Is into compound word

Compound
words in English can be formed not only by means of composition but
also by means of :

a)
reduplication, e.g. too-too, and also by means of reduplicatin
combined with sound interchange , e.g. rope-ripe,

b)
conversion from word-groups, e.g. to micky-mouse, can-do, makeup etc,

c)
back formation from compound nouns or word-groups, e.g. to
bloodtransfuse, to fingerprint etc ,

d)
analogy, e.g. lie-in ( on the analogy with sit-in) and also phone-in,
brawn-drain (on the analogy with brain-drain) etc.

Classifications of english compounds

1.
According to the parts of speech compounds are subdivided into:

a)
nouns, such as : baby-moon, globe-trotter,

b)
adjectives, such as : free-for-all, power-happy,

c)
verbs, such as : to honey-moon, to baby-sit, to henpeck,

d)
adverbs, such as: downdeep, headfirst,

e)
prepositions, such as: into, within,

f)
numerals, such as : fifty-five.

2.
According to the way components are joined together compounds are
divided into:

a)
neutral, which are formed by joining together two stems without any
joining morpheme, e.g. ball-point, to windowshop,

b)
morphological where components are joined by a linking element :
vowels «o» or «i» or the consonant «s», e.g. {«astrospace»,
«handicraft», «sportsman»),

c)
syntactical where the components are joined by means of form-word
stems, e.g. here-and-now, free-for-all., do-or-die .

3.
According to their structure compounds are subdivided into:

a)
compound words proper which consist of two stems, e.g. to job-hunt,
train-sick, go-go, tip-top ,

b)
derivational compounds, where besides the stems we have affixes, e.g.
ear-minded, hydro-skimmer,

c)
compound words consisting of three or more stems, e.g.
cornflower-blue, eggshell-thin, singer-songwriter,

d)
compound-shortened words, e.g. boatel, tourmobile, VJ-day, motocross,
intervision, Eurodollar, Camford.

4.
According to the relations between the components compound words are
subdivided into :

a)
subordinative compounds where one of the components is the semantic
and the structural centre and the second component is subordinate;
these subordinative relations can be different:

with
comparative relations, e.g. honey-sweet, eggshell-thin, with limiting
relations, e.g. breast-high, knee-deep, with emphatic relations,
e.g. dog-cheap, with objective relations, e.g. gold-rich, with cause
relations, e.g. love-sick, with space relations, e.g. top-heavy, with
time relations, e.g. spring-fresh, with subjective relations, e.g.
foot-sore etc

b)
coordinative compounds where both components are semantically
independent. Here belong such compounds when one person (object) has
two functions, e.g. secretary-stenographer, woman-doctor, Oxbridge
etc. Such compounds are called additive. This group includes also
compounds formed by means of reduplication, e.g. fifty-fifty, no-no,
and also compounds formed with the help of rhythmic stems
(reduplication combined with sound interchange) e.g. criss-cross,
walkie-talkie.

5.
According to the order of the components compounds are divided into
compounds with direct order, e.g. kill-joy, and compounds with
indirect order, e.g. nuclear-free, rope-ripe .

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WORD FORMATION • Compounding/composition – Criteria of compounds. – Classification of compounds. • Secondary ways of word formation.

Recommended literature: • Антрушина, Г. Б. , Афанасьева, О. В. , Морозова, Н. Н. Лексикология английского языка: Учеб. пособие для студентов. – 3 -е изд. , стереотип. – M. : Дрофа, 2001. — С. 104 -120. • Arnold I. V. The English word. – M. : Высш. школа, 1986. – С. 108 -133, 134 -152. • Харитончик З. А. Лексикология английского языка: Учеб. пособие. –Мн. : Выш. шк. , 1992. – С. 177 — 187, 188 -191. • Дубенец Э. М. Лексикология современного английского языка: лекции и семинары. Пособие для студентов гуманитарных вузов. – М. : «Глосса. Пресс» , 2002. – С. 37 -45, 58 -70.

Compounding/Composition is the way of word building when a word is formed by joining two or more stems to form one word. • I. V. Arnold: Compounds are words consisting of at least 2 stems, which are characterized by semantic integrity and structural cohesion.

• R. S. Ginsburg distinguishes between 2 levels of analysis: derivational and morphemic. • E. g. to nickname, to baby-sit, to honeymoon • On the morphemic level these are compound words, • On the derivational level these are words created by either conversion (to nickname, to honeymoon) or by back formation (to babysit) => they are derivatives.

Compound words are characterized • by semantic integrity and structural cohesion. • Structurally compounds are characterized by the specific order of arrangement in which stems follow one another.

The lexical meaning of a compound • may be a sum of meanings of its constituents, i. e. they may be motivated, e. g. tablecloth, shoemaker, bookshelf; • the lexical meanings of the constituents may be fused together to create a new additive meaning, i. e. partially motivated, e. g. handbag – a bag to be carried in the hand -> additive meaning: a women’s bag to keep money and other stuff; flowerbed), • the meaning of a compound has nothing to do with the meanings of its constituents, i. e. nonmotivated or idiomatic, e. g. a sweet tooth, a chatter box.

Main features of compounds • The unity of stress; • Solid or hyphenated spelling; • Semantic unity; • Unity of morphological and syntactic functioning.

Criteria of compounds • Eugene Nider: Criteria for determining the word units in a language are of 3 types: phonological, morphological, and syntactic. • Charles Bally suggested the graphic criterion, • Otto Jesperson – the semantic criterion.

The phonological criterion • compound words are, as a rule, characterised by 1 main primary stress (and a secondary stress) in compound, while in free word combinations both components are stressed: • /blackboard — /black /board; • /laughing gas — /laughing /boys.

The morphological criterion • the structural integrity of compounds enables compounds to function as an inseparable unit and has 1 paradigm.

The syntactic criterion • The components of compounds can t have modifiers. E. g. compare: sky – blue (adj. ), but: blue sky -> very blue sky. • The semantic criterion • A combination of words refers to the number of concepts/notions = the number of words, a compound refers to 1 concept : Its colour; kind of colour.

The graphic criterion • everything written in one word or hyphenated is considered a compound and the words written separately are elements of a combination e. g. a tall boy – a tallboy

Classifications of compounds • Compounds may be classified in accordance with different principles: • -part of speech reference: Noun honeymoon, Verb to babysit, Adjective power-happy; • -the way components are joined: • neutral compounds (without a linking element) to window-shop; • morphological compounds (with a linking element) handicraft; • syntactical compounds free-for-all, do-or-die, here-and-now;

— the syntactic relations between the stems (coordination or subordination) • compounds fall into coordinative and subordinative. • In coordinative compounds the constituents are semantically and structurally equal. The coordinative compounds may be subdivided into • 1. additive actor – manager, secretary –stenographer • 2. reduplicative tic-tic, hash-hash • 3. words with varied rhythmic form of the same stem: willy- nilly, tic-toc, drip – drop.

• In subordinative compounds the components are neither semantically nor structurally equal. • Their relation is based on the domination of 1 component over the other. The 2 nd component is usually a structural and semantic center of a compound, e. g. ship – wreck, inn – keeper, tooth – brush

-the order of components: syntactic compounds in which the components are put in the same order as in a free word group (direct word order): sun -rise <= the sun rises, blackbird <= a black bird, long-tailed <= long tail, killjoy<= to kill joy; • asyntactic compounds in which the order of the components is not the same as in a free word-group (indirect word order): sky-blue <= blue sky, lamp-lit <= to lit a lamp, well-dressed <= to dress well, mud-stained <= stained with mud. •

-structure: • compounds proper (2 root stems): to job-hunt; • compound-affixed words: videoplayer; • compounds of 3 or more stems: cornflower-blue, singer-songwriter; • compound-shortened words: V-day, motocross, AIDSphobia, motel;

Semi-affixes • The words with such elements as -man, -land, -like, –proof, -worthy stand between compounds and derived words because the mentioned elements • 1) have all the features of a stem and preserve the semantic associations with the free form and • 2) their meaning has become so generalized that it is close to the meaning of an affix: • • • Sportsman, policeman, seaman, countryman (man = -er, -or); Ireland, Scotland, motherland, wonderland; Businesslike, ladylike, starlike; kissproof, fireproof, foolproof, bulletproof; Trustworthy, praiseworthy, seaworthy.

Secondary ways of word formation • Shortening/clipping can be of different types: • initial clipping – the initial part of a word is clipped: phone <= telephone, bus<= omnibus • final clipping — the final part of a word is clipped: vac <= vacations, cab<= cabriolet, lab <= laboratory; • initial and final clipping – frige <= refrigerator; • Acronyms are words made of initial letters of a word group: UNO, BBC, MP, PM, NATO, USA, EU, etc.

Blending • is a way to combine elements of two words to create one, so it includes 2 word building processes: clipping and composition: smog<= smoke + fog, brunch<= breakfast + lunch, Oxbridge<= Oxford + Cambridge; edutainment <= education + entertainment, slanguage <= slang +language, • medicare <= medical care; • •

Back-formation/reversion • is such a way of word building when a new word is produces not by adding an affix to a stem but by subtracting an affix. • It is normally used to create a verb from a noun: • beggar => to beg, • burglar => to burgle, • baby-sitter => to baby-sit, • television =>to televise.

Stress and sound interchange: • import- to import, export – to export, conduct –to conduct; • sing-song, bleed-blood, feed – food. • Lexicalization • is a process of turning a word form into a separate lexical unit: Customs, arms, irons, glasses.

Sound imitation/onomatopoeia • is a way of coining a word by imitating different sounds produced in nature by animals: bark, croak, miaow; people: giggle, gargle, groan; things: crack, etc; • Reduplication – • doubling a stem, either without phonetic changes: bye-bye, or with variation of a root sound: ping-pong, riff-raff (the disreputable elements of society), dilly -dally (wasting time)

• -structure: compounds proper (2 root stems): to job-hunt; • compound-affixed words: videoplayer; • compounds of 3 or more stems: cornflowerblue, singer-songwriter; • compound-shortened words: V-day, motocross, AIDSphobia, motel;

The words pancake, living room, and merry-go-round have something in common.

They are all examples of compound words.

The noun compound means something made up of two or more separate components. Compound can also be an adjective meaning consisting of two or more parts or components.

A compound word is one word, or one unit of meaning, that is created by joining two or more separate words together.

What Are Compound Words?

A compound word is a word made up of usually two but sometimes more words that are joined together. The two (or more) that make the compound word are independent words; they have their own distinct meanings. When those words are joined and form a compound word, that compound word has its own new meaning.

The Three Types of Compound Words

Compound words can take three possible forms: closed, open, or hyphenated. In closed form, there is no space between the joined words. In open form, there is a space between the “joined” words that still act as one unit, and in hyphenated form—you guessed it! There is a hyphen between the joined words.

These general “rules”—which are somewhat fluid and flexible—provide guidance as to what format a compound word takes.

• Closed compound words are usually nouns: They put on makeup.

• Open compound words are usually nouns or verbs: I have to make up (verb) that exam at my high school. (noun)

• Hyphenated compound words are usually adjectives or adverb-adjective combinations: I have to take a make-up (adjective) exam. I will be well-prepared. (adverb + adjective)

The key word in each of those examples is “usually.” Some compound words break the rules. We’ll see how soon.

1. Closed Compound Words

To review: closed compound words are usually made up of two separate words that are put together to form a new word. There is no space between the two words in a closed-form compound word; the compound appears as one single word.

Examples of Closed Compound Words

• Cup + cake becomes cupcake

• Basket + ball becomes basketball

• Key + board becomes keyboard

• Extra + ordinary becomes extraordinary

• Birth + day becomes birthday

You can see through these examples that the meaning of the compound word is not just a merger of the independent definitions of the individual words that join together to make that compound.

However, there is a relationship between the individual word meanings and the compounds. Compound words have been integrated into language as speakers have discovered those relationships. It makes perfect sense to call a cake that could fit into a cup a cupcake and to call a ball thrown through a basket (now a hoop) a basketball.

The rules for compound words, listed earlier in the post, include the word usually. That word means the rules are not hard and fast, and there are examples of compound words that break those rules.

For example, compound words that are verbs are usually open form, but here are rule-breaking closed-form compound verbs that remind us to hold those rules loosely:

• I need to proofread my essay.

• I think the clerk shortchanged me.

• I have to babysit my little sister.

2. Open Compound Words

In an open compound word, there is a space between the two independent words, though they are still treated as one unit with a new “compound meaning.”

Examples of Open Compound Words

• Living room: as a unit, this compound noun refers to a room in a house.

• High school: as a unit, this compound noun refers to a school that has students in grades 9-12.

• Post office: as a unit, this compound refers to a building where mail is collected, sorted, and sent.

• Give up: as a unit, this compound verb means to stop trying.

• Ask for: as a unit, this compound verb means to request something.

3. Hyphenated Compound Words

Hyphenated compound words have hyphens between each of the independent words that serve as connectors. The hyphens are a visual cue that the words form one unit.

Some compound words are always hyphenated.

• Merry-go-round

• Mother-in-law (and brother-, sister-, and father-in-law)

• Self-esteem

Did you notice that all of those examples are nouns? Remember: the rules are flexible!

Examples of Hyphenated Compound Adjectives:

When compound words are used as adjectives (officially known as compound adjectives), the hyphenation rules change depending on where the compound adjective comes in the sentences.

If the compound adjective comes before the noun it modifies (describes), you should usually add a hyphen:

• High-speed chase

• Part-time employee

• Full-time job

• Fire-resistant pajamas

• Good-looking person

• Well-respected politician

• Up-to-date records

Of course, there are exceptions. Remember, those “rules” are flexible. Some compound adjectives that precede the nouns they modify never take a hyphen. For example, ice cream and high school:

• High school students
• Ice cream sundae

There’s really no “why” to explain these exceptions; we’ve just adopted these forms and made them part of our language.

Examples of Open-Form Compound Adjectives

If the compound adjective comes after the noun it modifies, the hyphen is usually omitted.

• Make sure the files are up to date. “Up to date” modifies, but comes after, the noun “files.”

• The cat is two years old. “Two years old” modifies, but comes after, the noun “cat.”

Though post-noun modifiers don’t technically take hyphens, according to Merriam-Webster, usage trends indicate the hyphens are often included anyway, if the compounds “continue to function as unit modifiers.” So there’s that flexibility again.

What About Adverb Compounds?

It’s easy to find examples of closed, open, and hyphenated adverbs.

As for the closed-form examples, we probably don’t even register them as compound words much of the time.

• Sometimes

• Thereafter

• Somewhere

Open-form adverbs occur when the adverb is the first word in the compound and ends in —ly. You should not hyphenate after an —ly adverb.

• We made the discovery early on.

• Her opinion is highly regarded.

• They entered the dimly lit room.

What to Do If You’re Not Sure Which Form Is Right

While those flexible rules can help you, there may still be times when you feel confused about which compound form to use. Don’t stress too much.

According to Merriam Webster, the rules are more like patterns. You may see differences in different publications depending on editorial choice and style. For example, I looked on Amazon for a teapot. I saw mostly teapots, but also a few tea pots. Out of curiosity I put “tea pot” into a New York Times search bar, and found articles from the 1800s that included “tea-pot” in the title!

While interesting, those stylistic changes and choices shouldn’t be too surprising. Language is fluid and ever-evolving. Compound words themselves are proof of that evolution.

Keep Clarity the Focus

The purpose of hyphens in compound words is to ensure clarity. For example,

• I bought over-the-counter medication.

• He passed the medicine over the counter.

In the first example, I know by the hyphen that the medicine «I» bought did not require a prescription. «Over-the-counter» is one unit—one compound—describing a type of medicine.

In the second example, «over the counter» is serving another purpose and, while the words form a phrase to tell me where «he» passed the medicine, hyphens do nothing to make the purpose of the phrase clear and are therefore unnecessary.

Now look at these examples:

• He owned a little-used car.
• He owned a little used car.

In the first example, I know the man owns a car that has not been driven much. The car is described by the compound modifier «little-used.»

In the second example, it seems that the man owns a used car that is also small, or little. In this example, putting a comma after «little» would help to separate the two words, «little» and «used,» and show that they aren’t intended to work as a compound.

ProWritingAid Can Help

Though you’re a compound-word expert now, if you find yourself with lingering doubts, remember that ProWritingAid is here to help. It will let you know if you’ve added an unnecessary hyphen after an -ly adverb, or if you’ve left one out of a pre-noun compound adjective. You don’t have to write alone!

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Scientists are big into molecular compounds, and there is something kind of magical about them. You can start with a couple of atoms of hydrogen, add another atom of oxygen, and bada bing: water. Two distinct elements come together to create something entirely different.

It’s exactly the same with words. Well, maybe not exactly the same, but English is such a flexible, creative language that it’s filled with compound words—and new ones are popping up all the time to suit our ever-changing world. Some useful compound words recently added to Merriam-Webster are clickbait, photobomb, binge-watch, humblebrag, and spit-take.

So what is a compound word? How do you know whether it should be a closed compound, a hyphenated compound, or an open compound? What about compound sentences? We’ll look at all of these in this post.
 

When two (or occasionally, three) words work together to express a single idea, that’s a compound word. Compound words can be open, closed, or hyphenated, and they can function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. English is full of preexisting compound words—or you can make up your own to suit the situation.

No one at the Star Trek convention really appreciated my Klingon-librarian costume.

The lung-collapsing dead-flower stench of my aunt Penelope’s perfume was headache-inducingly strong.

What is an open compound word?

An open compound word is two separate words (without even a hyphen to link them) functioning as a single idea.

When we were in high school, we regularly ate French fries, hot dogs, and ice cream with peanut butter as an afterschool snack.

What is a hyphenated compound word?

A hyphenated compound word is a term composed of two (or more) words connected by a hyphen. Like other compound words, a hyphenated compound can be a noun, adjective, or adverb.

The gun-toting, card-carrying FBI agent hid her angst well.

What is a closed compound word?

A closed compound word is a single word constructed of two or more other words. Most closed compound words were once open or hyphenated, but continued use solidified them—made them a single unit. Today’s open or hyphenated compounds are tomorrow’s closed compounds.

The moonlight coming through my bedroom window is so bright it outshines my flashlight.

Every afternoon, she wrote another story in her notebook; my favorite is the one about the starfish who loved rainbows and strawberries.

How do you know whether a compound word is open, hyphenated, or closed?

There’s really no trick to this! You look it up in a dictionary (like Merriam-Webster). Compound words evolve over time, so what was once black-bird is now blackbird, and what was once a web site is now almost always a website.

Don’t worry if you find dictionaries contradicting each other! Not every dictionary agrees on which compounds are open, hyphenated, or closed. Some offer health care and voice mail, for example, as two words, but others hyphenate or close those same compounds. In such cases, you’re free to use the spelling you prefer, except if you’re supposed to be following a particular style guide.

For example, the Chicago Manual of Style (CMoS) says that when a compound modifier comes before a noun, it’s never wrong to hyphenate it, since it can aid readability.

The seventy-year-old professor despaired for the dull-witted students in her late-afternoon class.

But (Chicago goes on to say) when compound modifiers follow the noun, leave them unhyphenated (even if they’re hyphenated in the dictionary).

The professor, who was almost seventy years old, couldn’t understand why her students were so dull witted by late afternoon.

What is a compound noun?

Compound words can be nouns, adjectives, adverbs—and even verbs (like pole-vault or double-click). In each case, they can be open, hyphenated, or closed. Compound nouns are perhaps the most common type of compound word. Here are some examples of compound nouns (some closed, some open, some hyphenated).

Susan’s grandmother, my mother-in-law, had a skylight above the bookcase in her living room that let in rainwater.

Watch out for the sometimes-unusual plurals of hyphenated compound nouns.

The workmen fixing the two merry-go-rounds in the local park typically catcalled all passersby, but they stopped once our attorneys-at-law sent them a warning.

What is a compound name?

A compound name is essentially a compound proper noun—a multiword term (often an open compound, though not always) that names a single entity.

Like Popeye, Black Panther gets at least some of his powers from eating his greens—in his case, the heart-shaped herb. But I bet Superman liked Cheez-Its better.

What’s important here is that these proper nouns are always preexisting compounds, so if you’re turning an open compound name into part of a compound modifier (see more about compound adjectives and adverbs below), you’ll need to use an en dash rather than a hyphen.

My new World War I–era cloche didn’t really go with anything in my New York–style wardrobe, so naturally I had to go shopping.

 

 

What is a compound adjective?

A compound adjective is a single adjective made up of more than one word—and it’s often a compound noun (or even compound name) being used to modify another noun. According to CMoS, it’s never wrong to hyphenate multiword adjectives when they precede a noun, even if they’re familiar open compounds like high school.

High-school students often have more brain-draining homework than college students.

My silly-voiced sister found her calling in advertising.

When a compound name functions as an adjective, there’s no need for a hyphen.

Penny was thrilled to win Dolly Parton tickets.

The Los Angeles weather is typically hot and sunny.

As touched on above, when a compound adjective follows a noun, the hyphen is usually not necessary.

Georgia is a well-read academic.

Georgia is well read.

I found a useful list of low-calorie cocktails.

I found a useful list of cocktails, all of them low calorie.

Remember that compound adjectives made from an adverb ending in –ly plus an adjective are never hyphenated. The -ly is enough of a signal that what follows is meant to be read together with the preceding word.

Sarah’s short-tempered grandfather griped about her recital, calling it a really dull concert.

Sarah’s grandfather, always short tempered, griped about her recital, describing it as really dull.

What is a compound adverb?

A compound adverb looks like a single word but (closely examined) is actually made up of two or more words working together to function as a single adverb. They’re often rather old fashioned, and they can sound stuffy and pompous so are best used sparingly: notwithstanding, nevertheless, heretofore, albeit, and so on.

Phrasal adverbs are very similar to compound adverbs, and they’re rather more useful.

I scattered rose petals here and there.

The newly married couple walked arm in arm.

Joseph goes running every day.

What is a compound sentence?

And here’s the bonus section (because the last thing we want to do is compound anyone’s confusion about compounds)!

Compound sentences are grammatically unrelated to compound words, but that still doesn’t answer the key question: What is a compound sentence? A compound sentence is when two or more independent clauses, each with its own subject and verb plus attendant objects and phrases, are joined with a coordinating conjunction (one of the FANBOYS: for, and, nor but, or, yet, so). Here, the key thing to remember is to always include a comma after the first independent clause and before the conjunction.

I read this blog post about compound words, but they didn’t explain about compound sentences, so I had to keep on searching.

My son’s story about the strawberry-loving starfish was really cute, so I sent it to my sister, and she loved it too.

Every word has its own meaning. You can search for the definition of every term in the dictionary. But do you know that you can put two words together and have a brand new meaning? Of course, not all words can be put together for such a case. However, many ones are already accepted in the English language. These words are called compound words.

What Are Compound Words?

Compound words are formed when two or more words are combined to produce a new one. This newly-constructed word has its own meaning that can either be related to the base words or not.

Types of Compound Words

Open Compound Words

Open compound words remain separate when written but are used together to create a new idea. For example, “peanut” and “butter” are unrelated to each other. But when you combine them and use them as one word, you will have “peanut butter,” which is already a different noun with its own meaning.

Closed Compound Words

Closed compound words are formed by combining two fully independent words together without space in between. An example of a closed-form compound word is “grandfather,” in which “grand” and “father” are put together.

Hyphenated Compound Words

Another possible form of a compound word is the hyphenated one. From the word itself, the independent terms used are separated by a hyphen or dash. A common example is “mother-in-law.”

Compound Nouns

Compound nouns are simply compound words that act as nouns. Nouns are names of people, animals, places, things, or events. However, it does not mean that the two words comprising it should only be nouns. A compound noun can be formed by combining two nouns, an adjective and a noun, a verb and a noun, and many more.

Compound Verbs

A compound verb is also called a complex predicate. It is a multi-word compound that acts as a single verb. It can be constructed by putting together a verb and a preposition or a verb and an adverb (phrasal verbs). Auxiliary verbs that are followed by the main verb can also be considered compounds. Some other combinations that involve a verb and a non-verb word can also be considered compound verbs if they indicate action.

Compound Adjectives

Two or more words that function as one and describe a noun are called compound adjectives. Usually, they are separated by a hyphen.

List of Compound Words

Open Compound Words

• Ice cream
• Ice cream cake
• Ice cube
• Cream cheese
• Hot dog
• Corn dog
• Corned beef
• Apple pie
• Sugar plum
• Web page
• Table cloth
• Fire drill
• Fire drill
• Fire exit
• High school
• Roller coaster
• Living room
• First aid
• Full moon
• Tea cup
• Serving spoon
• Real estate
• Car pool
• Cotton bud
• Cotton ball
• Video game
• Coffee grain
• Coffee mug
• Post office
• Upper deck
• Hand towel
• Sweet tooth
• Common sense
• Dance hall
• Police officer
• Vice president
• Science fiction
• Root word
• Candy cane
• Christmas tree
• Cell membrane
• Jumping jack
• Report card
• Credit card
• Debit card
• Radio wave
• Snack house
• Coffee shop
• Bus stop
• Swimming pool
• Rubber band
• Ice hockey
• Ice skate
• Break up
• Take away
• Take out
• Break away
• Lift up
• Push down
• Pull down
• Ask out
• Ask around
• Make up
• Turn in
• Fill up
• Fill out
• Fill in

Closed Compound Words

• Basketball
• Football
• Baseball
• Worldwide
• Overpass
• Southeast
• Northeast
• Northwest
• Southwest
• Bushfire
• Mailbox
• Snowball
• Skateboard
• Sailboat
• Birthday
• Blackboard
• Everything
• Anything
• Anyone
• Everyone
• Classmate
• Schoolmate
• Playmate
• Grandmother
• Grandfather
• Granddaughter
• Grandson
• Grasshopper
• Sunflower
• Sunrise
• Sunshine
• Moonlight
• Freelance
• Eyeball
• Eyebrow
• Eyelash
• Armpit
• Playground
• Teamwork
• Stoplight
• Flashlight
• Lighthouse
• Fireman
• Rainbow
• Raindrop
• Bedroom
• Popcorn
• Keyboard
• Notepad
• Keyhole
• Keystone
• Pothole
• Bowtie
• Necktie
• Brainwash
• Proofread
• Babysit
• Horseshoe
• Highlight
• Notebook
• Bookstore
• Lipstick
• Makeup
• Toothpaste
• Toothbrush
• Airbrush
• Crosswalk
• Crossroad
• Crossover
• Nightfall
• Riverbank
• Nutcracker
• Candlelight
• Backstroke
• Hamburger
• Cheeseburger
• Sandwich
• Homesick
• Uptown
• Rattlesnake
• Workplace
• Wrongdoing
• Springtime
• Underdog
• Strawberry
• Blueberry
• Watermelon
• Pineapple
• Cupcake

Hyphenated Compound Words

• Mother-in-law
• Father-in-law
• Sister-in-law
• Brother-in-law
• Sergeant-at-arms
• Merry-go-round
• Happy-go-lucky
• Editor-in-chief
• Over-the-counter
• Up-to-date
• State-of-the-art
• Long-term
• High-speed
• Left-handed
• Right-handed
• In-depth
• Full-length
• Part-time
• Long-haired
• Sun-dried
• Breath-taking
• Self-centered
• Well-off
• Well-known
• Gift-wrap
• Follow-up
• Well-being
• Single-minded
• Knee-length
• Short-tempered
• Off-site
• Runner-up
• One-sided
• Tip-off
• Blush-on
• Sugar-free
• Ice-cold
• Far-flung
• High-rise
• Life-size
• King-size
• Warm-blooded
• Cold-blooded
• Get-together
• Next-door

A Huge List of Compound Words

Following is a list of 1000 close compound words in English

• Aboveboard
• Afterbirth
• Afterburner
• Afterglow
• Afterimage
• Afterlife
• Aftermath
• Afternoon
• Airbrush
• Aircraft
• Airfield
• Airlift
• Airline
• Airliner
• Airmail
• Airman
• Airmen
• Airplane
• Airport
• Airship
• Airtime
• Allover
• Allspice
• Alongside
• Also
• Another
• Anybody
• Anyhow
• Anymore
• Anyone
• Anyplace
• Anything
• Anytime
• Anyway
• Anywhere
• Armchair
• Armpit
• Around
• Arrowhead
• Ashtray
• Authorship
• Babysit
• Babysitter
• Backache
• Backbite
• Backbone
• Backbreaker
• Backdrop
• Backfield
• Backfire
• Background
• Backhand
• Backlash
• Backlog
• Backpack
• Backside
• Backslap
• Backslide
• Backspace
• Backspin
• Backstage
• Backstop
• Backstretch
• Backstroke
• Backtrack
• Backward
• Ballpark
• Ballroom
• Bankbook
• Bankroll
• Baseball
• Basketball
• Beachcomb
• Became
• Because
• Become
• Bedbug
• Bedclothes
• Bedrock
• Bedroll
• Bedroom
• Bellbottom
• Bellboy
• Bellhop
• Below
• Birthday
• Blackball
• Blackberries
• Blackbird
• Blackboard
• Blackjack
• Blacklist
• Blackmail
• Blackout
• Blacksmith
• Blacktop
• Bluebell
• Blueberry
• Bluebird
• Bluefish
• Bluegrass
• Blueprint
• Boardwalk
• Bodyguard
• Bodywork
• Boldface
• Bookbinder
• Bookcase
• Bookend
• Bookkeeper
• Booklet
• Bookmark
• Bookmobile
• Bookseller
• Bookshelf
• Bookstore
• Bookworm
• Bootstrap
• Bowtie
• Brainchild
• Brainstorm
• Brainwash
• Bugspray
• Bushfire
• Buttercup
• Butterfat
• Butterfingers
• Butterflies
• Buttermilk
• Butternut
• Butterscotch
• Bypass
• Cabdriver
• Cancan
• Candid
• Candlelight
• Candlestick
• Cannot
• Cardboard
• Cardsharp
• Cardstock
• Carefree
• Caretaker
• Careworn
• Carfare
• Cargo
• Carhop
• Carload
• Carpetbagger
• Carpool
• Carport
• Carrack
• Carryall
• Carsick
• Cartwheel
• Carwash
• Cattail
• Catwalk
• Caveman
• Centercut
• Cheeseburger
• Cheesecake
• Classmate
• Clockwise
• Coffeemaker
• Comeback
• Comedown
• Commonplace
• Commonwealth
• Cornball
• Cornmeal
• Cornstalk
• Cornwall
• Cottonmouth
• Cottontail
• Cottonwood
• Countdown
• Counterattack
• Counterbalance
• Counterclockwise
• Counterintelligence
• Countermeasure
• Counteroffensive
• Counterpane
• Counterpart
• Counterpoint
• Counterpoise
• Courthouse
• Courtroom
• Courtyard
• Crewcut
• Crossbow
• Crossbreed
• Crosscut
• Crossover
• Crossroad
• Crosstown
• Crosswalk
• Crossword
• Cupcake
• Dairymaid
• Daisywheel
• Daybed
• Daybook
• Daybreak
• Daydream
• Daylight
• Daytime
• Deadend
• Deadline
• Dishcloth
• Dishpan
• Dishwasher
• Dishwater
• Diskdrive
• Dogwood
• Doorstop
• Downbeat
• Downunder
• Drawbridge
• Driveway
• Duckbill
• Duckpin
• Earache
• Eardrop
• Eardrum
• Earring
• Earthbound
• Earthquake
• Earthward
• Earthworm
• Egghead
• Eggshell
• Elsewhere
• Everyone
• Everything
• Eyeball
• Eyeballs
• Eyebrow
• Eyecatching
• Eye-catching
• Eyeglasses
• Eyelash
• Eyelid
• Eyesight
• Eyewitness
• Fatherland
• Fatherless
• Firearm
• Fireball
• Fireboat
• Firebomb
• Firebox
• Firebreak
• Firecracker
• Firefighter
• Fireflies
• Firehouse
• Fireman
• Fireproof
• Firewater
• Fireworks
• Fishbowl
• Fisherman
• Fisheye
• Fishhook
• Fishlike
• Fishmonger
• Fishnet
• Fishpond
• Fishtail
• Flashlight
• Football
• Foothill
• Foothold
• Footlights
• Footlocker
• Footnote
• Footpath
• Footprints
• Footrest
• Forbearer
• Forbid
• Forearm
• Forebear
• Forecast
• Forecastle
• Foreclose
• Foreclosure
• Foredoom
• Forefather
• Forefinger
• Forefront
• Forehand
• Forehead
• Foreleg
• Foreman
• Foremost
• Forepaws
• Forerunner
• Foresee
• Foresight
• Forestall
• Forestland
• Forever
• Forget
• Forgive
• Forklift
• Format
• Fortnight
• Freelance
• Friendship
• Fruitcup
• Gearshift
• Glassmaking
• Goodbye
• Goodnight
• Grandaunt
• Grandchild
• Grandchildren
• Granddaughter
• Grandfather
• Grandmaster
• Grandmother
• Grandnephew
• Grandnieces
• Grandparent
• Grandson
• Grandstand
• Granduncle
• Grasshopper
• Graveyard
• Gumball
• Haircut
• Hamburger
• Hammerhead
• Hamstring
• Handball
• Handbook
• Handcuff
• Handgun
• Handmade
• Handout
• Headache
• Headdress
• Headhunter
• Headlight
• Headline
• Headquarters
• Hedgehop
• Heirloom
• Hellcat
• Hellhole
• Helpmate
• Helpmeet
• Hemstitch
• Henceforth
• Henchman
• Henpeck
• Hereabout
• Hereafter
• Hereby
• Herein
• Hereof
• Hereupon
• Herself
• Highball
• Highchair
• Highland
• Highlight
• Highway
• Himself
• Homemade
• Homesick
• Hometown
• Honeybee
• Honeycomb
• Honeydew
• Honeymoon
• Honeysuckle
• Hookup
• Hookworm
• Horseback
• Horsefly
• Horsehair
• Horseplay
• Horsepower
• Horseradish
• Horseshoe
• Houseboat
• Housecoat
• Household
• Housekeeper
• Housetop
• Housewife
• Housework
• However
• Ideal
• Inchworm
• Income
• Indoors
• Inflow
• Infold
• Infuse
• Infusion
• Inhale
• Inkblot
• Inkwell
• Inland
• Inmate
• Inpatient
• Inroad
• Inset
• Inside
• Intake
• Ironwork
• Itself
• Jackpot
• Jackson
• Jailbait
• Jailbird
• Jawbone
• Jawbreaker
• Jaywalk
• Jellybean
• Jellyfish
• Jerkwater
• Jerrybuild
• Jetliner
• Jetport
• Jigsaw
• Jimsonweed
• Jitterbug
• Jobholder
• Johnnycake
• Jumpshot
• Keepsake
• Keyboard
• Keyhole
• Keynote
• Keypad
• Keypunch
• Keystone
• Keystroke
• Keyway
• Keyword
• Landmark
• Landslide
• Landward
• Lapland
• Lapwing
• Larkspur
• Laughingstock
• Lawgiver
• Lawmaker
• Lawsuit
• Layman
• Layoff
• Layout
• Layover
• Leapfrog
• Lifeblood
• Lifeboat
• Lifeguard
• Lifelike
• Lifeline
• Lifelong
• Lifesaver
• Lifetime
• Lifework
• Lighthouse
• Limelight
• Limestone
• Lipstick
• Longhand
• Longhorn
• Longhouse
• Lukewarm
• Mailbox
• Mainland
• Mainline
• Mainspring
• Mainstream
• Makeup
• Matchbox
• Meadowland
• Meantime
• Meanwhile
• Moonbeam
• Moonlight
• Moonlit
• Moonscape
• Moonshine
• Moonstone
• Moonstruck
• Moonwalk
• Moreover
• Mothball
• Motherhood
• Motorcycle
• Nearby
• Necktie
• Nevermore
• Newborn
• Newfound
• Newsboy
• Newsbreak
• Newscast
• Newscaster
• Newsdealer
• Newsletter
• Newsman
• Newsmen
• Newspaper
• Newsperson
• Newsprint
• Newsreel
• Newsroom
• Newsstand
• Newsworthy
• Nightfall
• Nobody
• Noisemaker
• Northeast
• Northwest
• Notebook
• Notepad
• Noteworthy
• Nowhere
• Nursemaid
• Nutcracker
• Oneself
• Onetime
• Overabundance
• Overboard
• Overcoat
• Overflow
• Overland
• Overpass
• Overshoes
• Pacemaker
• Pancake
• Parkway
• Passbook
• Passkey
• Passover
• Passport
• Password
• Pasteboard
• Patchwork
• Pathfinder
• Pathway
• Pawnbroker
• Pawnshop
• Paycheck
• Payload
• Paymaster
• Payoff
• Payroll
• Peppermint
• Pickup
• Pineapple
• Pinhole
• Pinpoint
• Pinstripe
• Pinup
• Pinwheel
• Playback
• Playboy
• Playground
• Playhouse
• Playmate
• Playthings
• Ponytail
• Popcorn
• Postcard
• Pothole
• Proofread
• Racquetball
• Railroad
• Railway
• Rainbow
• Raincheck
• Raincoat
• Raindrop
• Rainfall
• Rainmaker
• Rainstorm
• Rainwater
• Ratline
• Ratsbane
• Rattlesnake
• Rattletrap
• Rawboned
• Rawhide
• Readywitted
• Rearmost
• Rearrange
• Rearward
• Redcap
• Redcoat
• Reddish
• Redhead
• Repairman
• Riverbank
• Riverbanks
• Rubberband
• Sailboat
• Salesclerk
• Sandbox
• Sandlot
• Sandstone
• Sandwich
• Saucepan
• Scapegoat
• Scarecrow
• Schoolbook
• Schoolboy
• Schoolbus
• Schoolhouse
• Schoolmate
• Schoolroom
• Schoolwork
• Seashore
• Setback
• Setoff
• Shadyside
• Sharecropper
• Sharpshooter
• Sheepskin
• Shipbottom
• Shipbuilder
• Shipload
• Shipwreck
• Shipyard
• Shoelace
• Shoemaker
• Shopkeeper
• Shortbread
• Shortcake
• Shotgun
• Showboat
• Showoff
• Showplace
• Showroom
• Sideburns
• Sidecar
• Sidekick
• Sideshow
• Sidewalk
• Silversmith
• Sisterhood
• Sixfold
• Skateboard
• Skintight
• Skylark
• Skylight
• Skyscraper
• Slapstick
• Slowdown
• Slumlord
• Snakeskin
• Snowball
• Snowbank
• Snowbird
• Snowdrift
• Snowshoe
• Snowshovel
• Snowstorm
• Soapstone
• Softball
• Software
• Somebody
• Someday
• Somehow
• Someone
• Someplace
• Something
• Sometime
• Sometimes
• Someway
• Somewhat
• Somewhere
• Soundproof
• Southeast
• Southwest
• Soybean
• Spacesuit
• Spacewalk
• Spearmint
• Speedboat
• Spillway
• Spokesperson
• Springtime
• Stagehand
• Standby
• Standoff
• Standout
• Standpipe
• Standpoint
• Standstill
• Starfish
• Steamboat
• Steamship
• Stepson
• Stickup
• Stockroom
• Stonewall
• Stoplight
• Stopwatch
• Storerooms
• Strawberry
• Streetcar
• Stronghold
• Subway
• Sunbaked
• Sunbathe
• Sunday
• Sundial
• Sundown
• Sunfish
• Sunflower
• Sunglasses
• Sunlit
• Sunray
• Sunrise
• Sunroof
• Sunshine
• Suntan
• Sunup
• Supercargo
• Supercharge
• Supercool
• Superego
• Superfine
• Supergiant
• Superhero
• Superhighways
• Superhuman
• Superimpose
• Superman
• Supermarket
• Supermen
• Supernatural
• Superpower
• Superscript
• Supersensitive
• Supersonic
• Superstar
• Superstrong
• Superstructure
• Supertanker
• Superweapon
• Superwoman
• Sweetheart
• Sweetmeat
• Tablecloth
• Tablespoon
• Tabletop
• Tableware
• Tadpole
• Tagalong
• Tailbone
• Tailcoat
• Tailgate
• Taillight
• Taillike
• Tailpiece
• Tailspin
• Takeoff
• Takeout
• Takeover
• Talebearer
• Taleteller
• Tapeworm
• Taproom
• Taproot
• Target
• Taskmaster
• Tattletale
• Taxicab
• Taxpayer
• Teacup
• Teammate
• Teamwork
• Teapot
• Teardrop
• Teaspoon
• Teenager
• Telltale
• Tenderfoot
• Tenderhearted
• Tenderloin
• Tenfold
• Textbook
• Themselves
• Therefore
• Throwaway
• Throwback
• Thunderbird
• Thunderbolt
• Thundershower
• Thunderstorm
• Timekeeper
• Timepieces
• Timesaving
• Timeshare
• Timetable
• Today
• Together
• Toolbox
• Toothbrush
• Toothpaste
• Toothpick
• Touchdown
• Township
• Turnabout
• Turnaround
• Turnbuckle
• Turncoat
• Turndown
• Turnkey
• Turnoff
• Turnover
• Turntable
• Typewriter
• Underachieve
• Underact
• Underage
• Underarm
• Underbelly
• Underbid
• Undercharge
• Underclothes
• Undercover
• Undercurrent
• Undercut
• Underdevelop
• Underdog
• Underesimate
• Underestimate
• Underexpose
• Underfeed
• Underfinance
• Underfoot
• Underfur
• Undergarment
• Undergird
• Undergo
• Undergraduate
• Underground
• Undergrowth
• Underhand
• Underhanded
• Underlayer
• Underlie
• Upbeat
• Upbringing
• Upcoming
• Update
• Updraft
• Upend
• Upgrade
• Upheaval
• Upheld
• Uphill
• Uphold
• Upkeep
• Upland
• Uplift
• Uplink
• Upload
• Upmarket
• Upon
• Uppercase
• Upperclassman
• Uppercut
• Uppermost
• Upright
• Uprising
• Upriver
• Uproar
• Uproot
• Upset
• Upshot
• Upside
• Upstage
• Upstairs
• Upstanding
• Upstart
• Upstate
• Upstream
• Upsurge
• Upswing
• Uptake
• Upthrust
• Uptight
• Uptime
• Uptown
• Upturn
• Upward
• Upwind
• Waistband
• Waistcoat
• Waistline
• Walkout
• Walkways
• Wallboard
• Walleyed
• Wallflower
• Wallpaper
• Wanderlust
• Wardroom
• Warehouse
• Warfare
• Warhead
• Warlike
• Warlord
• Warmblooded
• Warmhearted
• Warmonger
• Warpath
• Warplanes
• Warship
• Wartime
• Washboard
• Washbowl
• Washcloth
• Washout
• Washroom
• Washstand
• Washtub
• Wastebasket
• Wasteland
• Wastepaper
• Wastewater
• Watchband
• Watchcase
• Watchdog
• Watchmaker
• Watchman
• Watchtower
• Watchword
• Watercolor
• Watercooler
• Watercraft
• Waterfall
• Waterfowl
• Waterfront
• Waterline
• Waterlog
• Watermark
• Watermelon
• Waterpower
• Waterproof
• Waterscape
• Watershead
• Waterside
• Waterspout
• Watertight
• Waterway
• Waterwheel
• Waterworks
• Wavelength
• Wavelike
• Waxwork
• Waybill
• Wayfarer
• Waylaid
• Wayside
• Wayward
• Weathercock
• Weatherman
• Weatherproof
• Weekday
• Weekend
• Weeknight
• Whatever
• Whatsoever
• Wheelbarrow
• Wheelbase
• Wheelchair
• Wheelhouse
• Whitecap
• Whitefish
• Whitewall
• Whitewash
• Widespread
• Wipeout
• Without
• Woodshop
• Workplace
• Worldwide
• Wrongdoing

Compound Words | Images

WORD STRUCTURE IN MODERN ENGLISH

  I.   The morphological structure of a word. Morphemes. Types of morphemes. Allomorphs.

II.   Structural types of words.

III.   Principles of morphemic analysis.

  IV.   Derivational level of analysis. Stems. Types of stems. Derivational types of words.

I.   The morphological structure of a word. Morphemes. Types of Morphemes.  Allomorphs.

There are two levels of approach to the study of word- structure: the level of morphemic analysis and the level of derivational or word-formation analysis.

Word is the principal and basic unit of the language system, the largest on the morphologic and the smallest on the syntactic plane of linguistic analysis.

It has been universally acknowledged that a great many words have a composite nature and are made up of morphemes, the basic units on the morphemic level, which are defined as the smallest indivisible two-facet language units.

The term morpheme is derived from Greek morphe “form ”+ -eme. The Greek suffix –eme has been adopted by linguistic to denote the smallest unit or the minimum distinctive feature.

The morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of form. A form in these cases a recurring discrete unit of speech. Morphemes occur in speech only as constituent parts of words, not independently, although a word may consist of single morpheme. Even a cursory examination of the morphemic structure of English words reveals that they are composed of morphemes of different types: root-morphemes and affixational morphemes. Words that consist of a root and an affix are called derived words or derivatives and are produced by the process of word building known as affixation (or derivation).

The root-morpheme is the lexical nucleus of the word; it has a very general and abstract lexical meaning common to a set of semantically related words constituting one word-cluster, e.g. (to) teach, teacher, teaching. Besides the lexical meaning root-morphemes possess all other types of meaning proper to morphemes except the part-of-speech meaning which is not found in roots.

Affixational morphemes include inflectional affixes or inflections and derivational affixes. Inflections carry only grammatical meaning and are thus relevant only for the formation of word-forms. Derivational affixes are relevant for building various types of words. They are lexically always dependent on the root which they modify. They possess the same types of meaning as found in roots, but unlike root-morphemes most of them have the part-of-speech meaning which makes them structurally the important part of the word as they condition the lexico-grammatical class the word belongs to. Due to this component of their meaning the derivational affixes are classified into affixes building different parts of speech: nouns, verbs, adjectives or adverbs.

Roots and derivational affixes are generally easily distinguished and the difference between them is clearly felt as, e.g., in the words helpless, handy, blackness, Londoner, refill, etc.: the root-morphemes help-, hand-, black-, London-, fill-, are understood as the lexical centers of the words, and –less, -y,      -ness, -er, re- are felt as morphemes dependent on these roots.

 Distinction is also made of free and bound morphemes.

Free morphemes coincide with word-forms of independently functioning words. It is obvious that free morphemes can be found only among roots, so the morpheme boy- in the word boy is a free morpheme; in the word undesirable there is only one free morpheme desire-; the word pen-holder has two free morphemes  pen- and hold-. It follows that bound morphemes are those that do not coincide with separate word- forms, consequently all derivational morphemes, such as –ness, -able, -er are bound. Root-morphemes may be both free and bound. The morphemes theor- in the words theory, theoretical, or horr- in the words horror, horrible, horrify; Angl- in  Anglo-Saxon; Afr- in Afro-Asian are all bound roots as there are no identical word-forms.

It should also be noted that morphemes may have different phonemic shapes. In the word-cluster please , pleasing , pleasure , pleasant the phonemic shapes of the word stand in complementary distribution or in alternation with each other. All the representations of the given morpheme, that manifest alternation are called allomorphs/or morphemic variants/ of that morpheme.

The combining form allo- from Greek allos “other” is used in linguistic terminology to denote elements of a group whose members together consistute a structural unit of the language (allophones, allomorphs). Thus, for example, -ion/ -tion/ -sion/ -ation are the positional variants of the same suffix, they do not differ in meaning or function but show a slight difference in sound form depending on the final phoneme of the preceding stem. They are considered as variants of one and the same morpheme and called its allomorphs.

Allomorph is defined as a positional variant of a morpheme occurring in a specific environment and so characterized by complementary description.

Complementary distribution is said to take place, when two linguistic variants cannot appear in the same environment.

Different morphemes are characterized by contrastive distribution, i.e. if they occur in the same environment they signal different meanings. The suffixes –able and –ed, for instance, are different morphemes, not allomorphs, because adjectives in –able mean “ capable of beings”.

Allomorphs will also occur among prefixes. Their form then depends on the initials of the stem with which they will assimilate.

Two or more sound forms of a stem existing under conditions of complementary distribution may also be regarded as allomorphs, as, for instance, in long a: length n.

II. Structural types of words.

The morphological analysis of word- structure on the morphemic level aims at splitting the word into its constituent morphemes – the basic units at this level of analysis – and at determining their number and types. The four types (root words, derived words, compound, shortenings) represent the main structural types of Modern English words, and conversion, derivation and composition the most productive ways of word building.

According to the number of morphemes words can be classified into monomorphic and polymorphic. Monomorphic or root-words consist of only one root-morpheme, e.g. small, dog, make, give, etc. All polymorphic word fall into two subgroups:  derived words and compound words – according to the number of root-morphemes they have. Derived words are composed of one root-morpheme and one or more derivational morphemes, e.g. acceptable, outdo, disagreeable, etc. Compound words are those which contain at least two root-morphemes, the number of derivational morphemes being insignificant. There can be both root- and derivational morphemes in compounds as in pen-holder, light-mindedness, or only root-morphemes as in lamp-shade, eye-ball, etc.

These structural types are not of equal importance. The clue to the correct understanding of their comparative value lies in a careful consideration of: 1)the importance of each type in the existing wordstock, and 2) their frequency value in actual speech. Frequency is by far the most important factor. According to the available word counts made in different parts of speech, we find that derived words numerically constitute the largest class of words in the existing wordstock; derived nouns comprise approximately 67% of the total number, adjectives about 86%, whereas compound nouns make about 15% and adjectives about 4%. Root words come to 18% in nouns, i.e. a trifle more than the number of compound words; adjectives root words come to approximately 12%.

But we cannot fail to perceive that root-words occupy a predominant place. In English, according to the recent frequency counts, about 60% of the total number of nouns and 62% of the total number of adjectives in current use are root-words. Of the total number of adjectives and nouns, derived words comprise about 38% and 37% respectively while compound words comprise an insignificant 2% in nouns and 0.2% in adjectives. Thus it is the root-words that constitute the foundation and the backbone of the vocabulary and that are of paramount importance in speech. It should also be mentioned that root words are characterized by a high degree of collocability and a complex variety of meanings in contrast with words of other structural types whose semantic structures are much poorer. Root- words also serve as parent forms for all types of derived and compound words.

III. Principles of morphemic analysis.

In most cases the morphemic structure of words is transparent enough and individual morphemes clearly stand out within the word. The segmentation of words is generally carried out according to the method of Immediate and Ultimate Constituents. This method is based on the binary principle, i.e. each stage of the procedure involves two components the word immediately breaks into. At each stage these two components are referred to as the Immediate Constituents. Each Immediate Constituent at the next stage of analysis is in turn broken into smaller meaningful elements. The analysis is completed when we arrive at constituents incapable of further division, i.e. morphemes. These are referred to Ultimate Constituents.

A synchronic morphological analysis is most effectively accomplished by the procedure known as the analysis into Immediate Constituents. ICs are the two meaningful parts forming a large linguistic unity.

The method is based on the fact that a word characterized by morphological divisibility is involved in certain structural correlations. To sum up: as we break the word we obtain at any level only ICs one of which is the stem of the given word. All the time the analysis is based on the patterns characteristic of the English vocabulary. As a pattern showing the interdependence of all the constituents segregated at various stages, we obtain the following formula:

un+ { [ ( gent- + -le ) + -man ] + -ly}

Breaking a word into its Immediate Constituents we observe in each cut the structural order of the constituents.

A  diagram presenting the four cuts described looks as follows:

1. un- / gentlemanly

2.   un- / gentleman / — ly

3.   un- / gentle / — man / — ly

4.   un- / gentl / — e / — man / — ly

A similar analysis on the word-formation level showing not only the morphemic constituents of the word but also the structural pattern on which it is built.

The analysis of word-structure at the morphemic level must proceed to the stage of Ultimate Constituents. For example, the noun friendliness is first segmented into the ICs: [frendlı-] recurring in the adjectives friendly-looking and friendly and [-nıs] found in a countless number  of nouns, such as unhappiness, blackness, sameness, etc. the IC [-nıs] is at the same time an UC of the word, as it cannot be broken into any smaller elements possessing both sound-form and meaning. Any further division of –ness would give individual speech-sounds which denote nothing by themselves. The IC [frendlı-] is next broken into the ICs [-lı] and [frend-] which are both UCs of the word.

Morphemic analysis under the method of Ultimate Constituents may be carried out on the basis of two principles: the so-called root-principle and affix principle.

According to the affix principle the splitting of the word into its constituent morphemes is based on the identification of the affix within a set of words, e.g. the identification of the suffix –er leads to the segmentation of words singer, teacher, swimmer into the derivational morpheme – er  and the roots teach- , sing-, drive-.

According to the root-principle, the segmentation of the word is based on the identification of the root-morpheme in a word-cluster, for example the identification of the root-morpheme agree-  in the words agreeable, agreement, disagree.

As a rule, the application of these principles is sufficient for the morphemic segmentation of words.

However, the morphemic structure of words in a number of cases defies such analysis, as it is not always so transparent and simple as in the cases mentioned above. Sometimes not only the segmentation of words into morphemes, but the recognition of certain sound-clusters as morphemes become doubtful which naturally affects the classification of words. In words like retain, detain, contain or  receive, deceive, conceive, perceive the sound-clusters [rı-], [dı-] seem to be singled quite easily, on the other hand, they undoubtedly have nothing in common with the phonetically identical prefixes  re-, de- as found in words re-write, re-organize, de-organize, de-code. Moreover, neither the sound-cluster [rı-] or [dı-], nor the [-teın] or [-sı:v] possess any lexical or functional meaning of their own. Yet, these sound-clusters are felt as having a certain meaning because [rı-] distinguishes retain from detain and [-teın] distinguishes retain from receive.

It follows that all these sound-clusters have a differential and a certain distributional meaning as their order arrangement point to the affixal status of re-, de-, con-, per- and makes one understand —tain and –ceive as roots. The differential and distributional meanings seem to give sufficient ground to recognize these sound-clusters as morphemes, but as they lack lexical meaning of their own, they are set apart from all other types of morphemes and are known in linguistic literature as pseudo- morphemes. Pseudo- morphemes of the same kind  are also encountered in words like rusty-fusty.

IV.   Derivational level of analysis. Stems. Types of Stems. Derivational types of word.

The morphemic analysis of words only defines the constituent morphemes, determining their types and their meaning but does not reveal the hierarchy of the morphemes comprising the word. Words are no mere sum totals of morpheme, the latter reveal a definite, sometimes very complex interrelation. Morphemes are arranged according to certain rules, the arrangement differing in various types of words and particular groups within the same types. The pattern of morpheme arrangement underlies the classification of words into different types and enables one to understand how new words appear in the language. These relations within the word and the interrelations between different types and classes of words are known as derivative or word- formation relations.

The analysis of derivative relations aims at establishing a correlation between different types and the structural patterns words are built on. The basic unit at the derivational level is the stem.

The stem is defined as that part of the word which remains unchanged throughout its paradigm, thus the stem which appears in the paradigm (to) ask ( ), asks, asked, asking is ask-; thestem of the word singer ( ), singer’s, singers, singers’ is singer-. It is the stem of the word that takes the inflections which shape the word grammatically as one or another part of speech.

The structure of stems should be described in terms of IC’s analysis, which at this level aims at establishing the patterns of typical derivative relations within the stem and the derivative correlation between stems of different types.

There are three types of stems: simple, derived and compound.

Simple stems are semantically non-motivated and do not constitute a pattern on analogy with which new stems may be modeled. Simple stems are generally monomorphic and phonetically identical with the root morpheme. The derivational structure of stems does not always coincide with the result of morphemic analysis. Comparison proves that not all morphemes relevant at the morphemic level are relevant at the derivational level of analysis. It follows that bound morphemes and all types of pseudo- morphemes are irrelevant to the derivational structure of stems as they do not meet requirements of double opposition and derivative interrelations. So the stem of such words as retain, receive, horrible, pocket, motion, etc. should be regarded as simple, non- motivated stems.

Derived stems are built on stems of various structures though which they are motivated, i.e. derived stems are understood on the basis  of the derivative relations between their IC’s and the correlated stems. The derived stems are mostly polymorphic in which case the segmentation results only in one IC that is itself a stem, the other IC being necessarily a derivational affix.

Derived stems are not necessarily polymorphic.

Compound stems are made up of two IC’s, both of which are themselves stems, for example match-box, driving-suit, pen-holder, etc. It is built by joining of two stems, one of which is simple, the other derived.

In more complex cases the result of the analysis at the two levels sometimes seems even to contracted one another.

The derivational types of words are classified according to the structure of their stems into simple, derived and compound words.

Derived words are those composed of one root- morpheme and one or more derivational morpheme.

Compound words contain at least two root- morphemes, the number of derivational morphemes being insignificant.

Derivational compound is a word formed by a simultaneous process of composition and derivational.

Compound words proper are formed by joining together stems of word already available in the language.

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