Is slang considered a word

Slang is vocabulary (words, phrases, and linguistic usages) of an informal register, common in verbal conversation but avoided in formal writing.^[1] It also sometimes refers to the language generally exclusive to the members of particular in-groups in order to establish group identity, exclude outsiders, or both. The word itself came about in the 18th century and has been defined in multiple ways since its conception.

Etymology of the word slang[edit]

In its earliest attested use (1756), the word slang referred to the vocabulary of «low» or «disreputable» people. By the early nineteenth century, it was no longer exclusively associated with disreputable people, but continued to be applied to usages below the level of standard educated speech.^[2] In Scots dialect it meant «talk, chat, gossip»,^[3] as used by Aberdeen poet William Scott in 1832: «The slang gaed on aboot their war’ly care.»
^[4] In northern English dialect it meant «impertinence, abusive language».^[5]

The origin of the word is uncertain, although it may be connected with thieves’ cant^{[citation needed]}. A Scandinavian origin has been proposed (compare, for example, Norwegian slengenavn, which means «nickname»), but based on «date and early associations» is discounted by the Oxford English Dictionary.^[2] Jonathon Green, however, agrees with the possibility of a Scandinavian origin, suggesting the same root as that of sling, which means «to throw», and noting that slang is thrown language – a quick and honest way to make your point.^[6][7]

Defining slang[edit]

Linguists have no simple and clear definition of slang, but agree that it is a constantly changing linguistic phenomenon present in every subculture worldwide. Some argue that slang exists because we must come up with ways to define new experiences that have surfaced with time and modernity.^[8] Attempting to remedy the lack of a clear definition, however, Bethany K. Dumas and Jonathan Lighter argue that an expression should be considered «true slang» if it meets at least two of the following criteria:^[8]

Michael Adams remarks that «[Slang] is liminal language… it is often impossible to tell, even in context, which interests and motives it serves… slang is on the edge.»^[9] Slang dictionaries, collecting thousands of slang entries, offer a broad, empirical window into the motivating forces behind slang.^[10]

While many forms of lexicon may be considered low-register or «sub-standard», slang remains distinct from colloquial and jargon terms because of its specific social contexts. While viewed as inappropriate in formal usage, colloquial terms are typically considered acceptable in speech across a wide range of contexts, while slang tends to be perceived as infelicitous in many common communicative situations. Jargon refers to language used by personnel in a particular field, or language used to represent specific terms within a field to those with a particular interest. Although jargon and slang can both be used to exclude non-group members from the conversation, the purpose of jargon is said to be optimizing conversation using terms that imply technical understanding.^[11] On the other hand, slang tends to emphasize social and contextual understanding.

While colloquialisms and jargon may seem like slang because they reference a particular group, they do not necessarily fit the same definition, because they do not represent a particular effort to replace the general lexicon of a standard language. Colloquialisms are considered more acceptable and more expected in standard usage than slang is, and jargon is often created to talk about aspects of a particular field that are not accounted for in the general lexicon.^[12] However, this differentiation is not consistently applied by linguists; the terms «slang» and «jargon» are sometimes treated as synonymous,^[13] and the scope of «jargon» is at times extended to mean all forms of socially-restricted language.^[14]

It is often difficult to differentiate slang from colloquialisms and even high-register lexicon, because slang generally becomes accepted into common vocabulary over time. Words such as «spurious» and «strenuous» were once perceived as slang, though they are now considered general, even high-register words. The literature on slang even discusses mainstream acknowledgment of a slang term as changing its status as true slang, because it has been accepted by the media and is thus no longer the special insider speech of a particular group. For example, Black American Music uses a lot of slang based on nationality and origin. The use of slang is a combinations of slurring and slurping words as a result. Nevertheless, a general test for whether a word is a slang word or not is whether it would be acceptable in an academic or legal setting, as both are arenas in which standard lexicon is considered necessary and/or whether the term has been entered in the Oxford English Dictionary, which some scholars claim changes its status as slang.^[12]

Examples of slang (cross-linguistic)[edit]

Formation of slang[edit]

It is often difficult to collect etymologies for slang terms, largely because slang is a phenomenon of speech, rather than written language and etymologies which are typically traced via corpus.

Eric Partridge, cited as the first to report on the phenomenon of slang in a systematic and linguistic way, postulated that a term would likely be in circulation for a decade before it would be written down.^[15] Nevertheless, it seems that slang generally forms via deviation from a standard form. This «spawning» of slang occurs in much the same way that any general semantic change might occur. The difference here is that the slang term’s new meaning takes on a specific social significance having to do with the group the term indexes.

Coleman also suggests that slang is differentiated within more general semantic change in that it typically has to do with a certain degree of «playfulness». The development of slang is considered to be a largely «spontaneous, lively, and creative» speech process.^[15]

Still, while a great deal of slang takes off, even becoming accepted into the standard lexicon, much slang dies out, sometimes only referencing a group. An example of this is the term «groovy» which is a relic of 1960s and 70s American hippie slang. Nevertheless, for a slang term to become a slang term, people must use it, at some point in time, as a way to flout standard language.^[12] Additionally, slang terms may be borrowed between groups, such as the term «gig» which was originally coined by jazz musicians in the 1930s and then borrowed into the same hippie slang of the 1960s.^[12] ‘The word «groovy» has remained a part of subculture lexicon since its popularization. It is still in common use today by a significant population. The word «gig» to refer to a performance very likely originated well before the 1930s, and remained a common term throughout the 1940s and 1950s before becoming vaguely associated with the hippie slang of the 1960s. The word «gig» is now a widely accepted synonym for a concert, recital, or performance of any type.

Generally, slang terms undergo the same processes of semantic change that words in the regular lexicon do.^[15]

Slang often forms from words with previously differing meanings, one example is the often used and popular slang word «lit», which was created by a generation labeled «Generation Z». The word itself used to be associated with something being on fire or being «lit» up until 1988 when it was first used in writing to indicate a person who was drunk^[16] in the book «Warbirds: Diary of an Unknown Aviator». Since this time «lit» has gained popularity through Rap songs such as ASAP Rocky’s «Get Lit» in 2011. As the popularity of the word has increased so too has the number of different meanings associated with the word. Now «lit» describes a person who is drunk and/or high, as well as an event that is especially awesome and «hype».

Words and phrases from popular Hollywood films and television series frequently become slang.^[17]

[edit]

Indexicality[edit]

Slang is usually associated with a particular social group and plays a role in constructing identity. While slang outlines social space, attitudes about slang partly construct group identity and identify individuals as members of groups. Therefore, using the slang of a particular group associates an individual with that group. Michael Silverstein’s orders of indexicality can be employed to assign a slang term as a second-order index to that particular group. Using a slang term, however, can also give an individual the qualities associated with the term’s group of origin, whether or not the individual is trying to identify as a member of the group. This allocation of qualities based on abstract group association is known as third-order indexicality.

As outlined in Elisa Mattiello’s book «An Introduction to English Slang»,^[18] a slang term can assume several levels of meaning and can be used for many reasons connected with identity. For example, male adolescents use the terms «foxy» and «shagadelic» to «show their belonging to a band, to stress their virility or their age, to reinforce connection with their peer group and to exclude outsiders, to show off, etc.» These two examples use both traditional and untraditional methods of word formation to create words with more meaning and expressiveness than the more direct and traditional words «sexy» and «beautiful»:

• The slang term «foxy» is arguably not even a case of word formation since this process (denominal adjective with -y suffix from «fox») already occurred in the formation of this word with its standard English meanings of «foxlike, crafty, cunning». Instead, the traditional word’s meaning is extended^[19] to «attractive, desirable, pretty, sexy» with the following added implications according to Mattiello:

From the semantic point of view, slangy foxy is more loaded than neutral sexy in terms of information provided. That is, for young people foxy means having the quality of: (1) attracting interest, attention, affection, (2) causing desire, (3) excellent or admirable in appearance, and (4) sexually provocative, exciting, etc., whereas sexy only refers to the quality indicated in point (4).

• «shagadelic» is a combination of a slang term with a slang suffix and therefore is considered an «extra-grammatical» creation.

Matiello stresses that those agents who identify themselves as «young men» have «genuinely coined» these terms and choose to use them over «canonical» terms —like beautiful or sexy—because of the indexicalized social identifications the former convey.

First and second order indexicality[edit]

In terms of first and second order indexicality, the usage of speaker-oriented terms by male adolescents indicated their membership to their age group, to reinforce connection to their peer group, and to exclude outsiders.^[18]

Higher-order indexicality[edit]

In terms of higher order indexicality, anyone using these terms may desire to appear fresher, undoubtedly more playful, faddish, and colourful than someone who employs the standard English term «beautiful». This appearance relies heavily on the hearer’s third-order understanding of the term’s associated social nuances and presupposed use-cases.^[18]

Subculture associations[edit]

Often, distinct subcultures will create slang that members will use in order to associate themselves with the group, or to delineate outsiders.

Slang terms are often known only within a clique or ingroup. For example, Leet («Leetspeak» or «1337») was originally popular only among certain internet subcultures such as software crackers and online video gamers. During the 1990s, and into the early 21st century, however, Leet became increasingly commonplace on the internet, and it has spread outside internet-based communication and into spoken languages.^[20] Other types of slang include SMS language used on mobile phones, and «chatspeak», (e.g., «LOL», an acronym meaning «laughing out loud» or «laugh out loud» or ROFL, «rolling on the floor laughing»), which are widely used in instant messaging on the internet.^[21]

As subcultures are often forms of counterculture, which is understood to oppose the norm, it follows that slang has come to be associated with counterculture.

Social media and internet slang[edit]

Slang is often adopted from social media as a sign of social awareness and shared knowledge of popular culture. This type known as internet slang has become prevalent since the early 2000s along with the rise in popularity of social networking services, including Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram. This has spawned new vocabularies associated with each new social media venue, such as the use of the term «friending» on Facebook, which is a verbification of «friend» used to describe the process of adding a new person to one’s group of friends on the website, despite the existence of an analogous term «befriend». This term is much older than Facebook, but has only recently entered the popular lexicon.^[22] Other examples of slang in social media demonstrate a proclivity toward shortened words or acronyms. These are especially associated with services such as Twitter, which (as of November 2017) has a 280-character limit for each message and therefore requires a relatively brief mode of expression.^[23] This includes the use of hashtags which explicitly state the main content of a message or image, such as #food or #photography.^[24]

Debates about slang[edit]

Some critics believe that when slang becomes more commonplace it effectively eradicates the «proper» use of a certain language. However, academic (descriptive) linguists believe that language is not static but ever-changing and that slang terms are valid words within a language’s lexicon. While prescriptivists study and promote the socially preferable or «correct» ways to speak, according to a language’s normative grammar and syntactical words, descriptivists focus on studying language to further understand the subconscious rules of how individuals speak, which makes slang important in understanding such rules. Noam Chomsky, a founder of anthropological linguistic thought, challenged structural and prescriptive grammar and began to study sounds and morphemes functionally, as well as their changes within a language over time.^[25]

In popular culture[edit]

The 1941 film, Ball of Fire, portrays a professor played by Gary Cooper who is researching and writing an encyclopedia article about slang.^[26]

See also[edit]

• A New Dictionary of the Terms Ancient and Modern of the Canting Crew
• Slang dictionary
• Urban Dictionary

References[edit]

External links[edit]

• A Dictionary of Slang, Jargon & Cant, Albert Barrère and Charles Godfrey Leland (1889 edition, full text, at Wikimedia Commons).
• The Online Slang Dictionary – American and English terms, features other statistical information.
• Bradley, Henry (1911). «Slang» . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 25 (11th ed.). pp. 207–210.
• SlangLang – Popular slang words with their meaning, origin and spread

Slang is a set of highly informal words and expressions that are not considered standard in the speaker’s dialect or language. Slang is often highly regional, specific to a particular territory or subculture. Slang words and expressions can spread outside their original arena, and some may even lose their slang status and become accepted as a standard language. Often, the widespread adoption of a slang term by mainstream culture will cause the subculture it originated in to create a new, less recognized term.

The origins of slang are usually found in the desire of those members of a particular group, or subculture, to communicate freely and intelligibly with each other from their common base of shared experience, interests, attitudes, and identity. This is, however, coupled with the desire to differentiate themselves either from another group, or from the larger society as a whole. Thus, slang involves the unconventional, even the taboo, (to differentiate the speaker from the norms of society) and often hostility and vulgar epithets for authorities or rivals (to differentiate from the «others» who are not members of the same group). Slang, therefore, has both positive and negative aspects. When it facilitates easier and familiar communication among those with a common base it functions to improve harmonious communication; when it draws distinctions, particularly hostile ones, building barriers between groups of people, it enhances the problems in human relationships that have been experienced throughout history.

Definition

According to Bethany K. Dumas and Jonathan Lighter,^[1] an expression should be considered «true slang» if it meets at least two of the following criteria:

• It lowers, if temporarily, «the dignity of formal or serious speech or writing»; in other words, it is likely to be seen in such contexts as a «glaring misuse of register» (where a «register» is a subset of a language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting).
• Its use implies that the user is familiar with whatever is referred to, or with a group of people that are familiar with it and use the term.
• «It is a taboo term in ordinary discourse with people of a higher social status or greater responsibility.»
• It replaces «a well known conventional synonym.» This is done primarily to avoid «the discomfort caused by the conventional item [or by] further elaboration.»

It is important to make a distinction between slang and jargon. Jargon is the technical vocabulary of a particular profession. Similarly to slang, those outside of the profession may not understand the terms or meaning of jargon. Unlike slang, however, jargon is not intended to exclude non-members of the group, and is concerned mainly with the technical peculiarities and specifics of a given field. Additionally, jargon does not fit the definition of slang, as it meets only a single criterion.

Origins of slang

During the Middle Ages, there was very little standardized language. Different dialects and pronunciations often represented one of the first concepts of «slang,» although dialects are specifically not slang. During the sixteenth century, English Criminal Cant evolved. A specific set of language that was created for use by criminals and cheats, English Criminal Cant was not originally considered slang (since it was a specifically developed «language»), but by the eighteenth century it had evolved into slang.

Around the mid-1600s, slang began to appear in popular plays, like that of Richard Brome, and also in poems and songs. By the eighteenth century, English slang was influenced by the cultural differences in America, and slang usage began to expand. Slang was often associated with either criminals or foreigners during this time, and often dealt with human anatomy or taboo topics like sexuality. It was not until the 1920s that society began to adopt a more liberal attitude towards slang. Slang became popular with fiction writers and society at large. The development of English slang was assisted by a number of events, such as the American Civil War and the abolitionist movement.^[2]

Types of Slang

One use of slang is to circumvent social taboos, as mainstream language tends to shy away from evoking certain realities. For this reason, slang vocabularies are particularly rich in certain domains, such as sexuality, violence, crime, and drugs. Argot (French and Spanish for «slang»), also known as cant, is slang used particularly by thieves and other criminals, to prevent outsiders from understanding their conversations.

Slang very often involves the creation of novel meanings for existing words. It is very common for such novel meanings to diverge significantly from the standard meaning. Thus, «cool» and «hot» can both mean «very good or impressive.»

Alternatively, slang can grow out of mere familiarity with the things described. For example, wine connoisseurs may refer to Cabernet Sauvignon as «Cab Sav,» Chardonnay as «Chard» and so on.^[3] Not only does using the abbreviated names for different wines expend less superfluous effort, but it also serves as a shared code among connoisseurs and evokes a sense of the speaker’s familiarity with wine.

Even within a single language community, slang tends to vary widely across social, ethnic, economic, and geographic strata. Slang sometimes grows more and more common until a term can become regarded as mainstream, acceptable language (for example, the Spanish word caballo or the English «movie»). Other times, the terms fall into disuse. Numerous slang terms pass into informal mainstream speech, and sometimes into formal speech, though this may involve a change in meaning or usage.

Cockney rhyming slang

Cockney rhyming slang is a form of English slang which originated in the East End of London, and has been popularized by film, music, and literature. Anthony Burgess used rhyming slang as a part of the fictitious «Nadsat» dialect in his classic book A Clockwork Orange.

Traditional Cockney rhyming slang works by taking two words that are related through a short phrase and using the first word to stand for a word that rhymes with the second. For instance, «boat» means «face» as «boat race» rhymes with face. Similarly, «plates» means «feet» («plates of meat»), and bread means «money» (bread and honey).

The origins of rhyming slang are disputed. It remains a matter of speculation as to whether rhyming slang evolved as a linguistic accident or whether it was developed intentionally to confuse non-locals. If deliberate, it might have simply been used to maintain a sense of community, or in the marketplace for vendors to talk amongst themselves without customers knowing what they were saying, or by criminals (similar to thieves’ cant) to confuse the police.

The proliferation of rhyming slang has meant many of its traditional expressions have passed into common language, and the creation of new ones (often ironically) is no longer restricted to Cockneys. Some substitutions have become relatively widespread in Britain, such as «have a butcher’s» (which means to have a look, from «butcher’s hook»), and these are often now used without awareness of their origins. Many English speakers are unaware that the term «use your loaf» is derived from «loaf of bread» meaning head. The extent of the use of rhyming slang is often exaggerated; only a very few phrases are in everyday use. Many examples are only used by people who are discussing rhyming slang, or by people who are being ironic or are making up a term on the spot for a joke, often at the expense of the tourist. In addition, since the original purpose was to encode or disguise speech from the comprehension of bystanders, terms that become too well-known still have a tendency to lose actual currency fairly quickly, putting whatever usage the slang enjoys into a constant flux.

Below are just a few of the most common examples of Cockney rhyming slang.

• Apples = apples and pears = stairs
• Barnet = Barnet Fair = hair
• Brass = Brass Flute = Prostitute
• Dog = dog and bone = telephone
• Jam = Jam jar = Car
• China = China plate = mate
• Frog = frog and toad = road
• Rosie = Rosie Lee = tea

Internet slang

The Internet has created an entire subculture of users, who have developed an extensive library of slang. Many internet slang terms originated with the purpose of saving keystrokes, and often appear in lower case. For example, «you» becomes «u» and «are» becomes «r.» Web forums are often credited with helping popularize and spread forms of internet slang. Online gaming is often responsible for the development and popularization of internet slang.

Within the Internet community, there are numerous subcultures with their own specific set of slang. Leet speak originated with hackers, and later became popular with the online gaming community. Leet (sometimes written as 1337 or l33t) uses various combinations of alphanumerics to replace letters of words. «E» is commonly replaced by «3,» and «S» by «5.» Leet commonly has its own sets of colloquialisms and jokes, and exists in a number of languages in addition to English, such as Greek, Russian, and Chinese. Excessive use of leet is often used to ridicule or satirize new members of an internet community, who are often referred to as n00bs (newbies or newcomers).

One of the most popular types of internet slang is the use of acronyms. For example, well-known acronyms include «LOL,» which stands for «laughing out loud.» «IMHO» for «in my humble opinion,» and «TTYL» meaning «talk to you later.» Instant messaging and texting over mobile phones have popularized a large amount of acronyms and abbreviations, as they are both quicker and easier to type than the full version. Numbers are sometimes incorporated into internet and text messaging slang. «L8r» uses the phonetic sound of «eight» to create the word «later.» Similarly, «h8» means «hate.»

«Emoticons» (smileys) are another popular form of internet slang. Emoticons are a form of ASCII art in which a short sequence of typed characters are used to resemble a facial expression and convey an emotion. They are viewed sideways, where a clockwise rotation of ninety degrees would orient them vertically. The most basic emoticon is :), where the colon represents the eyes and the parenthesis the mouth, forming a rough approximation of a «happy face.» Other common emoticons or «smileys» are «sad face»  and «shocked» 8-O. A great many variants of emoticons exist, such as 8D, =), =D, =>), >=D,:p, |=[, >8), >XD, and so forth. There is another variation of «smileys» resembling a wink by combining a semicolon and a parenthesis, such as ;), ;] or ;}. The differing use of parentheses can give the emoticon a slightly different slant; for example ;} can represent an evil or otherwise malicious wink.

The other major style of emoticon, which does not require the viewer to tilt their head, evolved in East Asia. In the basic smiling manga emoticon, ^_^, the carets representing the eyes, and the underscore a mouth. Notably, this «smiley» has a straight mouth and smiling eyes, suggesting a cultural difference in reading emotions.^[4] Other popular east Asian emoticons use Japanese characters.

Slang in popular culture

Many subcultures have numerous slang phrases unique to that specific subculture. Prison inmates have their own slang, as do musicians. Slang often originates within a group as a way to communicate without including outsiders, and thus is often found within groups of teenagers. The use of slang not only gives a group the ability to exclude outsiders, but serves as a means of bonding the group together through a shared vocabulary. Each culture generally has its own set of slang vocabulary, which can vary from region to region. In a large city, slang can even vary substantially from neighborhood to neighborhood.

Slang is often used in film and fiction. The proper use of slang can add a sense of realism to a work of fiction, as well as evoke a specific time period or point in history. Conversely, improper or forced use of slang can be the subject of ridicule. For example, teachers or other authority figures who attempt to use teenage slang are often made fun of by the teenagers they are trying to connect with.

It is important to note that while slang is often employed in creative works, it is rarely acceptable in formal and scholarly works. The use of slang in a formal or scholarly setting can instantly discredit the value of what a person has to say. (The major exception to this is, obviously, formal and scholarly studies on slang itself.)

Notes

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Ayto, John. The Oxford Dictionary of Rhyming Slang. Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 978-0198607519
• Cohen, Gerald L. and Barry Popik (eds.) Studies in Slang. Part VI. Peter Lang Publishing, 1999. ISBN 978-0820443775
• Croft, William. Explaining Language Change: An Evolutionary Approach. Pearson ESL, 2001. ISBN 978-0582356771
• Franklyn, Julian. A Dictionary of Rhyming Slang. London: Routledge, 1992. ISBN 978-0415046022
• Green, Jonathon. Cassell’s Rhyming Slang. London: Cassell, 2000. ISBN 978-0304355136
• Lillo, Antonio. «Bees, Nelsons and Sterling Denominations: A Brief Look at Cockney Slang and Coinage.» Journal of English Linguistics 28(2) (2000): 145-172.
• Lillo, Antonio. «From Alsatian Dog to Wooden Shoe: Linguistic Xenophobia in Rhyming Slang.» English Studies 82 (4)(2001): 336-348.
• Lillo, Antonio. «A Wee Keek at Scottish Rhyming Slang.» Scottish Language 23 (2004): 93-115.
• __________. «Exploring Rhyming Slang in Ireland.» English World-Wide 25(2) (2004): 273-285.

One of the developments which must certainly be credited to the nineteenth century is the growth of an objective and scientific attitude towards slang which has become one of the most prominent features of the English language.

Slang is very informal language that consists of words and phrases basically used in speech rather than writing and restricted in a specific region or a particular group of people.

Slang Definition

Slang has been defined by Greenough and Kittredge as

“a peculiar kind of vagabond language, always hanging on the outskirts of legitimate speech, but continually straying or forcing its way into the most respectable company.”

The Oxford English Dictionary defines slang as the

“language of a highly colloquial type, below the level of standard educated speech, and consisting cither of new words or of current words employed in some special sense.”

The following definition given by H. W. Fowler in his Modern English Usage, though inadequate by itself, is complementary to that of the Oxford Dictionary:

“the diction that results from the favourite game among the young and lively of playing with words and renaming things and actions.”

Origin of Slang

Slang has its root in topicality, convenience and elementary human nature. It originates and flourishes best in unconventionality. “Among the impulses which lead to the invention of slang”, Dr. H. Bradley says. “the two most important seem to be the desire to secure increased vivacity and the desire to secure increased sense of intimacy in the use of language.”

The conditions favouring the origin of slang is crowding and excitement As Camden Hotten has said, “Any sudden excitement or peculiar circumstance is quite sufficient to originate and set going a score of slang words.” Slang is as characteristic of the individual as of the clique, the profession, the trade and the class. In the opinion of Greenough and Kittredge the coinage and circulation of slang come from the desire of the individual to distinguish himself by oddity and grotesque humour. Another potent force that makes for slang is the impatience with existing words and phrases- the desire to escape from the restraints imposed by a formal standard. The man in the street considers the expression to dismiss tame and colourless, and so he substitutes “to give one the air”. For the same reason a young woman who fails to keep an engagement with a youngman stands him up. The desire to be novel and striking thus has much to do with the origin of slang. Again the desire to be secret and not to be understood by others around the slang-user has given birth to many slang. Students, very close friends, lovers, members of secret political societies, persons in prisons use slang with this end in view.

Slang is personal in its origin. It is the user who determines the matter and meaning of slang. And slang is devised by persons belonging to the different walks of life by persons of wit and ingenuity, stockbroker, scholar, labourer, lawyer, soldier, sailor, the man in the street, and the man in the car. Whatever the origin of slang, personality and environment are the two most powerful determinants of the nature of slang.

Uses of Slang

Slang, has some good uses. It enriches the language. It invests the abstract with solidity and concreteness, and the remote with nearness and immediacy It terrestrializes the ethereal, and brings down the idealistic to the materialistic level. But the greatest use of slang is in its euphemistic effect. There are many slangy expressions which mitigate the tragedy lightens the inevitability of death and prettifies folly or drunkenness. Among the euphemistic slang may be mentioned “make esay” (to kill), “step into a last bus” (to die), “hop the bags” (to attack the enemy across no man’s land), “in Adam and Eve’s togs” (naked), “excuse my French” (forgive me my strong language) etc.

Slang is sometimes used to amuse a superior and place self on an emotional and mental level with one’s audience. On many occasions a man has recourse to it to make known and even to assert that he belongs or has belonged to a certain school or collages or university, a certain trade or profession, an artistic or intellectual group of social class. In other words, he uses it in order to be in the swim” and establish contact. Slang is also employed to disperse or lessen the solemnity or excessive of gravity of conversation or the pomposity of a piece of writing.

Characteristics of Slang

The most important characteristic of slang is its tendency to rise in the verbal world, and thus to become ennobled. H.T. Buckle has very humorously said, “Many of these (slang) words and phrases are but serving their apprenticeship, and will eventually become the active strength of our language.” The slang of one generation has often become the literary language of the next. Many of the English idioms have come from slang, for “idiom is”, as John Brophy says, “fed by the tested inventions of slang”.

Among the slang phrases that have risen in status are “at fault” (from a dog’s losing the scent), “to start in” (to begin), “on the stocks” (in preparation), to peter out, down to bed rock, it is up to you to be in at the death, below the belt, mass play, knock-out blow etc.

Another distinctive characteristic of slang is its ephemerality. Since novelty is a quality which soon wears off, slang which derives its life from novelty has to be constantly renewed. Like man, its creator, slang comes and goes.

“Vamoose, skiddoo, twenty three and beat it give place to scram! which will certainly be forgotten when a newer expression catches the popular fancy.” (A.C. Baugh).

Also Read:

• Theories of the Origin of Language

The third characteristic of slang is its synonymous abundance, and the ideas and facts which are most fertile in synonyms are money, drinking, drunkenness, the sexual organs and the sexual act. In The Slang Dictionary Hotten lists 130 synonyms for money. He gives drink the next place and intoxication the third place. “But the tabooed words of standard English”, says E. Patridge, “are hardly less productive of slang synonyms: because of the need for euphemism, or of a desire to give them a different appearance and complexion, these taboos result in synonyms more ingenious, and many of them, more picturesque than those for money and drink.”

Slang in relation to legitimate speech

Slang hangs on the outskirts of the legitimate speech and some slang words manage, now and then, to find their way into legitimate speech. Thus we use now naturally, and with entire propriety, many slang words which were regarded as linguistically untouchable by writers of a generation or few generations ago. The expression “what on earth” seems to us an idiomatic expression and certainly will not be objected to in the speech of anyone today. But De Quincey condemned its use and was horrified at hearing it used by a government official. The word “row” in the sense of disturbance or commotion was considered slang in the eighteenth century and Todd (1818) described it as a very low expression, but to-day the word is used in this sense in the works of many reputed authors. So “to parry a thrust”, “o fence” (in an argument)”. “to cross swords with the opposing counsel”. “to bandy words”, “to wrestle with a problem”. “to trip one up” (in a discussion), “lo lose track of a subject”, “to run counter”, “to hit or miss the mark” are now all good English expressions, though most of them were formerly slang, and had passed through the intermediate stage of colloquialism before they gained admission to the legitimate vocabulary.

The once slangy words and expressions like bias (from bowling), fair play, foul play, hazard are all now firmly seated on the shelf of legitimate speech. Can any one now imagine that such indispensable words as “desire” and “salary” were once soldiers’ slang?

Some clipped words which were once slang now occupy a whole niche of legitimate vocabulary – exam for examination, auto for automobile, varsity for university, cab for cabriolet, van for wangward, fence for defence, miss for mistress, mob for mobile vulgus, per for apert, bus for omnibus (which was itself originally a slang term), pad for footpad, piano for pianoforte, kilo for kilogram, zoo for zoological garden, percent for per centum, pros and cons for pros and contras, sweets for sweetmeats, sport for disport etc.

To speak the truth, “there is no real difference in kind”, as Greenough and Kittredge say, “between the processes of slang and those of legitimate speech. Slang is only the rude luxuriance of the uncared for soil, knowing not the hand of the gardener.” The same desire for novelty as is constantly at work in slang is also constantly working in the figurative expressions and new coinages of legitimate speech.

Again like slang artistic literature, apart from the more conveyance of thought, seeks to stimulate the attention of the reader by clever novelty, and even sometimes to shock him into thought by grotesque or startling language. In this way, there come into existence a number of new words, most of which soon die, but some of which are sure to find their place in the general vocabulary. Phrase-composition is as active in slang as in legitimate speech. Thus carouse (shortened from the German gar aus ! ‘quite out‘), hoax (a shortening of hocus pocus), jeopardy (from French jeu parti) were all slang phrases, but are now included in the legitimate vocabulary.

Despite all these similarities between slang and legitimate speech, we cannot adopt all the products of slang without question. All human speech is intended for the cars of others, and as such, must possess a certain dignity and courtesy. Now most slang words have a taint of impropriety about it which makes it offensive. Again the very currency of slang hinges on its allusions to things which are not universally familiar or respectable with the result that slang comes to be regarded as vulgar and vague.

Furthermore, the accepted means of communication in any widespread Language like English has a certain constant and enduring nature. Though the language is ever in flux, yet the endurable and permanent elements far outbalance the changing elements so that in spite of all the changes that affect it, it remains always intelligible through a long period of time. Slang words, on the contrary, are evanescent, living through days, and not through Sears, and falling out of use even while one is speaking them. Hence slang sill-adapted to serve as a medium of intercourse and therefore is unsuitable for adoption into legitimate speech.” (Greenough and Kittredge).

Not only is slang characterized by ephemerality, but also it has no fixed meaning. Slang words are vague and ill defined, and their meanings grow more and more uncertain from day to day. The result is that the use of slang tends to level down all those nice differentiations in meaning, all those distinctions between word and word, which make for linguistic development. In slang everything is “fine” or “immense” or “stunning”, from an appetizing meal to a drama, from a mountain scenery to the cut of a friend’s trouser. Slang has been branded as the idle man’s dialect, and if the sign of cultivation is an enriched vocabulary, the constant employment of vague and uncertain slang for every shade of meaning reduces one’s thought to the ignorant level. When slang becomes definite and clear-cut in signification, it ceases to be slang, and finds it place in the legitimate vocabulary. “In fact, anything that is good in slang is almost sure to be picked up and adopted in legitimate speech.” (Greenough and Kittredge).

Slang Examples

In all languages slang is widely used by the native speaker. Here are a few examples of slang used in different English speaking countries:

21 Most Common British Slang

Sl. No.	British Slang/ English Slang	Meaning
1.	All right?	This is commonly used as a greeting that doesn’t always need a response
2.	Rubbish	criticize severely and reject as worthless
3.	Snog	A kiss in any form
4.	Pissed	This doesn’t mean angry or frustrated in the way Americans use it– rather, it means to be blind drunk
5.	Bird	A word used to describe a woman
6.	Fag	Another word for a cigarette
7.	Posh	Posh typically denotes English upper-class folks. It equates to the American word ‘fancy’.
8.	Taking the piss	it means one person is shocked at what another person is doing or saying.
9.	Wanker	Possibly the best single-worded British insult on the list, wanker fits closest by ‘jerk’ or ‘a-hole’
10.	Cheers	While most people associate this word with a toast, it can also mean a quick ‘thanks’ or ‘thank you‘.
11.	Bloody	a rude way of expressing great anger
12.	Fancy	This term is used as a verb to express desire or wanting. For example, you might ask “Do you fancy some dinner?”
13.	Mental	Absolutely crazy person
14.	Cheeky	to describe something lighthearted but a little bit rude
15.	Piece of cake	it’s easy to do
16.	Tickety-boo	someone wants to express everything is going exceptionally well
17.	Vibe	Refers to feelings, atmosphere, mood
18.	Shirty	one way to describe someone who is ill-tempered
19.	Hunky-dory	cool way of saying that something is just fine!
20.	Cheerio	used to say goodbye
21.	Ace	something that is awesome

22 Popular American Slang

Sl. No.	American Slang	Meaning
1.	Down to earth	Referring to someone who is humble, genuine, and easy to get along with
2.	G.O.A.T.	Not the cute animal, but the acronym for “Greatest of all Time”
3.	What’s good	It is often used to make friends say hello or to say how you are doing.
4.	Chill	to relax, Hey, chill out! Everything will be fine
5.	Shut up	stop talking, close your mouth
6.	Freaky	“strange” or “weird”
7.	Fire	awesome, excellent, crazy amazing
8.	What’s up?	what are you doing?
9.	Oh my God!	describe excitement or surprise
10.	My bad	My mistake
11.	No worries	That’s alright
12.	Cool	Fine
13.	Cheesy	silly
14.	It sucked	It was bad/poor quality
15.	Have a crush	Attracted to someone romantically
16.	Dump	To end a romantic relationship with someone
17.	Getting hitched/ Tying the knot	Get married
18.	Hang out	To spend time with others
19.	Freebie	Something that is free
20.	Wrap up	To finish something
21.	Netflix and chill	making out, sex
22.	See ya!	goodbye

11 Very Common Canadian Slang

Sl. No	Canadian Slang	Meaning
1.	Eh?	indicate that you don’t understand something, can’t believe something is true
2.	Canuck	An informal term for an individual from Canada
3.	Klick	kilometers
4.	Stag	pre-wedding bachelor
5.	Beauty	Used to say something is good or awesome
6.	Buddy	buddy is a way to talk about a person without using a name
7.	Dart	A cigarette
8.	Jesus Murphy	To avoid the guilt and shame of blasphemy yet retain the satisfaction of cursing
9.	True	used instead of OK
10.	What you sayin’?	It’s used when asking what someone is doing
11.	Keener	A person who is extremely eager or keen to please others, not in a good way

11 Most Used Aussie Slang

Sl. No.	Aussie Slang	Meaning
1.	Billy	Teapot
2.	mate	friend
3.	cake hole	mouth
4.	Ankle bitter	a small or young child
5.	bonzer	great, awesome, first-rate
6.	arvo	afternoon
7.	in the nuddy	naked
8.	pash	a passionate kiss
9.	dog’s breakfast	complete chaos, mess
10.	dinkum	unquestionably good or genuine
11.	Stuffed	Tired

8 Best Gen Z Slang

Gen Z or generation z refers to youth who were born after 1996. Gen Z uses specific slang words while communicating:

Sl. No.	Gen Z Slang	Meaning
1.	no cap	to cap about something means “to brag, exaggerate, or lie”
2.	OK boomer
3.	low-key/high-key	“quiet,” “restrained,” “moderate,” or “easygoing.”
4.	simp	an insult for men who are seen as being too submissive to women
5.	E-boy or E-girl	The one who uses the internet to express themselves.
6.	Salty	feeling jealous
7.	Finesse	to trick or manipulate someone or a situation in order to get what you want
8.	Bet	this slang term means “yes”

Top 5 Best Slang Dictionary

1. Urban Dictionary
2. Unsuck It
3. Wiktionary
4. Online Slang Dictionary
5. Double-Tongued Dictionary

There are good slang and bad slang. Good slang has a real meaning, while bad slang has no meaning, and is simply a succession of sounds. Good slang is often humorous, witty, picturesque. It is also refined in its associations. Now good slang words frequently elevate themselves to the rank of colloquialism, and thus in time gain admission to the legitimate speech, “Hit or miss”, “tooth and nail”, “by hook or crook”, “sink or swim” “rough-and-ready”, “higgledy-piggledy were all slang, but have now passed through the colloquial stage and are recognized idioms.

“Again, an expression that is unquestionable slang may be so apt and necessary in the discussion of a particular subject, and so often quoted by the best writers, that it loses its taint and becomes a part of our common stock of quotation.”

Slang
words are identified and distinguished by contrasting them to
standard literary vocabulary. They are expressive, mostly ironical
words serving to create fresh names for some things that are frequent
topics of discourse. For the most part they sound somewhat vulgar,
cynical and harsh, aiming to show the object of speech in the light
of an off-hand contemptuous ridicule. Vivid examples can be furnished
by various slang words for money,
such
as beans,
brass, dibs, dough, chink, oof, wads; the
slang synonyms for word head
are
attic,
brain-pan, hat peg, nut, upper storey, compare
also various synonyms for the adjective drunk:
boozy, cock-eyed, high, soaked, tight and
many more. Notions that for some reason or other are apt to excite an
emotional reaction attract as a rule many synonyms: there are many
slang words for food, alcohol drinks, stealing and other violations
of the law, for jail, death, madness, drug use, etc.

Slang
has often attracted the attention of lexicographers. The best-known
English slang dictionary is compiled by E. Partridge.

The
subject of slang has caused much controversy for many years. Very
different opinions have been expressed concerning its nature, its
boundaries and the attitude that should be adopted towards it. The
question whether it should be considered a healthful source of
vocabulary development or a manifestation of vocabulary decay has
been often discussed.

It
has been repeatedly stated by many authors that after a slang word
has been used in speech for a certain period of time, people get
accustomed to it and it ceases to produce that shocking effect for
the sake of which it has been originally coined. The most vital among
slang words are then accepted into literary vocabulary. The examples
are bet,
bore, chap, donkey, fun, humbug, mob, odd, pinch, shabby, sham, snob,
trip, also
some words from the American slang: graft,
hitch-hiker, sawbones, etc.

These
words were originally slang words but have now become part of
literary vocabulary. The most prominent place among them is occupied
by words or expressions having no synonyms and serving as expressive
names for some specific notions. The word teenager,
so
very frequent now, is a good example. Also blurb
—
a publisher’s eulogy of a book printed on its jacket or in
advertisements elsewhere, which is originally American slang word.

The
communicative value of these words ensures their stability. But they
are rather the exception. The bulk of slang is formed by shortlived
words. E. Partridge, one of the best known specialists in English

249

slang,
gives as an example a series of vogue words designating a man of
fashion that superseded one another in English slang. They are: blood
(1550-1660),
macaroni
(1760),
buck
(1720-1840),
swell
(1811),
dandy
(1820-1870),
toff
(1851)¹.

It
is convenient to group slang words according to their place in the
vocabulary system, and more precisely, in the semantic system of the
vocabulary. If they denote a new and necessary notion, they may prove
an enrichment of the vocabulary and be accepted into standard
English. If, on the other hand, they make just another addition to a
cluster of synonyms, and have nothing but novelty to back them, they
die out very quickly, constituting the most changeable part of the
vocabulary.

Another
type of classification suggests subdivision according to the sphere
of usage, into general slang and special slang. General slang
includes words that are not specific for any social or professional
group, whereas special slang is peculiar for some such group:
teenager slang, university slang, public school slang, Air Force
slang, football slang, sea slang, and so on. This second group is
heterogeneous. Some authors, A.D. Schweitzer for instance, consider
argot to belong here. It seems, however, more logical to
differentiate slang and argot. The essential difference between them
results from the fact that the first has an expressive function,
whereas the second is primarily concerned with secrecy. Slang words
are clearly motivated, сf. cradle-snatcher
‘an
old man who marries or courts a much younger woman’; belly-robber
‘the
head of a military canteen’; window-shopping
‘feasting
one’s eyes on the goods displaced in the shops, without buying
anything’. Argot words on the contrary do not show their
motivation, сf. rap
‘kill’,
shin
‘knife’,
book
‘a
life sentence’.

Regarding
professional words that are used by representatives of various trades
in oral intercourse, it should be observed that when the word is the
only name for some special notion it belongs not to slang but to
terminology. If, on the other hand, it is a jocular name for
something that can be described in some other way, it is slang.

There
are cases, of course, when words originating as professional slang
later on assume the dignity of special terms or pass on into general
slang. The borderlines are not always sharp and distinct.

For
example, the expression be
on the beam was
first used by pilots about the beam of the radio beacon indicating
the proper course for the aircraft to follow. Then figuratively be
on the beam came
to mean ‘to be right’, whereas be
off the beam came
to mean ‘to be wrong’ or ‘to be at a loss’.

¹
To this list the 20th century words masher
and
teddy-boy
could
be added. There seems to be no new equivalent in today’s English
because such words as mod
and
rocker
(like
beat
and
beatnik)
or
hippy
and
punk
imply
not only, and not so much a certain way of dressing but other tastes
and mental make-up as well. Mods
(admirers
of modern jazz music) and more sportive rockers
were
two groups of English youth inimical to one another. The words are
formed by abbreviation and ellipsis: mod<
modern jazz; rocker < rock’n roll; beat, beatnik < beat
generation’, punk<punk rocker.

250

A
great deal of slang comes from the USA: corny,
cute, fuss-pot, teenager, swell, etc.
It would be, however, erroneous to suppose that slang is always
American in its origin. On the contrary, American slang also contains
elements coming from Great Britain, such as cheerio
‘goodbye’,
right-o
‘yes’
> Gerry
for
‘a German soldier’, and some, though not many, others.

Slang
is a difficult problem and much yet remains to be done in elucidating
it, but a more complete treatment of this layer of vocabulary would
result in an undue swelling of the chapter. Therefore in concluding
the discussion of slang we shall only emphasise that the most
important peculiarities of slang concern not form but content. The
lexical meaning of a slang word contains not only the denotational
component but also an emotive component (most often it expresses
irony) and all the other possible types of connotation — it is
expressive, evaluative and stylistically coloured and is the marked
member of a stylistic opposition.

tions,
the
salesmen of these were stationers
and
what they sold — stationery
(with
the noun suffix -ery
as
in grocery
or
bakery).

Not
all doublets come in pairs. Examples of groups are: appreciate,
appraise, apprise; astound, astonish, stun; kennel, channel, canal.

The
Latin word discus
is
the origin of a whole group of doublets:

dais<ME
deis < OF deis
< Lat
discus dish < ME dish < OE disc < Lat discus disc/disk <
Lat discus discus (in
sport) < Lat discus

Other
doublets that for the most part justify their names by coming in
pairs show in their various ways the influence of the language or
dialect systems which they passed before entering the English
vocabulary.

Compare
words borrowed in Middle English from Parisian French: chase,
chieftain, chattels, guard, gage with
their doublets of Norman French origin: catch,
captain, cattle, ward, wage.

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Slang as a part of spoken English

Introduction

countries and continents are becoming closer and closer. They are connected with transport routes, radio and satellite broadcasting and the Internet. The attitude towards foreign languages has changed too. The knowledge of a foreign language is now not only a part of a good education, but a necessity.doubt, English has already won a world status. It is the most widespread language in the world. For approximately 400 million people English is a native language. More than 200 million people speak English as a second language. It is learned in all countries as a language of world communication. It has become a world language in politics, science, business and culture. No other language is as popular in information technology, advertising and popular music. It is certain that English is accepted everywhere around the world.well-educated person should know at least one foreign language. The Latin proverb says: Quo linguis calet, tot hominess valet, which means As many languages a person knows, as many people he is worth. Each country, each culture and each language has something unique to offer. Some ideas can be expressed only in a foreign language. It also helps one to understand ones own language. Goethe said: A man, who does not know any foreign language, does not know his native one either. [1; с 12]is a language that has a lot of different variants. Each of these variants has special and unique peculiarities in vocabulary, grammar and phonetics. That is why people, whose native language is English but who live in different countries do not always easily understand each other. So it is obvious and apparent that it is almost impossible for a non-native speaker to perform a perfect communication. But why? Answering the question it should be mentioned that phonetic peculiarities in speech of a speaker and his rate of speaking are very important in the process of comprehension. But, however, vocabulary that predetermines the meaning of the utterance is of great importance too. But what is going on when we hear very familiar words and notions but cannot put them together to make sense? The answer is found in the simple and seemingly familiar notion SLANG (more detailed information about slang is found in the Chapter I). Slang makes 1/3 part of the spoken language but in spite of this fact most teachers and specialists in methodology ignore slang, although a lot of words and expressions belonging to slang are gradually becoming normal. [2; с 43]language is quite different from literary and written standards. Language should be a means of communication not a barrier. Using slang comparatively simplifies communication with native speakers. It is even urgent to know slang, because nowadays a lot of people from our country leave for English-speaking countries as international students and trainees. That is why slang should also be learned and taught, for it is also an inseparable part of Spoken English.the above the following theme of this research work is singled out: Slang as a part of Spoken English. The theme of the investigation is considered to be vital because today people need to contact with native speakers more than ever and besides a formal language it is impossible to avoid an informal one. Thus slang is relevant here. The aim of this paper is studying the importance of knowledge of slang. [3; с 1]accordance with the aim the following hypothesis is suggested:knowledge of slang is a very important component in the development of linguistic competence, for it simplifies communication in real-life situations and comprehension of authentic movies and literary works.competence is a system of knowledge of a language, its rules in speech functioning and ability with this system to understand ones thoughts and to express ones own ideas in oral and written form.object of the investigation is Spoken English and the subject is slang.practical significance of this research consists in the fact that it suggests practical examples and situations where slang can be revealed and how it can be applied. The paper contains the appendix displaying slang vocabulary, which includes the most popular slang words and expressions. This research also contributes to teaching EFL: it suggests teaching slang in schools, for it also promotes the development of ones linguistic competence.aim of this paper predetermines certain tasks, namely:

·Studying and systematizing the theoretical material on the topic;

·Defining the notion slang;

·Tracing the origin and sources of slang;

·Singling out the classification of slang, its forms and characteristics;

·Analyzing the use of slang;

·Describing the results of the investigation.

Accordingly the following methods are suggested:

·Analysis of the theoretical material;

·Content-analysis;

·Study of literary works;

·Analysis of the American movies;

·Analysis of the songs;

·Method of investigation.

1. Spoken English and Slang. Origins, sources and diffusion of slang

as there is formal and informal dress, so there is formal and informal speech. Consequently, the social context, in which the conversation is taking place determines both the mode of dress and the modes of speech. When placed in different situations, people instinctively choose different kind of words and structures to express their thoughts. That means that the actual situation of the communication has evolved to varieties of language- spoken and written.stability of a word for each particular situation depends on its stylistic characteristics, or, in other words, on the functional style it represents. I.V. Arnold defines functional style as a system of expressive means peculiar to a specific sphere of communication. By the sphere of communication linguists mean the circumstances attending the process of speech in each particular case: professional communication, a lecture, an informal talk, a formal letter, an intimate letter, a speech in court, etc. All these situations can be roughly classified into 2 types: formal (a lecture, an official letter, a speech in court) and informal (an informal talk, an intimate letter). [4; с 3]living language is simply one set of words which can be used the same way in all situations. The nature of language is such that there are a lot of different ways to arrange its elements. What this means is that there are many ways to say the same thing, depending on where a speaker is, who he is talking to, and how he feels. One is all advanced enough in his study of English to realize that he does not talk to a roommate the same way he would talk to his roommates mother. One of the main factors which determine which words and structures are appropriate is the degree of formality of the situation in which one is using the language.vocabulary belongs to the Spoken language and is used in ones immediate circle: family, relatives or friends. One uses the spoken language, i.e. informal speech, when at home or when feeling at home. There are many situations in everyday life where Informal English is allowed, even preferred. Some examples include: while playing sports, while studying with friends, while watching a sport event, with close family members, with friends while shopping or hanging out, at work (depending on the job), on a date, at the movies, while listening to popular music, in email, in notes, on the phone with friends.spoken language has a considerable advantage over the written one, in that the human voice comes in play. This is a powerful means of modulating the utterance, as are all kinds of gestures, which, together with the intonation give additional information. The spoken language by its very nature is spontaneous, momentary, fleeting. It vanishes after having fulfilled its purpose, which is to communicate a thought, no matter whether it is trivial or really important. The idea remains, the language dissolves in it.spoken variety differs from the written language (that is, in its written presentation) phonetically, morphologically and syntactically. But the most striking difference between the spoken and the written language is, however, in the vocabulary used. Colloquial expressions and slang are an essential part of spoken English. There is hardly a person who does not make use of them upon occasion. Everyone from teenagers to scientists use it. All countries and periods of history have had slang. It reflects the peculiarities of contemporary daily life in a unique way. All types of semantic changes can be illustrated from that part of the vocabulary.has already been said about slang but what is it? There are different opinions of what slang is. The Encyclopedia Britannica defines it as:

non-standard vocabulary composed of words or senses characterized primarily by connotations of extreme informality and usually by a currency not limited to a particular region. It is composed typically of coinages or arbitrarily changed words, clipped or shortened forms, extravagant, forced or facetious figures of speech, or verbal novelties. [5; с 51]definition of the Oxford Dictionary of 1911 is very different:

…language of a high colloquial type, below the level of standard educated speech and consisting either of new words or of current words employed in some special sense.to the American poet Carl Sandburg slang is the language which takes off its coat, spits on its hands and goes to work. Slang has also been characterized as an ever-changing set of colloquial words and phrases generally considered distinct from and socially lower that the standard language. It occurs in all languages, and the existence of this part of the vocabulary is probably as old as the language itself. [6; с 11]can also be defined as a peculiar kind of vagabond language, always hanging on the outskirts of legitimate speech, but continually straying or forcing its way into the most respectable company.definitions vary, and they clearly show different attitudes to slang. But there is one thing that is the same in all of these definitions. They characterize slang as the language lower than standard educated speech. Slang is considered to be vulgar and rude, as the language of lower social classes. That is right; slang belongs to so-called vulgar speech. [7; с 2]is used by all kinds of groups of people who share situations or interests. The group which uses these words is always in minority, and often uses slang to set its members apart or make it difficult for ordinary people to understand them. Slang fulfills at least two different functions, depending on whose point of view. For the groups that use slang, it is a way to express themselves in an individual way, and sometimes to keep secrets from being known by others. But foe the society in general and the development of the language, slang performs another role. For the language slang is like a linguistic laboratory, where new words and forms can be tested out, applied to a variety of situations, and then either abandoned or incorporated into the regular language. It is like a trial period for new words. If they allow people to say something that cannot be said using traditional language, and a majority of people accept them, then these words and expressions join their regular language. [8; с 32]slang belongs to the spoken part of the language, not all conversational expressions are slang. For example, it is hard to imagine such expressions as shut up (for be quiet) in a book (except in a dialog), but it is not slang. Slang is often confused with jargon, but they are quite different. Jargon is itself a loaded word. It is obscure and pretentious language marked by a roundabout way of expression and use of long words. Jargon is said to be a bad use of language, something to be avoided at all costs.slang is treated as the language of the underworld, but it is a mistake. Only a part of slang vocabulary originates from the underworld. The main sources of slang change from period to period. Yet many slang words arise from the groups that have nothing to do with the underworld, such as college students, sport fans, or enlisted personnel in the military. It is often the usage of the young people and those who see themselves as distinct from the rest of society. Vocabulary, as always, has been the index of change. There are many differences between the slang of previous years and the slang of nowadays. If one characterizes slang in two words, the first would be non-standard and the second is changing. Slang words fall out of use more quickly than words of standard language. Slang is constantly renewed and is always modern. Such slang items like vamoose, skedaddle, beat it, scram, buzz off all had their periods of popularity in the 20th century. They express quite the same idea of getting away, being used in imperative form. [9; с 11]though mostly slang is regarded from the lexical point of view as a particular vocabulary typical of Spoken English, it is necessary to say that slang expressions can be viewed phonetically, orthographically and grammatically. These can be standard words applied with some phonetic, orthographic or grammatical alterations, what brings to the utterance some slangy coloring and freshness. The freshness of slang is appealing. It stems from an instinctive desire for novelty of expression. We use it just as we use a nickname instead of the real name of a person. Slang arises due to our propensity for replacing habitual old denominations by original expressive ones. Slang words are used because they are highly emotive and expressive. H. Wentworth and S. Flexner in their Dictionary of American Slang write:

Sometimes slang is used to escape the dull formality of standard words, to suggest an escape from the established routine of everyday life. When slang is used, our life seems a little fresher and a little more personal. Also, as at all levels of speech, slang is sometimes used for the pure joy of making noise. The sheer newness and informality of certain slang words produce pleasure..K. Chesterton, a famous English writer says: All slang is metaphor, and all metaphor is poetry… Speaking about the authors words All slang is metaphor, it is a true observation, though the second part of the statement all metaphor is poetry is difficult to accept, especially if one considers the following examples mug (for face), saucers or blinkers (for eyes), trap (for mouth), dogs (for feet). All these meanings are certainly based on metaphor, yet they strike one as singularly unpoetical. [10; с 18]or most slang words are current words whose meanings have been metaphorically shifted. Each slang metaphor is rooted in a joke, but not in a kind of amusing joke. This is the criterion for distinguishing slang from colloquialisms: most slang words are metaphors and jocular, often with a mocking, coarse and cynical coloring. This is one of the common objections against slang: a person using a lot of slang seems to be sneering and jeering at everything under the sun.is regarded as the phenomenon of colloquial speech and therefore stands above all the laws of grammar. Though it is regarded by some purists as a language that stands below standard English, it is highly praised nowadays as vivid, more flexible, more picturesque, richer in vocabulary and so on. Unwittingly one arrives at the idea that slang, as used by English or Americans, is a universal term for any word or phrase which, though not yet recognized as a fact of standard English, has won general recognition as a fresh innovation. [11; с 67]do people use slang? For a number of reasons. To be picturesque, arresting, striking and, above all, different from others. To avoid the tedium of outmoded common words. To demonstrate ones spiritual independence and daring. To sound modern and up-to-date.s colorful and humorous quality makes it catching, so that a considerable part of slang may become accepted by nearly all the groups of speakers.linguist Khaya-Kava writes: Slang is the poetry of every-day life, he considerers slang a sign of life and development of a language. But in opposition to this opinion slang is said to be a negative phenomenon overloading the language. That is why many slang words are used to insult. For example, a person considered inferior or unpleasant can be described by such words as creep, drip. fink, jerk and turkey. Some insulting slang words refer to certain ethnic, racial and religious groups. Slang is also used to criticize or poke fun at established institutions. That is why many people disapprove of slang. They consider it inferior language and accuse those who use it of careless and lazy thinking. Some believe the use of slang limits a persons vocabulary and even weakens the standard language itself.with the development of society and language many words and expressions, which earlier belonged to slang and were not to be used in literary norms of the language, tend to become generally accepted lexical units. Thus, one is not even aware, like some native speakers that some words used to belong to a slang group before. For example: bones for dice was used by Chaucer in the 14th century, and is still slang now. It is not typical and may be called unique. Usually when slang items stay in the general language, they become standard vocabulary and enjoy full rights as members of the language. American linguist M. Pan said: It is useless to try to look down on words used in slums or in this or that professional group. Tomorrow these very words will be accepted by all users of the language and they will inevitably penetrate the vocabulary. That is why to fully understand slang one must remember that a words use, popularity, and acceptability can change. Words can change in social level, moving in any direction. Language is dynamic, and at any given time, hundreds and perhaps thousands, of words and expressions are in the process of changing from one level to another, of becoming more acceptable or less acceptable, of becoming more popular or less popular. [12; с 5]and age peculiarities of speakers, their social status and various differences concerning their culture, background and education enormously influence o language. Thus, one and the same person may speak different sublanguages (forms of a language: literary, colloquial, scientific etc.) and use them according to the situation. So during the social intercourse a person may play different social roles and come into different relations (employer- employee, father-son, teacher- student). Changing situations presupposes changing roles, which characterizes relations between communicants, and this means choosing an appropriate sublanguage, and slang can also be used as a sublanguage. [3; с 23]it has been mentioned above, slang may become legal, but there is the reverse side. A lot of standard words find their ways into slang. Sometimes it is very difficult to define the precise quality that makes an expression slang. It is often not in the word itself, but in the sense in which it is used. When speaking of soldiers who put down a rebellion, put down is proper enough. But it is slang when one speaks of a remark which puts someone down.fact, most slang words are homonyms of standard words and only sometimes differ in spelling and pronunciation. Slang items usually arise by the same means — by recycling words and parts of words which are already in the language. Limitless opportunities are allowed by affixation. Slang frequently uses abbreviated words and phrases like VJ from video jockey and Sup from whats up? Unlike the general vocabulary, English slang has not borrowed from foreign languages a lot, although it does borrow from dialects of ethnic minorities. Words can change their fluid status and cross the borders of different types of speech. What is slang today may have been in a good use once or may be accepted in the standard speech tomorrow. It is hard to define where the vulgar speech ends and the spoken language begins. Thousands of words and expressions are in the process of changing from one level to another at any given time. Some interchange between one type and the next is constantly going on. So slang can be regarded as a lexical supplement of the language, because all neologisms first find their life in colloquial expressions and only then develop into literary speech. [13; с 2]slang is becoming more and more popular. In our high speed epoch language is simplifying. Short and abbreviated words are preferred to long and complicated ones. And perhaps that is why slang is used. Because of its brevity, capacity and exactness it makes conversation easier. It can hardly be denied that some slang expressions express an idea that would be difficult to convey by other means. There is the paradox of slang: people look down on it, but they cannot avoid using it. Slang is vivid and natural in speech. It is impossible to shut eyes to the prominent role which it plays in the language.. It is a part of the language and cannot be treated as non-existent.

The origin of the word SLANG itself is unknown. Its resemblance in sound and figurative meaning to the noun and verb sling and the occurrence of apparently the same root in Scandinavian expressions referring to language, suggest that the term slang is development of a Germanic root from which the current English sling is derived. Another conjecture is that slang has been formed by shortening from genitive phrases like beggars language or rogues language, in which the genitive language and then the final syllable is lost.tends to originate in subcultures within a society. Occupational groups such as loggers, police, medical professionals and computer specialists are prominent originators of slang. Other groups creating slang include the armed forces, teenagers, racial minorities, ghetto residents, labor unions, broadcasters, sport groups, drug addicts and even religious denominations. Slang expressions often embody attitudes and values of group members.may thus contribute to a sense of group identity and may convey to the listener information about the speakers background. Before an apt expression becomes slang, however, it must be widely adopted by members of the subculture. If the subculture has enough contact with the mainstream culture, its figures of speech becomes slang expressions known to the whole society. For example: cat (sport), cool (aloof, stylish), Mr. Charley (a white man), the man (the law), and uncle Tom (a meek black) all originated in the predominantly black Harlem district of New York City and have traveled far since their inception. Slang is thus generally not tied to any geographic region within a country. A slang expression may suddenly become widely used. It may become accepted as standard speech, either in its original slang meaning (bus from omnibus) or with alerted meaning (jazz, which originally had sexual connotation). Some expressions have persisted for centuries as slang (booze for alcoholic beverage). In the 20th century, mass media and rapid travel have speeded up the circulation of slang items. Changing social circumstances may stimulate the spread of slang. Drug-related expressions such as pot and marijuana were virtually a secret jargon in the 1940s; in the 1960s they were adopted by rebellious youth and in the 1970s and 80s they were widely known. [14; с 48]subcultures tend to draw words and phrases from the contiguous language and give these established terms new and special meanings; some borrowings from foreign languages, including the American Indian tongues, are traditional. The more learned occupations or professions like medicine, law, psychology, sociology, engineering and electronics tend to create true neologisms, often based on Greek or Latin roots, but these are not major sources of slang though nurses and medical students adapt some medical terminology to their slang, and air force personnel and some other branches of the armed service borrow freely from engineering and electronics.subcultures show specialized linguistic phenomena that depend on the nature of the groups and their relation to each other and to the dominant culture. The shock value of slang stems largely from the verbal transfer of the values of a subculture to diametrically opposed values in the dominant culture. Names such as fuzz, pig, fink, bull and dick for policemen were not created by officers of the law. The humorous dickless tracy, however, meaning a policewoman, was coined by male policemen.groups are legion and there is enough social and linguistic hostility to maintain group solidarity. Terms like scab, strike-breaker, company-man and goon were highly charged words in the era in which labor began to organize in the United States; they are not used lightly even today, though they have been taken into the standard language. [15; с. 21]culture and its slang are the main source of new words in the language. They give it an opportunity to change and develop. Teenage culture uses a lot of slang expressions, which quickly became popular among older people, too. Teenage slang has existed for a long time. Natural and free, slang aspires to leave this dull and boring world of adults. It results from a wish for change, for creating a new world. Teenage slang is especially sympathetic to all kinds of neologisms. Such new words are constantly appearing and are connected with new inventions, mainly with computer technology. It can be said that the major part of new words in the recent ten years has started with two groups of people — computer scientists and users, and teenagers. Computer technologies have already entered our lives. The majority of people have computers at home; computer technology is studied at schools. It highly possible that developing special computer slang will be the next step towards natural communication with the PCs. [16; с 4]addition to occupational, professional and teenage groups, there are many other types of subcultures that supply slang. These include sexual deviants, narcotic addicts, institutional populations, agricultural sub-societies, political organizations, Gypsies and sport groups of many varieties of professional criminals who migrated to the New World since the 16th century.lot of words and expressions have interesting stories. Many of them are concerned with different historical events. So the colloquial expression cock and bull story (used to describe untrue or highly exaggerated information) has its origins in pub names. A century ago there was a fire in a London pub called The Cock. Its guests left it in panic and were given shelter at a nearby inn called The Bull. The guests told exaggerated stories of their escape from the fire. These stories became known as cock-and-bull stories.an individual applies language in a new way to express hostility, ridicule or contempt, often with sharp wit, he may be creating slang, but the new expression will perish unless others pick it up. If the speaker is a member of a group that finds its creation projects the emotional reaction of its members toward an idea, person, or social institution, the expression will gain currency according to the unanimity of attitude within the group. A new slang term is usually widely used in a subculture before it appears in the dominant culture. Thus slang, e.g. sucker, shave-tail, jerk— express the attitudes, not always derogatory, of the group or class toward the values of the group, satirizing or burlesquing its own values, behavior, and attitudes; e.g., shotgun wedding, cake eater, grease spoon. Slang, then, is produced largely by social forces rather than by an individual speaker or writer who creates and establishes a word in the language. This is one reason why it is difficult to determine the origin of slang items.slang diffuses by word of mouth, and so the paths of many expressions are difficult to trace. A term like snafu, its shocking power softened with the explanation situation normal, all fouled up, worked its way gradually from the military in the World War II by word of mouth (because the media largely shunned it) into respectable circles. Today, however, radio, television and the Internet may introduce and spread a lively new word already used by an in-group into millions of people instant currency and popularity. For example, the term uptight was first used largely by criminal narcotic addicts to indicate the onset of withdrawal distress when drugs are denied. Later, because of intense journalistic interest in the drug scene, it became widely used in the dominant culture to mean anxiety or tension unrelated to drug use. It kept its form but changed its meaning slightly. [17; с 6]all slang expressions die out soon after they become widely used. For example, crazy (wonderful) had a short period of popularity in the 1950s. On the other hand, some slang terms last so long and become so widely used that they are considered colloquialisms. Examples include belly laugh (hearty laughter) and half-baked (not fully worked out). A few slang expressions become part of the standard language. Hairdo was introduced in the 1920s as a slang term for coiffure and became a standard word in less than 20 years. The words hoax and strenuous, which also began as slang, took longer to be accepted. Some slang words have been used for hundreds of years without reaching the status of colloquialisms or standard words. For example, grub (food dates back to the 1600s, and lousy (bad) dates back to the 1700s. However, both of these words are considered slang, not part of the standard vocabulary.it has been mentioned, in the case of uptight the slang expression has kept its form but changed its meaning. Some terms may change their form or both form and meaning, like one for the book (anything unusual or unbearable). Sportswriters in the US borrowed this term in about 1920 from the language of bookmakers, who lined up at racetracks in the morning (the morning line is still figuratively used on every sports page) to take some bets on the afternoon races. Newly arrived bookmakers went to the end of the line, and any bettor requesting unusually long adds was motioned down the line with the phrase: Thats one for the end book. The general public dropped the end as meaningless, but old-time gamblers still retain it. Slang spreads by many other channels, such as popular songs, which are often rich in double entendre.subcultures are structurally tight, little of their language leaks out. Thus the Mafia, in more than a half-century of powerful criminal activity in America, has contributed little slang. When subcultures weaken, contacts with the dominant culture multiply, diffusion occurs, and their language appears widely as slang. Criminal narcotic addicts, for example, had a tight subculture and a highly secret argot in the 1940s; now middle-class teenagers, even those with no real knowledge of drugs, use their terms freely.recap everything above it should be reminded that there are two types of attitude toward slang:

) Slang is believed to be stupid and vulgar because it occurs in informal conversation, accompanied by grammatical errors;

) The reasonable use of slang promotes lively speaking it keeps the language fresh and alive.can be regarded not only from the lexical point of view as a particular vocabulary typical of Spoken English; it can be viewed phonetically, orthographically and grammatically. These can be standard words applied with some phonetic, orthographic or grammatical alterations, what brings to the utterance some slangy coloring and freshness. [18; с 4]is also obvious that slang is said to have originated mostly in subcultures of occupational and professional groups. Teenagers, criminals and uneducated people also play a great role in creating and maintaining slang. Since slang is a part of spoken English, it diffuses verbally, and not only via real communication but also via television and even the Internetslang should be learned in order to simplify communication, because the spoken language differs from literary standards. It should be regarded as a prolific source of new word forms feeding the general vocabulary.

1.1Classification of slang. Forms of slang. Characteristics of slang

When systematizing the material on slang one may come to a controversial problem: the problem is that there are two classifications identifying the place of slang.

)According to M.M Makovsky slang belongs to the so-called social dialects.dialects are variants of a language, which are used by certain social groups.slang social dialects comprise: jargon, cant and argot. Thus, these social sublanguages, according to this classification, should be regarded as independent.this paper employs such terms as jargon, cant and argot, it is necessary to define these concepts:comprises the restricted, NON-technical words and expressions of any particular group, as an occupational, age, ethnic or special-interest group.is defined as the restricted technical or shoptalk words and expressions of any particular group, as trade, scientific, artistic, criminal, student or other group.is a special vocabulary used by a peculiar social group, especially by the so-called underworld. Its main point is to be unintelligible to outsiders. [19; с 82]is defined as false or insincere language and refers to the language used by thieves and beggars of the underworld.linguists reserve the term jargon for technical language applied to colorful occupational expressions.combines words either non-terminological, unofficial substitutes for professional terms (professionalisms), or official terms misused deliberately to express disrespect.is a secret lingo of the underworld — of thieves and robbers.- substandard, expressive and emotive vocabulary used by limited group of people, united either professionally or socially.general slang is more casual and acceptable to outsiders than jargon. Slang and cant are more vivid than jargon.

)According to I.V. Arnold and N.V. Krupnov slang is subdivided into general and special slang.slang includes words that are not specific for any social or professional group. Special slang is peculiar for some group: teenager slang, university slang, military slang, criminal slang and so on., second group is heterogeneous. Some authors, A.D. Schweizer for instance, consider cant, jargon and argot to belong here. It seems, however, more logical to differentiate general slang and special slang. The essential difference between then results from the fact that the first has an expressive function, whereas the second is primarily concerned with secrecy. Words of general slang are clearly motivated, e.g. cradle-snatcher— and old man who marries a much younger woman; window-shopping— feasting ones eyes on goods displayed in the shops without buying anything. Words of special slang on the contrary do not show their motivation, e.g. rap (kill), shin (knife), book (a life sentence).are cases, of course, when words originated as special slang later on pass on into general slang. The borderlines are not always sharp and distinct. For example, the expression be on the beam was first used by pilots about the beam of the radio beacon indicating the proper course for the aircraft to follow. Then figuratively be on the beam came to mean to be right, whereas be off the beam came to mean to be wrong or to be at a loss.the theme of this paper is slang as a part of Spoken English, it is already obvious that people use slang in speaking than in writing, and mostly with friends than with strangers. Slang thus reminds of colloquialisms, which are expressions used in everyday conversation but not considered appropriate for formal speech or writing.makes colloquialisms and slang different? Both of them are used in Spoken English and both of them are used in informal speech. But where is the difference? The first characteristic feature consists in emotional coloring of slang and colloquialisms. Here slang possesses a higher degree of emotional coloring. In dictionaries these two concepts are graphically marked as sl. and coll.

Forms of slang are created by the same processes that affect ordinary speech. Expressions take form as metaphors, similes and other figures of speech (dead as a doornail). Words may acquire new meanings (cool, cat). A narrow meaning may become generalized (fink, originally a strikebreaker, later a betrayer or disappointer) or vice-versa.there are seven chief forms of slang, each created by different processes. These forms are

) old words used in new ways;

) shortened or lengthened words;

) figures of speech;

) acronyms;

) coinages;

) blends;

7) rhyming slang.words used in new ways. Most slang expressions are simply new uses for old words or phrases. The flap (excitement) about air pollution is slang, but the flap (hinged section) of an airplane wing is not slang. To rip off (steal) a camera is slang, but to rip off the top of a box is Standard English.or lengthened words. The process creating a new word by dropping one or more syllables from a longer word is called clipping. Clipping produces many slang terms, including phiz (face) which is short for physiognomy; psycho, short for psychopath; and rep, short for reputation.type of shortened word is back-formation. Most slang back-formations are verbs and were formed by dropping the ending from a noun. Examples of such verbs include burgle (to steal), from burglar; letch (to lust), from lecher and nuke (to attack with nuclear weapons), from nuclear.the reverse process, a new word may be created by adding an ending to an existing one. Slang words created by this process include payola (graft), from pay; and slugfest (fight), from slug (to hit).of speech are expressions in which words are used in unusual ways. One of the most common slang figures of speech is metaphor, an implied comparison between two different things. For example, a slang metaphor bean pole describes a thin person.type of slang figure of speech is metonymy, which substitutes a quality of something for the thing itself. Examples of metonymy include long green (paper currency) and skirt (woman).are words formed from the first letters or syllables of the words in a phrase. The form of slang includes D.J. or deejay, from disc jockey; and kidvid (childrens television programs), from kid video).are newly invented words or phrases. Slang coinages include humongous (huge), moola (money, palooka (inferior athlete) and zit (pimple).are new words created by joining the first part of one word to the second part of another one. Examples of slang blends are: gyrene (United States marine), from G.I. Marine; and sexploitation (commercial exploitation of peoples interests in sex).slang includes words which substitute other words that rhyme with them. Examples include crumb-bum (inferior person) and thriller-driller (exciting story or motion picture).there is some argument about rhyming slang: should it be called rhyming? The fact is that it is gradually losing its rhyming element. Rhyming slang is also called the language of the Cockneys. More detailed information about the Cockney language and its problem is revealed in 1.3 The Cockney language and Polari — extinct languages.slang words cannot be distinguished from other words by sound, grammar or other means, because, as it has been already mentioned in this paper, slang terms come into being in the same ways other words do. Thus, slang words and standard words are only WORDS and thy have common features.anyway, since the hypothesis of this paper suggests that knowledge of slang is a very important component in the development of ones linguistic competence it is necessary to throw a little light on these characteristics of slang. The characteristics are classified as following: phonetic characteristics, grammatical characteristics, word-building characteristics and orthographic characteristics. Examples described below can not necessarily be lexical slang units but there can be ordinary words phonetically and grammatically used in some slangy way. As it has been mentioned in this paper, from the point of view of grammar and phonetics they may be considered as slang, i.e. social dialects.characteristics

. The literary variant of the diphthong [ou] is expressed as [ә ] For example: go [ ] or [ ]; or row [ ] or [ ]

. The diphthong [ ] expressed graphically in open syllable by means of the letter I, is pronounced as [ ], e.g. time [ ], fine [ ], line [ ], etc.

. In the unstressed syllable [ ] is reduced to [i], e.g. by myself [ bi mi`self]

. The short sound [ i] is pronounced in slang as [e], e.g. dinner [`denә], children [` ], spirit [`sperit]

. The literary variant of the sound [ju:] is expressed in slang as [u:], e.g.: new [nu:], student [`stu:dnt], suit [su:t]

. Short [ ] is expressed as [ ], like: god [ ], dog [ ], loss [ ]

. Short [ ] is pronounced as [ i] or [e]. For example: sich or seck instead of such, jist or jest instead of just

. Sometimes sounds [t] and [d] after a consonant sound are omitted, e.g.: an aold chap [ ], I wonder [ ], you must go [ ]

. [sj] is replaced by [ ], e.g.: we shall miss you [ ], this year [ ]

. Unstressed syllables are often dropped out, like: stead (=instead), cept (=except), cos (=because)characteristics

. Adjectives are often used instead of adverbs, like: It was done quick. It must be done proper.

. Instead of personal pronouns in the nominative case personal pronouns in the accusative case are used, e.g.: me and her are great friends.

. who is used instead of whom, e.g.: for who, on who.

. Models of Imperative are very interesting: Leave (=let) me go! Be going!

. The form aint can stand for literary variants of am, is, are not

. Past Participle can be used instead of Past Indefinite, e.g.: I done it, I begun

. That is used instead of so, e.g.: He was that stuck up: it was that boring

. what for is employed instead of why, like: What for did`e come?building characteristics

. In the case of slang some words acquire the status of semi-suffixes. For example, the word monkey is used as a semi-suffix meaning worker, e.g.: air monkey, broom monkey, company monkey.

. In the case of hamburger it has devided into ham and burger, where the latter turned into an independent suffix, e.g.: beefburger, sausageburger, turkey-burger

. The word dog, as a semi-suffix, is the synonym for man (usually a sly or lucky man), e.g.: funny dog, lucky dog, smart dog

. The suffix o, which has no special meaning but has some slangy coloring, e.g.: weirdo (from weird), sicko (from sick), wrongo (from wrong)

. The process of forming new words in slang is characterized by the use of reduplication, which is sometimes accompanied by sound imitation, e.g.: boom-boom (gun), buzz-buzz, dingy-dingy (crazy), dum-dum (fool)

. Slang is also characterized by rhyming combination, e.g.: boob-tube (TV), cheat-sheet (crib), kick-stick (the cigarette with marijuana)characteristics

1.going to, want to and have got to are substituted by gonna, wanna and gotta;

I dont wanna go there

Im gonna give you a buzz

You gotta find this guy

2.because is replaced by coz: coz I saw them with my own eyes,

cuz : cuz I dont wanna hang out with you

cus : cus I really wanna rock with you

cause : cause I need you;

3.about is substituted by bout

What is this all shit bout?

4.Such phrases as get you or got you are graphically can be expressed as getcha and gotcha;

.ya can stand for your or you or youre:

Ya patience getting short

How much the kid love ya

Ya lookin awesome;

7.The auxiliary verb are can be substituted by a single letter r, and the personal pronoun you by a letter u, the preposition for can be changed by 4

How r u?; This is 4 u.

8.too or to can be graphically expressed as 2: I love u 2;

9.out of is replaced by outta:

Somethin got outta hand.sum up everything described above it is necessary to mention again that there are two classifications identifying the place of slang:

) cant, jargon and argot together make special slang. There is also general slang, which is not restricted to any particular professional group;

) slang, jargon, argot and cant together make a group of social dialects. All of them are regarded as independent. Colloquialisms have no place in either of these classifications. It is quite a different phenomenon and should be differentiated from slang.expressions arise in the same ways that other words come into being. Slang words can be presented in different forms: old words used in new meanings, clipped or lengthened words, metaphors and metonymies, acronyms, coinages, blends and rhyming slang.words like any other words are characterized from the point of view of phonetics, grammar and word-building. All these phonetic, grammatical, orthographical and word-building means bring to slang emotional coloring and expressiveness.

1.3 The Cockney language and Polari — extinct languages

In spite of the fact that slang is a lively language, there are however, such slang languages, which are thought to be extinct. To these the Cockney language and Polari are referred. The Cockney language or Rhyming slang has been popular since the mid-nineteenth century in England, although its origin is unknown. Rhyming slang is a slang that replaces a word with a word or phrase that rhymes with it. Many Cockneys in England and many Australians use such slang. For example, a Cockney might say Rosie Lee for tea, apples and pears for stairs or trouble and strife» for wife.

But why is rhyming slang said to be a language of the Cockneys? Who or What are they?

The word Cockney comes from cocken ay, a cocks egg, meaning a worthless towns-person. The term appeared in about the 16th century and was referred to those Londoners who were not part of the Royal Court. It was re-defined in the 18th century, as the working-class population of the city, who were joined by uneducated farm-workers from the countryside who traveled to East London in search of work. So, the Cockneys were uneducated working-class people lived in their own special communities. Like any other small community, the Cockneys had a large number of words and phrases, which had special meanings for them, but they took this to extremes by inventing a whole dialect- Rhyming slang., there is another version of the appearance of this unusual language, but there is almost no evidence that it is correct. It consists in the fact that in the 19th century East End criminals developed a special kind of a language, which made it difficult for the police to understand them.Cockneys language or rhyming slang is characterized by colorful language expressing the sheer enjoyment of words and by words run together.slang substitutes can be different, the urgent requirement is that they should rhyme with words they replace. Thus, phone becomes dog and bone, word becomes dicky bird, mouth — North and South.- tit for tat— Cain and Abel— bees and honey— loaf of bread — I supposecomplicating factor in studying rhyming slang is that the word that rhymes is almost always dropped out, thus making the etymology rather obscure to outsiders. For example, Titfer (meaning hat) was originally tit for tat; Tom (meaning jewelry) is short for tomfoolery, or daisies (meaning boots) came from daisy roots.other complication is that Cockney pronunciation varies from conventional British speech, it has another system of pronunciation of vowels and consonants, and it is especially famous for its silent h. It drops letters and slurs words, so havent turns into am and old becomes ol. you turns into yer and so on.swearing, Cockneys lent their style and expression to the new tongue as well. Arse is widely used and acceptable, as is sod in the right context (he is a cheeky young sod). Universally used are bleeding (чертов) and bugger (тип). Bugger is freely used to denote a bad person, but there are variants. You bugger!— unless there is a note of admiration- will always mean youre swine! and is for astonishment, while bugger off! means Get lost!, and finally, Bugger all means either little or nothing.people complain that rhyming slang is spoken to give the Cockneys an unfair advantage over strangers. In fact, it is really hard to understand a man or a woman who asks one where dog and bones is. If one does not know anything about rhyming slang, s/he will not even imagine that s/he is asked about the telephone.a lot of immigrants to Australia during the period from 1815 to 1861 were from London, most of them were obviously the Cockneys. Still Australians speak a very interesting and complicated slang- rhyming slang whose rhyming part is dropped. Moreover, they have a system of slang words and phrases, which have no resemblance with normal English or American slang, and which are really hard to understand without a special guide dictionary. (Appendix 1)

Polari (also seen as ‘Palare’) is a gay slang language, which has now almost died out.slang in Britain dates back to the involvement of the homosexual subculture with the criminal «underworld». The homosexual subculture of the Eighteenth Century mixed with the gypsies, tramps & thieves of popular song to produce a rich cross-fertilization of customs, phrases and traditions. As the Industrial revolution dramatically changed settlement patterns, more and more people drifted away from villages and small communities and moved to larger towns in search of work and opportunity. In these larger urban locations, the scope for the development of communities of outcasts substantially increased. The growth of molly houses (private spaces for men to meet, drink, have sex together and practice communal rituals) encouraged the creation of a molly identity. A linguistic culture developed, feeding into that profession traditionally associated with poofs and whores: theatre.itself was never clearly defined: an ever-changing collection of slang from various sources including Italian, English (backwards slang, rhyming slang), circus slang, and Yiddish and Gypsy languages. It is impossible to tell which slang words are real Polari. Linguists still argue about where it came from. The larger part of its vocabulary is certainly Italian in origin, but nobody seems to know how the words got into Britain. Some experts say its origins lie in the lingua franca of the shores of the Mediterranean, a pidgin in use in the Middle Ages and afterwards as a medium of communication between sailors and traders from widely different language groups, the core of this language being Italian and Occitan. Quite a number of British sailors learnt the lingua franca. On returning home and retiring from the sea it is supposed that many of them became vagabonds or travelers, because they had no other means of livelihood; this threw them into contact with roving groups of entertainers and fairground people, who picked up some of the pidgin terms and incorporated them into their own canting private vocabularies., other linguists point to the substantial number of native Italians who came to Britain as entertainers in the early part of the nineteenth century, especially the Punch and Judy showmen, organ grinders and peddlers of the 1840s. Much of parlarey, the traveling showmen’s language, appears to be derived from the lingua franca or the vocabulary of traveling actors and showmen during the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. Specifically theatrical Palare included phrases such as joggering omee (street musician), slang a dolly to the edge (to show and work a marionette on a small platform outside the performance booth in order to attract an audience) and climb the slanging-tree (perform onstage). Nanty dinarly (having no money) also had a peculiarly theatrical translation in the phrase «There’s no treasury today, the ghost doesn’t walk.»disappearance of large numbers of traveling costermongers and cheapjacks by the early twentieth century effectively denied the language its breathing space. As many of the traveling entertainers moved sideways into traveling circus, so the language moved with them, kept alive as a living and changing language within circus culture. By the mid-twentieth century, there had also been a cross-over to a recognizably gay form of slang, with polari used by the gay community to communicate in code in elaborate forms. Words such as trade and ecaf (backslang for face, shortened to eek) became part of gay subculture. Blagging trade (picking up sexual partners), zhoosing your riah (doing your hair), trolling to a bijou bar (stepping into a gay club) and dishing the dirt (recounting gossip) all became popular coded phrases to describe and encode an emerging homosexual lifestyle. By the 1950’s, with secret homosexual clubs emerging in swinging London and the Wolfenden Committee discussing the possibility of law reform around (homo) sexuality, it seems appropriate that polari should raise its irreverent head. Polari became an appropriate tool with which to confuse and confound the naff omees (straight men). It traveled the world via the sea queens, who incorporated navy slang into a new version of the language and also accommodated local dialects and phrases., as the language came to be known was a collection of words, which when strung together by those most proficient at it, were incomprehensible to those who didn’t understand it. It was mainly used for conversations that were high in gay «content», so if you wanted to point out to your friend that the man on the tube train next to you seemed to be particularly well-developed in the «menswear» department, you could say «vada the bona cartes on the ommee ajax» and your friend would know what you meant. If the man with the big «cartes» was also gay, he’d know what you were talking about too, and Polari would serve as an «introduction» which could lead to «other things».Polari died out in the 1960s when the Wolfenden Report legalized homosexuality (to an extent) in England, the only people who remember it tend to be distinguished older gentlemen Polari has almost vanished from gay circles. Mention it now and you’ll more likely than not to get a blank look, especially from anyone under 30. And those who do profess to have heard of it are likely to only know a handful of words., there emerges a question, which really seems to be disputable: What is the point of calling the Cockney language Rhyming slang if the rhyming part is practically not used? Or, why there should be a separate language for gays, if they, nowadays, have no need to encode their speaking (with acquiring equal rights), and therefore they do not need this language. This fact makes these languages extinct. Perhaps, these languages will come into an ordinary slang vocabulary some day and lose their original value (as being rhyming or gay slang). But as long as these ;languages have not vanished completely yet, one should be aware of them too in case s/he comes across them, for they are also types of slang, and the knowledge of such slang promotes the development of the linguistic competence too, what again proves the hypothesis suggested.

2.The use of slang units in literature, songs, movies and Internet

Literary works, songs, movies and even Internet can serve as a source of slang: an author, a singer or a speaker while describing something, creates a new word or uses an existing one in some new meaning; and then readers, TV spectators or Internet users begin using this word in their speech. Thus it can become a slang item and then even get a standard status. But users of slang basically use it to create some specific and fresh tone in their description or speaking. The aim of the analysis described below is to present the most typical examples and situations where slang can be revealed and how it can be applied; and to prove that it is very hard to figure out authors intentions and ideas, if one does not know slang.this analysis different sources are selected: literary works, songs, movies and Internet.literary works the following ones were analyzed:

1.The Catcher in the Rye by JD Salinger;

2.A Patchwork Planet by Anne Tyler;

3.Rachels Holiday by Marian Keyes;

In The Catcher in the Rye Salinger writes about a teenager Holden Caufield and his relations with his parents and friends. Moreover the story of Holden is told on behalf of Holden himself, which helps a reader to see what language this character uses to reveal his thoughts and act out his feelings. Holdens speech is characterized by a unique colloquial tone achieved by the use of slang and colloquial expressions.is a very interesting teenager with an unusual way of thinking and outlook. Sometimes it is hard to understand him when he uses normal words, but when he uses some slangy words it causes some greater difficulty to understand his thoughts, although some of these slang expressions have already become standard ones.is very noticeable that Holdens speech is full of epithets when he evaluates something or somebody. These epithets sound very slangy. For example: phony —липовый (phony bastard, phony smile, phony girls); lousy- поганый, дерьмовый, вшивый (lousy childhood, lousy personality, lousy teeth, lousy movie); crumby or corny- беспонтовый, стремный (crumby old razor, crumby nails, corny shoes, corny jokes).

Get your lousy knees off my chest!, I told him. Go on, get off me, ya crumby bastard.

She kept saying these very corny, boring things, like calling the can the little girls room.evaluative slangy epithets sound rough and rude but nevertheless they help a reader to understand when Holden disapproves of something. Such slang expressions as to shoot the bull, to chew the rag, to chew the fat, to shoot the crap, to shoot the breeze have their Russian slang equivalents and are translated as балаболить, трепать языком. Judging by Russian equivalents these slang expressions can be understood as those meaning to lie but this meaning is hidden in other slang items. For example: to snow somebody (забалтывать, запудривать мозги), to chuck (заливать, вешать лапшу на уши), to give a lot of horse manure about… (втирать, пинать по ушам, приседать на уши). By the way speaking about horses some expressions with this word can be singled out: to horse around is understood as дурачиться, валять дурака, паясничать in the following sentence:

Sometimes I horse around just to keep from getting bored

But the phrase to horse around with… in the sentence: You shouldnt horse around with her at all obviously means зависать с…, тусоваться с…, угорать с…. This meaning also can be found in such phrase as to hang around and to hang out.

Take it easy! does not mean only Dont worry! but also So long! (Пока! Давай!) when somebody is leaving. Moreover this somebody does not just leave but clears the hell out or beats it, which is understood as смыться, свалить или просто уйти.

Stink or to stink in different contexts have different meanings. For example: to stink something up means запороть, запартачить, испортить but to make a big stink means закатить скандал, развоняться.meaning of thing (as an abstract notion) is presented by the following slang items: job — junk — stuff — crap, where job is the most is the most innocent and crap— the rudest.example:

They were these little hard, dry jobs you could hardly even cut

That kind of junk is sort of fascination

That stuff bores meI had to sit there and listen to that crapit has been already mentioned lousy means something bad and is mostly used in a rude sense, but to be lousy with something means to have a lot of something. For example:

He is lousy with money —у него уйма денег, у него денег куры не клюют.

Speaking about money this word almost does not emerge in Holdens speech, he mostly says dough (бабки, капуста, копейки, лавэ).one hears Holden say: Ive never given it to anybody but Ackley sometimes gets some old bag, then he starts giving her a feel and necking her knockers and then he gives her the time, it is very hard to see what he is talking about, but thanks to a knowledge of slang his language is not that complicated. Making a profound study it is evident that to give it or to give the time means to have sexual intercourse, to neck means to kiss, knockers stand for breasts, to give a feel denotes to touch (щупать) and at last an old bag means a woman ( букв. Старая кошелка).a bag does not always mean a sack but a sack does not necessarily denote a bag. For example:

Nobody was around anyway. Everybody was in the sackto be in the sack stands for to sleep (дрыхнуть).knockers as parts of an old bags body have ben mentioned, it is necessity to mention a can, which stands for butt or ass. But if a reader gets at such sentence as: It was steamy in the can. Or I walked around the can or I went to the can to wash up, he will probably think that it has something to do with butt. But it is wrong. Can is used here in the sense of bathroom. Thus a reader should bear in mind that there can be slang homonyms.Holden speaks about a booze hound, who boozes and gets crocked, he talks about an alcoholic, who drinks a lot and then gets drunk.Holdens language is difficult to perceive, what is typical of teenagers language, a reader can easily understand him, if he has a good command of slang.literary work A Patchwork Planet by Anne Tyler has been written in the XXI century. Thus the freshest slang items may be traced here. In comparison with The Catcher in the Rye told on behalf of Holden, a teenager, A Patchwork Planet is narrated on behalf of Barnaby, who is about 30-35 years old. However, despite the age of the main character, slang phrases can be found in his speech.slang examples with hang were figured out in The Catcher in the Rye, here in A Patchwork Planet a reader can find no less ones. For example: to hang around also means here тусоваться, угорать, шататься без дела. The same meaning is found in the slang expression to goof around.

Youd better do some more serious stuff instead of hanging and goofing around

Hang up is a core component in some slang expressions. For example: to be hung up on somebody or something stands for зациклиться на ком-либо или чем-либо; to hang up on somebody means пристать, прилипнуть к кому-либо but to hang up on somebody also stands for бросить трубку— for example:

You hung up on me! Why?

Booze, which was once singled out in The Catcher in the Rye also means here alcohol drink (пузырь); and to booze, therefore is understood as бухать, лечить гланды. People, who like to booze, tend to pay a visit to somebody, but this sounds very conventionally, they do not visit but drop up to somebody, which is understood as завалиться к кому-либо.it is obvious, many slang expressions in A Patchwork Planet reflect relations between people and their attitude to somebody or something. For example, among such slang items expressing relations one can find the following expressions: to hook up with somebody— связаться, спутаться с кем-либо; to stand somebody up — предать, обмануть кого-либо; to pick somebody up — подцепить кого-либо.about expressions reflecting peoples attitudes one can single out sharp! (Wow! Sharp!), which is understood as Cool! — Круто!, or if one finds a sentence where Barnaby says: Thats tough, it is obvious that it stands for Да…стремно.one heard Barnaby say: I stashed my money but somebody swiped it, it would be probably clear that to stash means to hide — заныкать, припрятать, and to swipe stands for стащить, стибрить.slang expressions are traced in Rachels Holiday by Marian Keyes- about 120-130 units. The main heroine of the work is a twenty-seven-year-old Rachel Walsh. Rachel desperately tries to find a soul mate to love…but her only drawback is that she is some sort of junkie (drug addict). Here to watch a love story is as possible as to watch a life of a junkie. Rachels Holiday combines two points:

) Love is a serious thing and it does not admit such a language as slang, it needs a more elevated and poetical language;

) The world of drugs is a good sphere for development and use of slang. Thus, here two opposite pints fight, what caused almost a 50/50 outcome.it is obvious from the description that Rachel is a junkie, which stands for drug addict (наркоша). Moreover drugs in slang can be substituted by hash (травка).

Anna, whod never had a real job, sometimes sold hash to make ends meet.

She is not a goody-goody. Just because shes not a, a…junkie who cant get a job and whose husband leaves her…unlike some, he finished.

Paul was obviously referring to Claire, who managed to get hitched by her husband on the same day that she gave birth to their first childthe last example to hitch stands for to abandon (кинуть). Maybe for somebody getting hitched is no big banana or maybe it really pisses one off. Here it is apparent that no big banana means no big problem, while to piss somebody off is a substitute for to get on ones nerves. These two slang phrases can be figured out in the following examples:

I had a toothache, thats all, no big banana.

No. She is a fine, big, tall girl. You know, strong, they said. I was always described as strong. It really pissed me off.

Hey there stands for Hi though it may sound a little impudent. The same meaning is revealed in Whats up?. Both should be used when addressing a very close person.

Hey there, girl!

Yo, girlfriend, whats up?get lost should not be mistaken here for go away. In the following example it is obvious that it means you are kidding (не гони, гонишь).summing everything up it would be correct to state that a knowledge of slang considerably simplifies comprehension of such literary works and gives a reader great opportunities to assess a style of an author and to understand an idea of a work.is necessary to mention that such works contain many slang units and a reader has a good chance to get acquainted with them and the use them in his/her speech thus filling a gap between him/her and native speakers.

english slang cockney polari

2.1 Songs

Even though slang is a speech phenomenon and is used mostly in Spoken English, and even though it found its place in literary works (mostly in dialogues), it does not necessarily mean that slang cannot be found in songs. Songs are also a good means in spreading of slang. Thus when hearing a song containing slang units, an English learner can include them in his/her active vocabulary and then recognize them when watching a movie or talking to somebody; or use them when producing his/her own speaking. This brings to the conversation some informal and relaxing spirit; it pushes off traditional and limited character of a common talk.course most songs are about love and mostly a romantic and elevated language full of serious things is used here, and it seems that there is no place for slang in them. But slang is a fast-running thing trying to find any way to come into notice.producers of songs apply slang in their works to also establish an easy atmosphere. Sometimes slang words are used in songs because they perfectly fit into a verse line without destroying or altering the meaning of the whole, thereby remaining a rhythmic tempo and rhyming tone. In other cases slang is used because it accurately reveals ideas of a song and because no other words can express these ideas. Sometimes slang is applied in songs in imitating something like a conversation, i.e. when a duo-song is performed or when a solo-singer reveals the ideas in such a way that reminds of talking to someone.course context or the plot of songs must be of major importance. Most songs, as it has already been mentioned, are about love, but it does not always mean that they cannot contain slang words. The question is what love is the subject of a song. Mostly it is unshared love. And when being frustrated a hero, on whose behalf a song is sung, cannot find suitable words to blame himself or damn everything that put him in this state. Speaking about emotions, it is mostly some negative spirit which is found in the cases of slang in songs, i.e. it is mostly applied when a negative attitude toward something is expressed. It can be again unshared love, it can be jealousy it can be envy, it can be anything that is difficult to express by means of simple words. In many songs slang is used in its rude meaning, the so-called vulgar slang. It intensifies the negative meaning and atmosphere of a song or a verse. Of course this may be considered silly to suggest listening to such songs and selecting vulgar slang words, but it is not necessary to use them in ones speech but at least it helps to recognize and identify them when seeing or hearing them, because knowledge of any slang words is of much importance in the development of ones linguistic competence.the analysis of the use of slang in songs different pop songs were selected. In the course of investigation various slang unites were figured out but also some grammar, sound and syntax deviations, which together make text-messaging slang. All this again has a slangy meaning and brings informal character to the verse.example in walking away performed by Craig David coz is employed instead of because

coz I saw them with my own eyes This is due to its ability to fluently link this verse with the preceding one. As a result the two lines flow smoothly non-stop. Because is not always substituted by coz, it can take different forms, but all of them are pronounced in the same manner and no differences are distinguished. Because can take its form as cause, cus and cuz. A lot of these because-forms were figured out in songs.

So hold you close to set you freeI just wanna see you smale again (Talk to Me by Smash)

There must be another wayI believe in taking chances (Overprotected by Britney Spears)

And if its good lets just make something cookingI really wanna rock with you (Superstar by Jamelia)

And I dont really know what to doIve got a thing about you (A thing about you by Roxette)these because-forms, as it has been said, are applied in verses as a linking component between two verse lines making a song go easy. Besides they keep the rhyming and rhythmic effect better than the whole because would.other deviations found in songs and characterizing slang one may point out the use of wanna, which serves as a substitute for want to. It proved to be a very popular form in songs. Such forms as gonna (=going to) and gotta (=have got to) have the same ability of fitting the best into a verse line. They also do not alter themeaning of the whole verse line but on the contrary they serve as a linking element between the words.

Some people dont wanna compromise or and well I dont wanna live and lie too many sleepless nights

(Walking Away by Craig David)

Is the love I gave her in the pastbe enough to lasttomorrow never comes

(If Tomorrow never comes by Ronan Keating)

You gotta tell me what you need from mehold you close so set you free (Talk to Me by Smash)

Im gonna wake up, yes and nom gonna kiss some part ofm gonna keep this secretm gonna close my body now

(Die Another Day by Madonna)

Aint was also distinguished among grammatical characteristics of slang. This form may stand for am not, isnt and arent. The aim of the use of aint is the same as that of cos, wanna and gonna. But this form as considerably rare:

I aint gonna hold out eitherma give it all to you baby

(I know what you want by Mariah Carey)loneliness aint killing me no morem stronger (Stronger by Britney Spears)

That was a different thingit aint (Shut Up by Black Eyed Peas)the forms described above, as it has been said, are characterized as slangy. And it is not a single example where these slangy forms can be revealed. They also can be found in movies and literature, though considerably less, but they are popular in songs due to their ability to make a song sound more easy and fluent.verses suggested above show good examples where slang forms can be revealed and how to use them. And these forms are not necessarily to be used in text messaging, i.e. to be used only while printing, they can successfully be applied in Spoken language making ones speech flow smoothly and uninterrupted.all the examples described above are slang examples regarded from the grammatical and orthographical point of view. As for the sheer lexical slang units they are used comparatively less in songs, apart from dirty slang, or vulgar slang. Dirty slang emotionally expresses a negative attitude toward something. Such songs containing vulgar slang words sound more expressive than if these words were substituted by stylistically neutral words. Among such songs the songs performed by Eminem abound in vulgar slang units a lot. Ordinary slang words reflecting almost no negative or rude attitude also find their expression in songs, though less in number.somebody refuses doing something or is reluctant to do something s/he may express her/his unwillingness by the slang expression no way. This expression was also figured out in songs when studying them:

Im falling apart in your hands againwayve got to get away (Objection by Shakira)

If hed told me, one daysomebodyd have my heart in chainsI believe, no wayup my mind Id never fall that way

(My Fathers Son by Rondor Music)these two cases the expression no way really fits the verse line and, besides, it carries out its function — to express unwillingness and to retain the rhyme. Sometimes slang words are used not only to perform a rhyming function but also to avoid repetition. This is where synonyms are required. Thus, for example, relax can be replaced by such slang synonyms as chill out, lay back and laugh out like in the song Complicated:

(Complicated by Avril Lavigne)these three slang synonyms contain the same number of syllables and thus, again, they perfectly fit the verse line. Besides the use of them helped to avoid the use of a simple verb relax, which might be applied several times within one song. These verbs also possess some informal spirit appropriate in spoken situations. This is due to the fact that these lines suggested above resemble somebody addressing another person and it looks like speaking to someone. That is why these slang words can be selected by English learners and applied in corresponding situations.is apparently noticeable that all songs suggested above mostly contain text-messaging slang, the one applied when typing than when speaking. Lexical slang units expressing neutral attitude rarely emerge in pop songs.slang or dirty English has also gained its place in songs, particularly in rap songs. To display the use of vulgar slang rap songs performed by Eminem are selected. Such songs sound very expressive and inferior. A great number of vulgar slang words or slang words in general, in rap songs is caused by the fact that they are extremely resemble ones speaking . Perhaps because rap songs do not follow the rules of rhyme and tone a lot, as a result the lines go like ones talk — without apparent rhyme and great timbre variations.most popular vulgar slang units in Eminems rap songs are shit, ass and fuck (and its derivatives). These are the words which function in his songs in different meanings. Shit mostly means thing as an abstract notion, which may be easily substituted by stuff. For example this meaning is expressed by shit in the following verses:

You know what Im saying, cause they dont know shit about this(Infinite by Eminem)

I got them open like marijuana smoke up in your nosethese hoes, I got that shit down to a science…

… You want your shit to blow up?Ima stuff some dynamite in your ass crackblast that shit to kingdom come

(313 by Eminem)the last verse shit means shit, while the second shit again means stuff or thing. Shit also can stand for something bad in general, i.e. to do shit would mean to do nasty things. This meaning is revealed in the following verse:

Ive seen it turn beautiful people rude and deceitfulmake them do shit illegal (Its OK by Eminem)compound bullshit does not mean shit of a bull but lie, nonsense or absurd:

So stop that bullshit and flow, you need to come with the real skills, and act like you know(313 by Eminem)

Fuck may not serve any syntactical function in the sentence but it serves to intensity Eminems emotional attitude to what he is singing, actually talking, about:

Inebriated, till my stress is elevatedis the fuck can Eminem and shady be related?

If you hear a man that sounds like me smack him and ask him where the fuck did he get this damn raps from

(Low Down. Dirty by Eminem)derivatives of fuck such as fucking or motherfucking are also applied for emotional expression.

Oh yeah, this is Eminem baby, back up in that motherfucking asstime your motherfucking mind, we represent the 313

(Infinite by Eminem)

Dumpin your dead body inside of a fucking trash can with more holes than Afgan (Just Dont Give a Fuck by Eminem)phrase I just dont give a fuck stands for I dont care. But the first sounds more impressive than if it were just I dont care:

But see me on the street and duckyou gon get stuck, stoned, and snuffedI just dont give a fuck

(Just Dont Give a Fuck by Eminem)Eminem says your ass it means you, and if it is somebodys ass it just means this somebody: his ass -he, her ass — she, my ass — I.

My rhymes they keep coming like nymph maniacs that masturbatea faster rate, yeah I got something for your ass to hate

This puppy is lucky I didnt blast his ass yet

(Criminal by Eminem)is noticeable that slang in the songs suggested above is either text-messaging, i.e. which is more apparent when typed than when pronounced, or dirty (vulgar). Neutral slang units reflecting no immorality, at least in the songs analyzed, have not been singled out. It is necessary to mention that although vulgar slang is described in this paper, it does not mean that this paper suggests learning such slang. This analysis has been aimed at suggesting different situations where any slang can be recognized, no matter what kind of slang it is: text-messaging or vulgar.source where slang can come from is a movie. Here one can really observe Spoken English. Different slang kinds were selected while analyzing the movies. The reasons of why slang is applied in movies are the same as in literature. For this analysis the following movies were chosen:

1.Dont be a Menace South Central (while drinking your juice in the hood).

2.Dumb and Dumber

.Pulp Fiction

.Finding Forrester

Sometimes in one movie the similar expressions of slang were discovered and it was decided to show only some examples of slang.first movie analyzed is Dont be a Menace South Central…. It is about one Afro-American guy Ashtray by name. His mother brings him to the black block to his father and wants him to become a real Afro-American man. The movie is hard to understand because of the accent most black people have, but nevertheless due to the fact that most black people in the movie are young it is possible to find some slang terms.

Hang out, which is rendered as зависать, was already singled out in The Catcher in the Rye and A Patchwork Planet, but these are literary works and this time this slang phrase is applied in a movie.

I dont want you to hang out somewhere.want you to be a man, buddy or pal can be substituted by a slang word dude (парнила) which is mostly applicable to a male person.

— Are you dating anyone?

— Well…there was one dudeWhats up? once meant Whats happened? then now, as a slang phrase, it stands for Hi and at the same time How are you doing?. That is why it is enough to say just Whats up and this will express both meanings, moreover this slang phrase requires the same reply.

— Whats up, man?

— Whats up, young blood?Whats up? is used in greeting, there is also a slang expression used in farewell — Take care (Пока, бывай) and it should not be mistaken for be careful.vulgar slang the following words are singled out: shit, fuck and suck. Shit mostly means stuff and thing.

Pass me that shit over there

She tells me the same shit

He will fuck your head up when he learns thatthe paper is not able to give the Russian variant, which is the closest to the meaning, but this phrase can be rendered as to punish severely.

Motherfucking and motherfucker are of the same stem, but the first functions as an adjective and the latter as a noun. Motherfucking is actually hard to render but it is mostly used when one is furious:

I tell ya, get off this motherfucking music

Motherfucker can be substituted by bastard, but it is much more offensive. Sucker is also much more offensive than just fool

Dreams are for suckers

Get your ass out of here (свали, катись отсюда) sounds rude too though this meaning can be revealed by get out of here or go away.

Dumb and Dumber is about two guys, Harry and Lloyd, who in the course of the whole movie are doing stupid things. The movie itself is a comedy and it allows the use of slang, because comedies tend to create an easy and due to the use of the language people usually speak in everyday life these movies are closer to viewers.Harry asked Lloyd: How much dough do we have? some viewers might misunderstand him: why dough and for what? Here dough means the same as in The Catcher in the Rye. It stands for money, though dough belongs to food. Speaking about food there was also a piece of cake which did not mean any food actually, in the following context it denotes an easy thing (легкотня).

— She is gonna leave the brief case near the escalator.make the pick-up

— Piece of cakeLloyd said to Harry Get out of here it did not mean that he wanted Harry to disappear. In the following context it is obvious that saying this he expressed his disbelief. This phrase is applicable in any case of expressing disbelief and can be used instead of simple You are kidding! (Не гони).

— You know I talked to her

— Get out of here!!!!

To freak out in this movie stands for to get nervous (психовать).

They always freak out when you leave the scene of an accidentabout being nervous the act of making someone mad can be rendered

2.2 What factors promote the use of slang in literary works

Although slang is a speech phenomenon it can be found in literary works too, mostly in dialogues. Thus when reading some work a reader can see a language of characters, and no wonder if slang is chosen s a language. But what promotes the use of slang in literary works? No doubt that characters are of the great role. Their age and social status play no less role. Settings and events also belong to the group of factors influencing slang frequency in literary works. Thus making a study of some works it was discovered that slang rate in different literary works varies due to the factors mentioned above.this analysis the following works of about 200-220 pages were chosen:

1.Farewell, my Lovely by Raymond Chandler;

2.To have or Have Not by Ernest Hemingway;

.Crome Yellow by Aldous Huxley;

.Rachels Holiday by Marian Keyes;

.The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger.

The aim of this analysis is to figure out frequency value of slang units. The judgments are based on the factors described. The work, which abounds in slang most, is, of course, The Catcher in the Rye (about 1000 slang units). This is due to the fact that the work is about Holden Caulfield, a teenager, and relationship with his friends. Thus a language typical of teenagers is found here. For example: dough, can, cut it out!, hang out», lousy. Slang words are revealed not only in the main characters speech, but also in the speech of his friends, for they are teenagers too. And since teenagers are said to be the most active users of slang, a reader can find in The Catcher in the Rye the proof of this assumption.items in Farewell, my Lovely make about 170-180 units (approximately 1 slang unit per each page). The main character of this detective novel is Phillip Marlow, an investigator, but this is not him, who speaks a language of slang. In this work slang is a language of criminals, who do not only maintain slang expressions but also create new ones, for example: Smokes (Negroes), shine box (Negro), hot car list (a list of stolen cars), to barber ( to gossip), juju or a stick of tea ( marihuana). As it has been already mentioned in this paper that immorality promotes the use of slang a lot, here a reader can see for himself/herself that it is really so. The number of slang items in Farewell, my Lovely is rather high, because these items concentrate around immoral and anti-social lives of criminals.slang expressions, but not the least, are traced in Rachels Holiday by Marian Keyes- about 120-130 units. The main heroine of the work is a twenty-seven-year-old Rachel Walsh. Rachel desperately tries to find a soul mate to love…but her only drawback is that she is some sort of junkie (drug addict). Here to watch a love story is as possible as to watch a life of a junkie. Rachels Holiday combines two points:

) Love is a serious thing and it does not admit such a language as slang, it needs a more elevated and poetical language;

) The world of drugs is a good sphere for development and use of slang. Thus, here two opposite pints fight, what caused almost a 50/50 outcome. The following slang examples were found: to sack (to fire), a junkie (drug addict), to ditch (to walk out on somebody, stiff (the dead), hash (marihuana).To Have and Have Not by Ernest Hemingway brought the following results: 80-90 slang units. The main figure in this novel is Harry Morgan, a fisherman, who goes bankrupt, because he lent his most expensive fishing-tackles to a rich tourist, but who did not pay Morgan. Unable to buy a new net Morgan illegally transports whiskey. Morgans conditions put him in contact with contrabandists and terrorists, moreover he commits murder. This atmosphere of unfair business, suspicious deals, robberies and murders makes a slang language work. The following slang examples were traced here: goof (a fool), to sock (to hit), chink (Chinese), hot (drunk), stool (spy), to rat on (to betray).last work analyzed and having the least quantity of slang units is Crome Yellow by Aldous Huxley (5-8 units). The reason of such poor concentration of slang expressions in the work is that there was no atmosphere enforcing the use of slang. Denis Stone, the main figure in the work, is a young and promising writer. He lives in, but not hangs out with, the society of educated people, who speak mostly about some elevated and sophisticated things. Those slang units found in Crome Yellow substitute neutral notions reflecting no immorality, such as: to give a buzz (to phone), loaf (a head), John (toilet), to get hitched (to get married).it is necessary to mention that a narrator plays a great role I the promotion of slang too. All the works except Crome Yellow are narrated on behalf of the main characters, what promotes the use of slang even in the narration. Crome Yellow is narrated from the point of view of an author what excludes the possibility of finding slang units in narration. After making this analysis the following assumption was proved: the use of slang units in literary works depends on the age and social status of characters, their way of life, people surrounding them and a narrator.it has already been mentioned in this paper that uneducated people, teenagers, criminals and drug addicts are active users of slang, this proves to be evidence of concentration of slang words in the literary works analyzed.

Conclusion

The investigation made on the theme Slang as a part of the English language helps to make the following conclusion.to the fact that there is a growing necessity to learn an authentic language, slang should also be learned because it is also a part of the language.aim of the paper has been analyzing the importance of knowledge of slang. Accordingly there has been suggested a hypothesis that knowledge of slang is a very important component in the development of linguistic competence, for it simplifies communication and guarantees more accurate understanding.studying and systematizing the theoretical material on the theme and after analyzing the use of slang, the hypothesis suggested has been proved and one can come to a conclusion that knowledge of slang really simplifies communication and comprehension and lets a reader evaluate literary works properly., as a part of the English language should also be paid attention in teaching. The urgency of this problem consists in the fact that people contact with native speakers more than ever and they feel a great demand to know an authentic language.

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