Is there a word called founded

Yes, it is. ‘Founded’ is the simple past tense form of the verb ‘to found’, which means to establish or lay the foundation for.

What is the noun form of founder?

Founder is also a verb meaning “fail miserably,” which is something a company’s founder hopes the company will never do. As a noun, founder means “the beginner or originator of something.” You might talk about the founder of a nation, the founder of club, or the founder of a website.

What is another word for well-informed?

In this page you can discover 17 synonyms, antonyms, idiomatic expressions, and related words for well-informed, like: well-read, open-minded, informed, advised, educated, learned, schooled, trained, versed, intelligent and better-informed.

Who is a well-rounded person?

You describe someone as well-rounded when you are expressing approval of them because they have a personality which is fully developed in all aspects. [approval] Liberal arts learning helps you become a well-educated, well-rounded person – someone who’s interested in the world and interesting to others. 2. adjective.

What do you call a jack of all trades?

In this page you can discover 10 synonyms, antonyms, idiomatic expressions, and related words for jack-of-all-trades, like: pantologist, proteus, versatile person, factotum, man-of-all-work, laborer, handyman, odd-job man, worker and tinker.

How do you say Jack of all trades professionally?

“When you work as a consultant you are very much a jack of all trades and master of none.”…What is another word for jack of all trades?

factotum	handyman
polymath	sciolist
knockabout	handyperson
odd-jobber	odd-job man
Mr Fixit	man of all work

What’s a fancy word for handyman?

In this page you can discover 11 synonyms, antonyms, idiomatic expressions, and related words for handyman, like: man-of-all-work, jack-of-all-trades, hired man, helper, laborer, fixer, locksmith, servant, odd-job man, plumber and electrician.

What is better than Jack of all trades?

The phrase “Jack of all trades, master of none” has taken on several forms – with both negative and positive connotations. An alternate version of the phrase now goes: “Jack of all trades, master of none is oftentimes better than master of one.”

What do you call a female jack of all trades?

“Jack of all trades” or the feminine equivalent “Jill of all trades” is the worst personal brand ever, because it says “I can do a lot of things, but I’m not sure what specific pain I relieve. Employers have pain. That’s why they hire people.

Is it possible to be a jack of all trades?

The idea that being a ‘jack of all trades, master of none’ developer is a bad thing is a fallacy. There’s nothing wrong with being a jack of all trades, just as there’s nothing wrong with being a master of one. The most benefits are gained by those that embrace both ways of thinking.

Is Jack of all trades master of none an insult?

For years, we’ve used the idiom “jack of all trades, master of none” as a negative. Picking a specific skill and learning to master it is believed to be more important to a successful career, than being able to turn your hand to a number of tasks.

What does Jack of all trades master of none?

Meaning: Often used in negative light to describe someone who can do many different things, but is not particularly good at any one of them.

What is the opposite of jack of all trades?

If the opposite in mind is “Jack of none, master of none”, you could use unskilled or untrained. J.R. suggested in a comment that novice or neophyte could also be used. You could also use incompetent but that usually has negative connotations.

Are CEOs jack of all trades?

It helps to be able to laugh at yourself and create a culture that people want to participate in. Startup CEOs are jack-of-all-trades by necessity. The chaotic and twisty nature of a startup’s early life requires careful judgment since these decisions will likely have a material impact on the scant resources available.

What is another word for polymath?

What is another word for polymath?

genius	intellectual
academic	scholar
bookworm	sage
bookish person	bluestocking
intellectualist	geek

What is another word for renaissance man?

n. Bookman, student, scholar, scholarly person.

Who said Jack of all trades master of none?

Robert Greene

Why is it called a jack of all trades?

The term is used derogatorily to describe a multi-skilled person with average efficiency. He is therefore a “Jack of all trades, but master of none”. The term’s origin goes back to when Jack was used as a generic name for any general representative of the common people.

What Jack means?

1 : a device for lifting something heavy a short distance. 2 : a playing card with the picture of a young man. 3 : a small six-pointed usually metal object used in a children’s game ( jacks ) 4 : a socket used with a plug to connect one electric circuit with another.

Does Jack mean money?

jack = a pound, and earlier (from the 1600s), a farthing. jacks = five pounds, from cockney rhyming slang: jack’s alive = five. Not used in the singular for in this sense, for example a five pound note would be called a ‘jacks’.

What is a Jack in royalty?

A jack or knave, in some games referred to as a bower, is a playing card which, in traditional French and English decks, pictures a man in the traditional or historic aristocratic or courtier dress, generally associated with Europe of the 16th or 17th century. The usual rank of a jack is between the ten and the queen.

How do you spell jack up?

Correct spelling for the English word “jack up” is [d͡ʒˈak ˈʌp], [d‍ʒˈak ˈʌp], [dʒ_ˈa_k ˈʌ_p] (IPA phonetic alphabet)….Similar spelling words for JACK UP

1. jazz up,
2. Jakob,
3. jack off.

The date of establishment or date of founding of an institution is the date on which that institution chooses to claim as its starting point.

Is there a word called founded?

This word comes from the old French fonder and the Latin fundus which means bottom or base. In this context, we use ‘founded’ as the past tense of found. We founded this organization in 1996 with the aim of educating the poor.

How do you use founded in a sentence?

founded in a sentence

1. I .
2. U .
3. A pediatrician, Redlener founded the Children’s Health Fund.
4. Frank Strother founded and gave his name to an institute here.
5. Founded in 1975, Chippendales began business as a regular nightclub.
6. Schnapp founded and was president of the Pet Owners Protective Association.

Is it found or founded?

“Found” is the past tense of “to find.” As in, if you are searching for something you will be happy when you find it. “Founded” is the past tense of “to found,” which means to establish something, like a company.

WHAT mean settlers?

1 : one that settles something a settler of disputes. 2 : someone who settles in a new region or colony the first settlers of New England.

Why is settler colonialism important?

Settler colonialism is an ongoing system of power that perpetuates the genocide and repression of indigenous peoples and cultures. Essentially hegemonic in scope, settler colonialism normalizes the continuous settler occupation, exploiting lands and resources to which indigenous peoples have genealogical relationships.

What is settler culture?

Settler society is a theoretical term in early modern and modern history that describes a common link between modern, predominantly European, attempts to permanently settle in other areas of the world. It is used to distinguish settler colonies from resource extraction colonies.

Do you capitalize settlers?

Capitalize according to Indigenous preference, not to standard resources. Avoid possessives before groups (e.g., Canada’s Indigenous Peoples). Use the term settlers (noun) instead of colonizers, Europeans, newcomers, and so on; use settler (adjective) instead of colonial, European, Euro-Canadian, and so on.

What is a settler in history?

A settler is a person who has migrated to an area and established a permanent residence there, often to colonize the area. Settlers are generally from a sedentary culture, as opposed to nomadic peoples who may move settlements seasonally, within traditional territories.

What is settler nativism?

Settler nativism is about imagining an Indian past and a settler future; in contrast, tribal sovereignty has provided for an Indigenous present and various Indigenous intellectuals theorize decolonization as Native futures without a settler state.

Does residential school need to be capitalized?

In writings on the impact of colonization on Aboriginal people, certain words—such as Survivor, Residential School and Residential School Legacy—are often capitalized.

Why is it important to learn about residential schools?

In addition to fostering healing, it is important to teach about the history of residential schools in order to fully understand the current state of Aboriginal concerns within Canada. By educating citizens on this history it allows for the exposure of the tragic events that occurred within the schools.

Asked by: Marilou Johnson

Score: 4.8/5
(50 votes)

in the fifth place; fifth.

What does Fifthly mean?

a. one of five equal or nearly equal parts of an object, quantity, measurement, etc. b. (as modifier) a fifth part.

What is another word for Fifthly?

Is Fifthly a adverb?

fifthly adverb — Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes | Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary at OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com.

What is it called when you ask someone a lot of questions?

inquisitive. adjective. asking a lot of questions about things, especially things that people do not want to talk about.

30 related questions found

A. Fill in the missing word. There are three words you do not need to use.

designing, artistic, still, portray, starring, stunts, spray, private, set, miniature, plots, remain

1. … pieces of art are called micro sculptures.

2. You can’t imagine adventure films and blockbusters without any … .

3. Some people choose to … anonymous because they are afraid of being in the spotlight.

4. The film is … in medieval times.

5. While the photographer was taking our picture we stayed perfectly … .

6. Crime novels always have interesting and mysterious … .

7. What do his paintings … ?

8. … creativity is an essential part of life of humans.

9. That house is his … property.

B. Choose the correct answer.

10. Tim … see a science fiction film than a comedy.

a) would sooner b) would prefer c) sooner

11. We … go to a classical music concert than go to a rock concert.

a) would prefer b) would to c) would rather

12. Jane … to take photography classes than learn how to paint.

a) would b) would prefer c) would rather

13. Olga … going to the cinema on a weekday, when it’s not so crowded.

a) prefers b) would rather c) prefer

C. Complete the sentences with verbs formed using the prefixes re-, dis-, mis-, under- , over-.

14.My parents usually ….. about which film to go and see. (agree)

15.They ….. us in the restaurant but they gave us some money back.(charge)

16.The foreigners are difficult to understand because they ….. many Russian words.(pronounce)

17.You should ….. your composition because you made many mistakes. (write)

18.We were sorry to realize that we ….. in the shop. (pay)

D. Fill in the gaps with the correct preposition.

19.Pushkin is one of the best poet ….. all time.

20.He is popular ….. fans of art cinema.

21.This director is famous ….. his comedies.

22.Who stars ….. Pirates of the Caribbean?

23.The paintings add value ….. the house.

E. Read the text and answer the questions that follow.

WEEKEND ARTS REVIEW: FILMS

A The Class

The Class is about a young teacher who works at a school in a poor area of Paris and his difficult students. The story was originally a book written by Frangois Begaudeau. The film tells the sad story of how a teacher tries to teach his class of teenage students but fails, because the students don’t respect education or teachers, and because they have no desire to learn. Everyone who stars in the film (including Begaudeau, who plays himself) is a non-professional. People expect The Class to be boring because the teacher-student theme has appeared in films many times before, but it isn’t. It is an absolutely brilliant film and no one should miss it.

B Slumdog Millionaire

Director Danny Boyle’s Slumdog Millionaire is the story of Jamal, a poor boy in India, who goes on the TV show ‘Who wants to be a millionaire?’. The story was originally a prize-winning novel by Indian author Vikas Swarup. Jamal wins the TV show. But before he does, they take him to a police station because the police think that he is cheating. While the police ask Jamal questions, we see events from Jamal’s life which explain why he knows the answers.

At one point, the creators of Slumdog Millionaire had decided not to show it in film theatres, and just make it into a DVD. Luckily, they changed their minds, because this film is now an international hit!

C American Teen

American Teen is a documentary film by director Nanette Burstein. Burnstein filmed the lives of five teenagers, who go to a school in Indiana, USA. She followed the students filming their everyday lives for a year, because she wanted to show what it is like to be a teenager in America today.

American Teen is an enjoyable documentary, but sometimes it doesn’t feel true to life. In fact, some film critics think that Burstein gave the teens lines to learn. But in interviews, the teenagers have always said that the film is 100% real-life and no one is acting.

Whether real-life or not, American Teen is an entertaining look at young people today.

Which film (A, B, or C) …

24. was not going to play in cinemas at first?

25. does not seem realistic to some people?

26. is interesting even though the plot is not original?

27. is extremely popular all over the world?

28. is about someone trying but not succeeding?

29. was first a very successful book?

30. is about daily life experiences?

Fill in the missing word. There are two answers you do not need to use.

● native ● set aside ●local cuisine ● unique ●majestic ● snaps ●symbols

● landmarks ● guided tour ● lift ● book ● set off

1

I was cleaning out my room and found some old
……………………… from our childhood holidays.

6

We should ………………………. on our trip before
sunrise tomorrow, if we want to reach

our destination by noon.

2

You should …………………………………….. a hotel
room now; July is a very busy month, and if you

leave it too late you won’t find the dates you want.

7

We had a(n) …………………………… view of the
ocean from our hotel room.

3

Whenever I travel abroad, I always visit the most

popular museums and taste the………………………

8

The Clock Tower, more commonly known as

Big Ben, is one of the most famous………………………..
in London.

4

If you’re planning on seeing everything in such

a short time, I would suggest taking a(n)
……………………They cover a lot of sights
in little time.

9

Backpacking through Europe after graduation

was a(n) …………………………. experience

for meand my friends.

5

Did you know that the………………………… .. people
of Australia are called Aborigines?

10

Can you please give me a(n)
to the airport tomorrow morning? I’d rather not

take a taxi.

Английский язык для 7-го класса
Предмет:	Английский язык
Класс:	7 класс
Автор учебника:	Афанасьева О.В. Михеева И.В.
Год издания:	2016
Издательство:
Кол-во заданий:
Кол-во упражнений:	541
Мы в социальных сетях
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Описание задания[править | править код]

Read the text once very attentively and complete the sentences after it with the appropriate variants.

The Printed Word[править | править код]

The earliest books were written on tablets of wood or pieces of bark. In Greece and Rome the tablets of wood were covered with wax, and writing was impressed upon them with a small stick called «stylus». These tablets were held together on one side with thin strips of leather or metal rings. In Assyria and Babylonia clay tablets were used for writing, and the words were drawn with a piece of wood. After baking the tablets were kept on shelves just like books are kept today. Although the clay tablets didn’t look very beautiful, they were long-lasting and some of them survived until the present day. The earliest books of the ancient world were written on papyrus and skins of young animals. These books took the form of a long strip rolled from one cylinder to another. These writings were known to the Romans as uolumen from which comes the word volume. Though paper has been known in China since the first century, the secret of papermaking came to Europe much later.

Books were quite common in ancient Rome: we know that there were many booksellers and the first public library was founded there about 39 B.C. Only the rich could buy books or make their slaves copy books from important libraries. By the time of the Middle Ages all books were handwritten and often beautifully decorated. Libraries used to chain books to the shelves so that they could not be removed from the building. But very few people could read them. The invention of printing was a really great event in history. The first people to invent printing were the Chinese. In Europe there were several people who can be called inventors of printing. The best-known is Johann Gutenberg from Germany.

Printing spread quickly over Europe and by the end of the 15th century there were more than 200 presses. The early printers were not only craftsmen, but also editors, publishers and booksellers. The first printing press in England was set up by William Caxton at Westminster in 1476, and the first printing press in Russia — by Ivan Fedorov in Moscow in 1564. Printed books soon reached a very high standard and the craftsmen were rightfully proud of their work. Eventually there were more and more people in Europe who could read and they wanted more and more books. That led to opening more libraries.

Early libraries were used only by scientists and were few. By and by they grew in number and began to be used by the public. The 19th century saw the appearance of a proper system of public libraries. Now most countries have their own national libraries. Many old university libraries have rich collections of books: Oxford and Cambridge in England, Harvard and Yale Lierl in the United States. Among the great libraries of the world we can name the British Museum Library (the British Library) in London, the Library of Congress in the United States, the Beijing Library in China, the State Public Library in Moscow, Bibliotheque Nationale in France. The world’s largest is the US Library of Congress. It holds about 90 million items — books and manuscripts. The library was founded in 1800 in Washington, DC for the use of Congress and later became a public library. Bibliotheque Nationale dates back to the 17th century and he British Museum Library was set in the 18th century. The State Public Library in Moscow was founded in 1862 and has unique collections of books.

Modern libraries do their best to help people get information as quickly as possible. They use computers and electronic catalogues. Probably the most difficult problem for any library is to keep their books, journals and films. How they do it is a new story.

Задания к тексту[править | править код]

1. In ancient Rome people used to sell books
a) people used to sell books
b) rich people founded public libraries
c) a lot of people were able to read books in the libraries
d) slaves were not allowed to touch books
2. The US Library of Congress is as big as the British Museum Library
a) has only printed editions
b) is as big as the British Museum Library
c) is the oldest of all famous public libraries
d) is used not only by American congressmen

Перевод задания[править | править код]

Книгопечатание[править | править код]

Самые ранние книги были написаны на табличках из дерева или кусочках коры. В Греции и Риме деревянные таблички были покрыты воском, и на них выдавливали небольшой палочкой под названием «стилус». Эти таблички удерживались вместе на одной стороне с помощью тонких полосок кожаных или металлических колец. В Ассирии и Вавилонии глиняные таблички использовались для письма, а слова были выдавлены куском дерева. После выпечки таблетки хранились на полках, как книги сегодня. Хотя глиняные таблички выглядели не очень красиво, они были долговечны, и некоторые из них сохранились до наших дней. Самые ранние книги древнего мира были написаны на папирусе и шкурах молодых животных. Эти книги приняли форму длинной полосы, катящейся от одного цилиндра к другому. Эти писания были известны римлянам как свитки, из которого происходит слово объем. Хотя бумага была известна в Китае с первого столетия, секрет производства бумаги пришел в Европу гораздо позже.

Книги были довольно распространены в Древнем Риме: мы знаем, что было много продавцов книг, и первая публичная библиотека была основана там около 39 г. до нашей эры. Только богатые люди могли покупать книги или заставлять своих рабов копировать книги из важных библиотек. Ко времени средневековья все книги были написаны от руки и часто красиво украшены. Библиотеки приковывали книги к полкам, чтобы их нельзя было убрать из здания. Но мало кто мог прочитать их. Изобретение печати было действительно великим событием в истории. Первыми, кто изобрел печать, были китайцы. В Европе было несколько человек, которых можно назвать изобретателями печати. Самый известный — Иоганн Гутенберг из Германии.

Печать быстро распространилась по Европе, и к концу 15-го века было более 200 печатных машин. Первые печатники были не только мастерами, но и редакторами, издателями и продавцами книг. Первая печатная машина в Англии была создана Уильямом Кэкстоном в Вестминстере в 1476 году, а первая печатная машина в России — Иваном Федоровым в Москве в 1564 году. Печатные книги вскоре достигли очень высоких стандартов, и мастера по праву гордились своей работой. В конце концов, в Европе появлялось все больше и больше людей, которые могли читать, и они хотели все больше и больше книг. Это привело к открытию большего количества библиотек.

Ранние библиотеки использовались только учеными и были немногочисленными. Постепенно их стало больше и они стали использоваться обществом. В 19 веке появилась надлежащая система общественных библиотек. Сейчас в большинстве стран есть свои национальные библиотеки. Многие старые университетские библиотеки имеют богатые коллекции книг: Оксфорд и Кембридж в Англии, Гарвард и Йельский университет в Соединенных Штатах. Среди великих мировых библиотек можно назвать Британскую музейную библиотеку в Лондоне, Библиотеку Конгресса США, Пекинскую библиотеку в Китае, Государственную публичную библиотеку в Москве, Национальную библиотеку во Франции. Самой большой в мире является Библиотека Конгресса США. В нем хранится около 90 миллионов предметов — книги и рукописи. Библиотека была основана в 1800 году в Вашингтоне, округ Колумбия, для использования Конгрессом, а затем стала публичной библиотекой. Национальная библиотека датируется 17 веком, а Британская музейная библиотека была основана в 18 веке. Государственная публичная библиотека в Москве была основана в 1862 году и имеет уникальные коллекции книг.

Современные библиотеки делают все возможное, чтобы помочь людям получить информацию как можно быстрее. Они пользуются компьютерами и электронными технологиями. Наверное, самая трудная задача для любой библиотеки-сохранить свои книги, журналы и фильмы. Как они это делают-это новая история.

Вопросы к тексту[править | править код]

1. В древнем Риме люди продавали книги
а) люди продавали книги
б) богатые люди основали публичные библиотеки
в) многие люди могли читать книги в библиотеках
г) рабам не разрешали трогать книги
2. Библиотека Конгресса США такая же большая, как Библиотека Британского музея.
а) имеет только печатные издания
б) такая же большая, как Библиотека Британского музея
в) является старейшей из всех известных публичных библиотек
г) используется не только американскими конгрессменами

Другие задания учебника учебника[править | править код]

• #1

Hi,
Is there a word called «Hilly» ? Is it correct if I use «hilly drive» in a sentence?

Thanks in advance.

• #2

Hullo JMCI. Have you noticed that we have a dictionary at the top of the page? >>> hilly.

• #3

Of course «hilly» is a word, but it’s usually used to describe terrain.

What is your whole sentence?

This article is about the unit of speech and writing. For the computer software, see Microsoft Word. For other uses, see Word (disambiguation).

A word is a basic element of language that carries an objective or practical meaning, can be used on its own, and is uninterruptible.^[1] Despite the fact that language speakers often have an intuitive grasp of what a word is, there is no consensus among linguists on its definition and numerous attempts to find specific criteria of the concept remain controversial.^[2] Different standards have been proposed, depending on the theoretical background and descriptive context; these do not converge on a single definition.^{[3]: 13:618} Some specific definitions of the term «word» are employed to convey its different meanings at different levels of description, for example based on phonological, grammatical or orthographic basis. Others suggest that the concept is simply a convention used in everyday situations.^[4]: 6

The concept of «word» is distinguished from that of a morpheme, which is the smallest unit of language that has a meaning, even if it cannot stand on its own.^[1] Words are made out of at least one morpheme. Morphemes can also be joined to create other words in a process of morphological derivation.^[2]: 768 In English and many other languages, the morphemes that make up a word generally include at least one root (such as «rock», «god», «type», «writ», «can», «not») and possibly some affixes («-s», «un-«, «-ly», «-ness»). Words with more than one root («[type][writ]er», «[cow][boy]s», «[tele][graph]ically») are called compound words. In turn, words are combined to form other elements of language, such as phrases («a red rock», «put up with»), clauses («I threw a rock»), and sentences («I threw a rock, but missed»).

In many languages, the notion of what constitutes a «word» may be learned as part of learning the writing system.^[5] This is the case for the English language, and for most languages that are written with alphabets derived from the ancient Latin or Greek alphabets. In English orthography, the letter sequences «rock», «god», «write», «with», «the», and «not» are considered to be single-morpheme words, whereas «rocks», «ungodliness», «typewriter», and «cannot» are words composed of two or more morphemes («rock»+»s», «un»+»god»+»li»+»ness», «type»+»writ»+»er», and «can»+»not»).

Definitions and meanings

Since the beginning of the study of linguistics, numerous attempts at defining what a word is have been made, with many different criteria.^[5] However, no satisfying definition has yet been found to apply to all languages and at all levels of linguistic analysis. It is, however, possible to find consistent definitions of «word» at different levels of description.^[4]: 6 These include definitions on the phonetic and phonological level, that it is the smallest segment of sound that can be theoretically isolated by word accent and boundary markers; on the orthographic level as a segment indicated by blank spaces in writing or print; on the basis of morphology as the basic element of grammatical paradigms like inflection, different from word-forms; within semantics as the smallest and relatively independent carrier of meaning in a lexicon; and syntactically, as the smallest permutable and substitutable unit of a sentence.^[2]: 1285

In some languages, these different types of words coincide and one can analyze, for example, a «phonological word» as essentially the same as «grammatical word». However, in other languages they may correspond to elements of different size.^[4]: 1 Much of the difficulty stems from the eurocentric bias, as languages from outside of Europe may not follow the intuitions of European scholars. Some of the criteria for «word» developed can only be applicable to languages of broadly European synthetic structure.^[4]: 1-3 Because of this unclear status, some linguists propose avoiding the term «word» altogether, instead focusing on better defined terms such as morphemes.^[6]

Dictionaries categorize a language’s lexicon into individually listed forms called lemmas. These can be taken as an indication of what constitutes a «word» in the opinion of the writers of that language. This written form of a word constitutes a lexeme.^{[2]: 670-671} The most appropriate means of measuring the length of a word is by counting its syllables or morphemes.^[7] When a word has multiple definitions or multiple senses, it may result in confusion in a debate or discussion.^[8]

Phonology

One distinguishable meaning of the term «word» can be defined on phonological grounds. It is a unit larger or equal to a syllable, which can be distinguished based on segmental or prosodic features, or through its interactions with phonological rules. In Walmatjari, an Australian language, roots or suffixes may have only one syllable but a phonologic word must have at least two syllables. A disyllabic verb root may take a zero suffix, e.g. luwa-ø ‘hit!’, but a monosyllabic root must take a suffix, e.g. ya-nta ‘go!’, thus conforming to a segmental pattern of Walmatjari words. In the Pitjantjatjara dialect of the Wati language, another language form Australia, a word-medial syllable can end with a consonant but a word-final syllable must end with a vowel.^[4]: 14

In most languages, stress may serve a criterion for a phonological word. In languages with a fixed stress, it is possible to ascertain word boundaries from its location. Although it is impossible to predict word boundaries from stress alone in languages with phonemic stress, there will be just one syllable with primary stress per word, which allows for determining the total number of words in an utterance.^[4]: 16

Many phonological rules operate only within a phonological word or specifically across word boundaries. In Hungarian, dental consonants /d/, /t/, /l/ or /n/ assimilate to a following semi-vowel /j/, yielding the corresponding palatal sound, but only within one word. Conversely, external sandhi rules act across word boundaries. The prototypical example of this rule comes from Sanskrit; however, initial consonant mutation in contemporary Celtic languages or the linking r phenomenon in some non-rhotic English dialects can also be used to illustrate word boundaries.^[4]: 17

It is often the case that a phonological word does not correspond to our intuitive conception of a word. The Finnish compound word pääkaupunki ‘capital’ is phonologically two words (pää ‘head’ and kaupunki ‘city’) because it does not conform to Finnish patterns of vowel harmony within words. Conversely, a single phonological word may be made up of more than one syntactical elements, such as in the English phrase I’ll come, where I’ll forms one phonological word.^{[3]: 13:618}

Lexemes

A word can be thought of as an item in a speaker’s internal lexicon; this is called a lexeme. Nevertheless, it is considered different from a word used in everyday speech, since it is assumed to also include inflected forms. Therefore, the lexeme teapot refers to the singular teapot as well as the plural, teapots. There is also the question to what extent should inflected or compounded words be included in a lexeme, especially in agglutinative languages. For example, there is little doubt that in Turkish the lexeme for house should include nominative singular ev or plural evler. However, it is not clear if it should also encompass the word evlerinizden ‘from your houses’, formed through regular suffixation. There are also lexemes such as «black and white» or «do-it-yourself», which, although consist of multiple words, still form a single collocation with a set meaning.^{[3]: 13:618}

Grammar

Grammatical words are proposed to consist of a number of grammatical elements which occur together (not in separate places within a clause) in a fixed order and have a set meaning. However, there are exceptions to all of these criteria.^[4]: 19

Single grammatical words have a fixed internal structure; when the structure is changed, the meaning of the word also changes. In Dyirbal, which can use many derivational affixes with its nouns, there are the dual suffix -jarran and the suffix -gabun meaning «another». With the noun yibi they can be arranged into yibi-jarran-gabun («another two women») or yibi-gabun-jarran («two other women») but changing the suffix order also changes their meaning. Speakers of a language also usually associate a specific meaning with a word and not a single morpheme. For example, when asked to talk about untruthfulness they rarely focus on the meaning of morphemes such as -th or -ness.^[4]: 19-20

Semantics

Leonard Bloomfield introduced the concept of «Minimal Free Forms» in 1928. Words are thought of as the smallest meaningful unit of speech that can stand by themselves.^[9]: 11 This correlates phonemes (units of sound) to lexemes (units of meaning). However, some written words are not minimal free forms as they make no sense by themselves (for example, the and of).^[10]: 77 Some semanticists have put forward a theory of so-called semantic primitives or semantic primes, indefinable words representing fundamental concepts that are intuitively meaningful. According to this theory, semantic primes serve as the basis for describing the meaning, without circularity, of other words and their associated conceptual denotations.^[11][12]

Features

In the Minimalist school of theoretical syntax, words (also called lexical items in the literature) are construed as «bundles» of linguistic features that are united into a structure with form and meaning.^{[13]: 36–37} For example, the word «koalas» has semantic features (it denotes real-world objects, koalas), category features (it is a noun), number features (it is plural and must agree with verbs, pronouns, and demonstratives in its domain), phonological features (it is pronounced a certain way), etc.

Orthography

In languages with a literary tradition, the question of what is considered a single word is influenced by orthography. Word separators, typically spaces and punctuation marks are common in modern orthography of languages using alphabetic scripts, but these are a relatively modern development in the history of writing. In character encoding, word segmentation depends on which characters are defined as word dividers. In English orthography, compound expressions may contain spaces. For example, ice cream, air raid shelter and get up each are generally considered to consist of more than one word (as each of the components are free forms, with the possible exception of get), and so is no one, but the similarly compounded someone and nobody are considered single words.

Sometimes, languages which are close grammatically will consider the same order of words in different ways. For example, reflexive verbs in the French infinitive are separate from their respective particle, e.g. se laver («to wash oneself»), whereas in Portuguese they are hyphenated, e.g. lavar-se, and in Spanish they are joined, e.g. lavarse.^[a]

Not all languages delimit words expressly. Mandarin Chinese is a highly analytic language with few inflectional affixes, making it unnecessary to delimit words orthographically. However, there are many multiple-morpheme compounds in Mandarin, as well as a variety of bound morphemes that make it difficult to clearly determine what constitutes a word.^[14]: 56 Japanese uses orthographic cues to delimit words, such as switching between kanji (characters borrowed from Chinese writing) and the two kana syllabaries. This is a fairly soft rule, because content words can also be written in hiragana for effect, though if done extensively spaces are typically added to maintain legibility. Vietnamese orthography, although using the Latin alphabet, delimits monosyllabic morphemes rather than words.

Word boundaries

The task of defining what constitutes a «word» involves determining where one word ends and another word begins, that is identifying word boundaries. There are several ways to determine where the word boundaries of spoken language should be placed:^[5]

• Potential pause: A speaker is told to repeat a given sentence slowly, allowing for pauses. The speaker will tend to insert pauses at the word boundaries. However, this method is not foolproof: the speaker could easily break up polysyllabic words, or fail to separate two or more closely linked words (e.g. «to a» in «He went to a house»).
• Indivisibility: A speaker is told to say a sentence out loud, and then is told to say the sentence again with extra words added to it. Thus, I have lived in this village for ten years might become My family and I have lived in this little village for about ten or so years. These extra words will tend to be added in the word boundaries of the original sentence. However, some languages have infixes, which are put inside a word. Similarly, some have separable affixes: in the German sentence «Ich komme gut zu Hause an«, the verb ankommen is separated.
• Phonetic boundaries: Some languages have particular rules of pronunciation that make it easy to spot where a word boundary should be. For example, in a language that regularly stresses the last syllable of a word, a word boundary is likely to fall after each stressed syllable. Another example can be seen in a language that has vowel harmony (like Turkish):^[15]: 9 the vowels within a given word share the same quality, so a word boundary is likely to occur whenever the vowel quality changes. Nevertheless, not all languages have such convenient phonetic rules, and even those that do present the occasional exceptions.
• Orthographic boundaries: Word separators, such as spaces and punctuation marks can be used to distinguish single words. However, this depends on a specific language. East-asian writing systems often do not separate their characters. This is the case with Chinese, Japanese writing, which use logographic characters, as well as Thai and Lao, which are abugidas.

Morphology

Morphology is the study of word formation and structure. Words may undergo different morphological processes which are traditionally classified into two broad groups: derivation and inflection. Derivation is a process in which a new word is created from existing ones, often with a change of meaning. For example, in English the verb to convert may be modified into the noun a convert through stress shift and into the adjective convertible through affixation. Inflection adds grammatical information to a word, such as indicating case, tense, or gender.^[14]: 73

In synthetic languages, a single word stem (for example, love) may inflect to have a number of different forms (for example, loves, loving, and loved). However, for some purposes these are not usually considered to be different words, but rather different forms of the same word. In these languages, words may be considered to be constructed from a number of morphemes.

In Indo-European languages in particular, the morphemes distinguished are:

• The root.
• Optional suffixes.
• A inflectional suffix.

Thus, the Proto-Indo-European *wr̥dhom would be analyzed as consisting of

1. *wr̥-, the zero grade of the root *wer-.
2. A root-extension *-dh- (diachronically a suffix), resulting in a complex root *wr̥dh-.
3. The thematic suffix *-o-.
4. The neuter gender nominative or accusative singular suffix *-m.

Philosophy

Philosophers have found words to be objects of fascination since at least the 5th century BC, with the foundation of the philosophy of language. Plato analyzed words in terms of their origins and the sounds making them up, concluding that there was some connection between sound and meaning, though words change a great deal over time. John Locke wrote that the use of words «is to be sensible marks of ideas», though they are chosen «not by any natural connexion that there is between particular articulate sounds and certain ideas, for then there would be but one language amongst all men; but by a voluntary imposition, whereby such a word is made arbitrarily the mark of such an idea».^[16] Wittgenstein’s thought transitioned from a word as representation of meaning to «the meaning of a word is its use in the language.»^[17]

Classes

Each word belongs to a category, based on shared grammatical properties. Typically, a language’s lexicon may be classified into several such groups of words. The total number of categories as well as their types are not universal and vary among languages. For example, English has a group of words called articles, such as the (the definite article) or a (the indefinite article), which mark definiteness or identifiability. This class is not present in Japanese, which depends on context to indicate this difference. On the other hand, Japanese has a class of words called particles which are used to mark noun phrases according to their grammatical function or thematic relation, which English marks using word order or prosody.^{[18]: 21–24}

It is not clear if any categories other than interjection are universal parts of human language. The basic bipartite division that is ubiquitous in natural languages is that of nouns vs verbs. However, in some Wakashan and Salish languages, all content words may be understood as verbal in nature. In Lushootseed, a Salish language, all words with ‘noun-like’ meanings can be used predicatively, where they function like verb. For example, the word sbiaw can be understood as ‘(is a) coyote’ rather than simply ‘coyote’.^{[19][3]: 13:631} On the other hand, in Eskimo–Aleut languages all content words can be analyzed as nominal, with agentive nouns serving the role closest to verbs. Finally, in some Austronesian languages it is not clear whether the distinction is applicable and all words can be best described as interjections which can perform the roles of other categories.^{[3]: 13:631}

The current classification of words into classes is based on the work of Dionysius Thrax, who, in the 1st century BC, distinguished eight categories of Ancient Greek words: noun, verb, participle, article, pronoun, preposition, adverb, and conjunction. Later Latin authors, Apollonius Dyscolus and Priscian, applied his framework to their own language; since Latin has no articles, they replaced this class with interjection. Adjectives (‘happy’), quantifiers (‘few’), and numerals (‘eleven’) were not made separate in those classifications due to their morphological similarity to nouns in Latin and Ancient Greek. They were recognized as distinct categories only when scholars started studying later European languages.^{[3]: 13:629}

In Indian grammatical tradition, Pāṇini introduced a similar fundamental classification into a nominal (nāma, suP) and a verbal (ākhyāta, tiN) class, based on the set of suffixes taken by the word. Some words can be controversial, such as slang in formal contexts; misnomers, due to them not meaning what they would imply; or polysemous words, due to the potential confusion between their various senses.^[20]

History

In ancient Greek and Roman grammatical tradition, the word was the basic unit of analysis. Different grammatical forms of a given lexeme were studied; however, there was no attempt to decompose them into morphemes. ^[21]: 70 This may have been the result of the synthetic nature of these languages, where the internal structure of words may be harder to decode than in analytic languages. There was also no concept of different kinds of words, such as grammatical or phonological – the word was considered a unitary construct.^[4]: 269 The word (dictiō) was defined as the minimal unit of an utterance (ōrātiō), the expression of a complete thought.^[21]: 70

See also

• Longest words
• Utterance
• Word (computer architecture)
• Word count, the number of words in a document or passage of text
• Wording
• Etymology

Notes

References

Bibliography

• Barton, David (1994). Literacy: an introduction to the ecology of written language. Oxford, UK: Blackwell. p. 96. ISBN 0-631-19089-9. OCLC 28722223.
• The encyclopedia of language & linguistics. E. K. Brown, Anne Anderson (2nd ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier. 2006. ISBN 978-0-08-044854-1. OCLC 771916896.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
• Crystal, David (1995). The Cambridge encyclopedia of the English language. Cambridge [England]: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-40179-8. OCLC 31518847.
• Plag, Ingo (2003). Word-formation in English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-511-07843-9. OCLC 57545191.
• The Oxford English Dictionary. J. A. Simpson, E. S. C. Weiner, Oxford University Press (2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1989. ISBN 0-19-861186-2. OCLC 17648714.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)

Within linguistics, the terminology for parts of words varies according to theoretical perspective. Commonly, though, they are called morphemes.

Morphemes are frequently divided into various kinds, most basically, roots versus affixes. Roots are “open class” items, like objects (cat, chair, paper) or actions (run, arrive, fall), whereas affixes are “close class” items (such as the verbal endings ing, s, ed). That is to say, within a language, the stock of roots is large and expandable (when you encounter a new animal or invent a new gadget, you can coin a new root), whereas the set of affixes is small(er) and generally fixed (people rarely invent new verbal affixes).

Returning to your question, you can refer to para, sol, jay, and walk all as morphemes. Of these, para is an affix, and sol, jay, and walk are roots. Being a combination of two roots, jaywalk is said to be a compound (and, given that you can’t derive its meaning from the meanings of its constituent morphemes, it is said to be semantically opaque, or idiomatic). The root sol (also found in solar, solarium, solstice) does not occur in isolation (as a freestanding word sol), unlike jay and walk. So, it is called a bound root (or a cranberry morpheme, after the cran or cranberry, which also does not occur in isolation); jay and walk are free roots.