot be considered synonyms (e.g. the same woman can be referred to as my mother by her son and my wife by her husband – both words denote the same referent but there is no semantic relationship of synonymy between them).

2. Attempts have been made to introduce into the definition of synonymity the criterion of interchangeability in linguistic contexts (they say: synonyms are words which can replace each other in any given context without the slightest alteration in the denotational or connotational meaning). It is argued that for the linguist similarity of meaning implies that the words are synonymous if either of then can occur in the same context. And words interchangeable in any given context are very rare.

3. Modern linguists generally assume that there are no complete synonyms — if two words are phonemically different then their meanings are also different (buy, purchase – Purchasing Department). It follows that practically no words are substitutable for one another in all contexts (e.g. the rain in April was abnormal/exceptional – are synonymous; but My son is exceptional/abnormal – have different meaning).

Also interchangeability alone cannot serve as a criterion of synonymity. We may safely assume that synonyms are words interchangeable in some contexts. But the reverse is certainly not true as semantically different words of the same part of speech are interchangeable in quite a number of contexts (e.g. I saw a little girl playing in the garden the adj. little may be replaced by a number of different adj. pretty, tall, English).

Thus a more acceptable definition of synonyms seems to be the following: synonyms are words different in their sound-form, but similar in their denotational meaning or meanings and interchangeable at least in some contexts.

ЭКЗАМЕНАЦИОННЫЙ БИЛЕТ № 26

1. Immediate Constituents analysis

The theory of Immediate Constituents (IC) was originally elaborated as an attempt to determine the ways in which lexical units are relevantly related to one another. The fundamental aim of IC analysis is to segment a set of lexical units into two maximally independent sequences or ICs thus revealing the hierarchical structure of this set (e.g. the word-group a black dress in severe styleis divided intoa black dress / in severe style.Successive segmentation results in Ultimate Constituents (UC) — two-facet units that cannot be segmented into smaller units having both sound-form and meaning (e.g. a | black | dress | in | severe | style).

The meaning of the sentence, word-group, etc. and the IC binary segmentation are interdependent (e.g. fat major’s wifemay mean that either ‘the major is fat’ (fat major’s | wife) or ‘his wife is fat’ (fat | major’s wife).

The Immediate Constituent analysis is mainly applied in lexicological investigation to find out the derivational structure of lexical units (e.g. to denationalise => de | nationalise (it’s a prefixal derivative, because there is no such sound-forms as *denation or *denational). There are also numerous cases when identical morphemic structure of different words is insufficient proof of the identical pattern of their derivative structure which can be revealed only by IC analysis (e.g. words which contain two root-morphemes and one derivational morpheme — snow-coveredwhich is a compound consisting of two stems snow + covered, but blue-eyedis a suffixal derivative (blue+eye)+-ed). It may be inferred from the examples above that ICs represent the word-formation structure while the UCs show the morphemic structure of polymorphic words.

2. Characteristic features of learner’s dictionaries

Traditionally the term learner’s dictionaries is confined to dictionaries specifically complied to meet the demands of the learners for whom English is not their mother tongue. They nay be classified in accordance with different principles, the main are: 1) the scope of the word-list, and 2) the nature of the information afforded. Depending on that, learner’s dictionaries are usually divided into: a) elementary/basic/pre-intermediate; b) intermediate; c) upper-intermediate/advanced learner’s dictionaries.

1. The scope of the word-list. Pre-intermediate as well as intermediate learner’s dictionaries contain only the most essential and important – key words of English, whereas upper-intermediate learner’s dictionaries contain lexical units that the prospective user may need.

Purpose: to dive information on what is currently accepted in modern English. Excluded: archaic and dialectal words, technical and scientific terms, substandard words and phrases. Included: colloquial and slang words, foreign words – if they are of sort to be met in reading or conversation. (frequency)

2. The nature of the information afforded. They may be divided into two groups: 1) learner’s dictionary proper (those giving equal attention to the words semantic characteristics and the way it is used in speech); 2) those presenting different aspects of the vocabulary: dictionaries of collocations, derivational dictionaries (word-structure), dictionaries of synonyms and antonyms and some others.

Pre-intermediate and intermediate learner’s dictionaries differ from advanced sometimes greatly in the number of meanings given and the language used for the description of these meanings.

Pictorial material is widely used. Pictures may define the meanings of different nouns as well as adjectives, verbs, and adverbs. The order of arrangement of meaning is empiric (beginning with the main meaning to minor ones).

The supplementary material in learner’s dictionaries may include lists of irregular verbs, common abbreviations, geographic names, special signs and symbols used in various branches of science, tables of weights and measures and so on.

ЭКЗАМЕНАЦИОННЫЙ БИЛЕТ № 27

1. Links between lexicology and other branches of linguistics

Lexicology is a branch of linguistics dealing with a systematic description and study of the vocabulary of the language as regards its origin, development, meaning and current use. The term is composed of 2 words of Greek origin: lexis — word + logos – word’s discourse. So lexicology is a word about words, or the science of a word. However, lexicology is concerned not only with words because the study of the structure of words implies references to morphemes which make up words.

On the other hand, the study of semantic properties of a word implies references to variable (переменный) or stable (set) word groups, of which words are compounding parts. Because it is the semantic properties of words that define the general rules of their joining together.

Comparative linguistics and Contrasted linguistics are of great importance in classroom teaching and translation.

Lexicology is inseparable from: phonetics, grammar, and linguostylistics because phonetics also investigates vocabulary units but from the point of view of their sounds. Grammar in its turn deals with various means of expressing grammar peculiarities and grammar relations between words. Linguostylistics studies the nature, functioning and structure of stylistic devices and the styles of a language.

Language is a means of communication, therefore the social essence of inherent in the language itself. The branch of linguistics dealing with relations between the way the language function and develops on the one hand and develops the social life on the other is called sociolinguistics.

2. Grammatical and lexical meanings of words

The word «meaning» is not homogeneous. Its components are described as «types of meaning». The two main types of meaning are grammatical and lexical meaning.

Both grammatical meaning and lexical meaning make up the word meaning and neither of them can exist without the other.

ЭКЗАМЕНАЦИОННЫЙ БИЛЕТ № 28

1. Types of word segmentability

Within the English word stock maybe distinguished morphologically segment-able and non-segmentable words (soundless, rewrite — segmentable; book, car — non-segmentable).

Morphemic segmentability may be of three types: 1. complete, 2. conditional, 3. defective.

2. Basic criteria of semantic derivation within conversion pairs

There are different criteria if differentiating between the source and the derived word in a conversion pair.

1. The criterion of the non-correspondence between the lexical meaning of the root-morpheme and the part-of-the speech meaning of the stem in one of the two words in a conversion pair. This criterion cannot be implied to abstract nouns.

2. The synonymity criterion is based on the comparison of a conversion pair with analogous synonymous word-pairs (e.g. comparing to chat – chat with synonymous pair of words to converse – conversation, it becomes obvious that the noun chat is the derived member as their semantic relations are similar). This criterion can be applied only to deverbal substantives.

3. The criterion of derivational relations. In the word-cluster hand – to hand – handful – handy the derived words of the first degree of derivation have suffixes added to the nominal base. Thus, the noun hand is the center of the word-cluster. This fact makes it possible to conclude that the verb to hand is the derived member.

4. The criterion of semantic derivation is based on semantic relations within the conversion pairs. If the semantic relations are typical of denominal verbs – verb is the derived member, but if they are typical of deverbal nouns – noun is the derived member (e.g. crowd – to crowd are perceived as those of ‘an object and an action characteristic of an object’ – the verb is the derived member).

5. According to the criterion of the frequency of occurrence a lower frequency value shows the derived character. (e.g. to answer (63%) – answer (35%) – the noun answer is the derived member).

6. The transformational criterion is based on the transformation of the predicative syntagma into a nominal syntagma (e.g. Mike visited his friends. – Mike’s visit to his friends. – then it is the noun that is derived member, but if we can’t transform the sentence, noun cannot be regarded as a derived member – Ann handed him a ball – XXX).

ЭКЗАМЕНАЦИОННЫЙ БИЛЕТ № 29

1. Word-formation: definition, basic peculiarities

2. Specialized dictionaries

Phraseological dictionaries have accumulated vast collections of idiomatic or colloquial phrases, proverbs and other, usually image-bearing word-groups with profuse illustrations. (An Anglo-Russian Phraseological Dictionary by A. V. Koonin)

New Words dictionaries have it as their aim adequate reflection of the continuous growth of the English language. (Berg P. A Dictionary of New Words in English)

Dictionaries of slang contain vulgarisms, jargonisms, taboo words, curse-words, colloquialisms, etc. (Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English by E. Partridge)

Usage dictionaries pass judgement on usage problems of all kinds, on what is right or wrong. Designed for native speakers they supply much various information on such usage problems as, e.g., the difference in meaning between words (like comedy, farce and burlesque; formalityand formalism), the proper pronunciation of words, the plural forms of the nouns (e.g. flamingo), the meaning of foreign and archaic words. (Dictionary of Modern English Usage by N. W. Fowler.)

Dictionaries of word-frequency inform the user as to the frequency of occurrence of lexical units in speech (oral or written). (M. West’s General Service List.)

A Reverse dictionary (back-to-front dictionaries) is a list of words in which the entry words are arranged in alphabetical order starting with their final letters. (Rhyming Dictionary of the English Language).

Pronouncing dictionaries record contemporary pronunciation. They indicate variant pronunciations (which are numerous in some cases), as well as the pronunciation of different grammatical forms. (English Pronouncing Dictionary by Daniel Jones)

Etymological dictionaries trace present-day words to the oldest forms available, establish their primary meanings and point out the immediate source of borrowing, its origin, and parallel forms in cognate languages. (Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology edited by С. Т. Onions.)

Ideographic dictionaries designed for English-speaking writers, orators or translators seeking to express their ideas adequately contain words grouped by the concepts expressed. (Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases.)

Besides the most important and widely used types of English dictionaries discussed above there are some others, such as synonym-books, spelling reference books, hard-words dictionaries, etc.

ЭКЗАМЕНАЦИОННЫЙ БИЛЕТ № 30

1. Meaning in morphemes

A morpheme is the smallest indivisible two-facet (form and meaning) language unit which implies an association of a certain meaning and sound-form. Unlike words, morphemes cannot function independently (they occur in speech only as parts of words).

Morphemes have certain semantic peculiarities that distinguish them from words.- the don’t have grammatical meaning. Concrete lexical meaning is found mainly in root-morphemes (e.g. ‘friend” – friendship). Lexical meaning of affixes is generalized (e.g. -er – doer of an action; re- — repetition of some action).

Lexical meaning in morphemes may be analyzed into connotational and denotational components. The connotational aspect of meaning may be found in root-morphemes and affixational morphemes (e.g. diminutive meaning: booklet).

The part-of-speech meaning is characteristic only of affixal morphemes; moreover, some affixal morphemes are devoid of any part of meaning but part-of-speech meaning (e.g. –ment).

Morphemes possess specific meanings (of their own). There are: 1) deferential meaning and 2) distributional meaning.

Differential meaning is the semantic component that serves to distinguish one word from others containing identical morphemes (e.g. bookshelf, bookcase, bookhaunter).

Distributional meaning is the meaning of order and arrangement of morphemes that make up the word (e.g. heartless X lessheart).

Identical morphemes may have different sound-form (e.g. divide, divisible, division – the root morpheme is represented phonetically in different ways. They are called allomorphs or morpheme variant of one and the same morpheme.

2. Morphemic types of words

According to the number of morphemes words maybe classified into: monomorphic (root) words e.g. live, house) and polymorphic words that consist of more than one morpheme (merciless).

Polymorphic words are subdivided into:

1. Monoradical (one-root) words may be of 3 subtypes: a) radical-suffixal words (e.g. helpless), b) radical-prefixal words (e.g. mistrust), c) prefixo-radical-suffixal words (e.g. misunderstanding).

2. Polyradical (two or more roots) words fall into: a) root morphemes without affixes (e.g. bookcase) and b) root morphemes with suffixes (e.g. straw-colored).

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What is the difference between fewer and less? — everything is simple

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What is the difference between fewer and less? — everything is simple

Rules of Use

What is the difference between fewer and less. use of the words much, many, few, little, a lot of and plenty of

little / a little

Countable and uncountable nouns — video tutorial

Uncountable nouns

13 mistakes in English that each of us makes

2. Continual and continuous

13 Difficulties in English and How to Avoid Them

Incorrect use of apostrophes

Your or you’re

What is the difference between fewer and less. example sentences ca little. use of few, a few, little, a little

Use few

Little

Using less and fewer. Use of the words much, many, few, little, a lot of and plenty of

Source: `https://lifehacker.ru/20-oshibok-v-anglijskom-yazyke-kotorye-delaet-kazhdyj-iz-nas/`