Is case study one word

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A case study is an in-depth, detailed examination of a particular case (or cases) within a real-world context.^[1][2] For example, case studies in medicine may focus on an individual patient or ailment; case studies in business might cover a particular firm’s strategy or a broader market; similarly, case studies in politics can range from a narrow happening over time (e.g., a specific political campaign) to an enormous undertaking (e.g., a world war).

Generally, a case study can highlight nearly any individual, group, organization, event, belief system, or action. A case study does not necessarily have to be one observation (N=1), but may include many observations (one or multiple individuals and entities across multiple time periods, all within the same case study).^[3][4][5][6] Research projects involving numerous cases are frequently called cross-case research, whereas a study of a single case is called within-case research.^[5][7]

Case study research has been extensively practiced in both the social and natural sciences.^{[8][9]: 5–6 [10][11]}

Definition[edit]

There are multiple definitions of case studies, which may emphasize the number of observations (a small N), the method (qualitative), the thickness of the research (a comprehensive examination of a phenomenon and its context), and the naturalism (a «real-life context» is being examined) involved in the research.^[12] There is general agreement among scholars that a case study does not necessarily have to entail one observation (N=1), but can include many observations within a single case or across numerous cases.^[3][4][5][6] For example, a case study of the French Revolution would at the bare minimum be an observation of two observations: France before and after a revolution.^[13] John Gerring writes that the N=1 research design is so rare in practice that it amounts to a «myth».^[13]

The term cross-case research is frequently used for studies of multiple cases, whereas within-case research is frequently used for a single case study.^[5][7]

John Gerring defines the case study approach as an «intensive study of a single unit or a small number of units (the cases), for the purpose of understanding a larger class of similar units (a population of cases)».^[14] According to Gerring, case studies lend themselves to an idiographic style of analysis, whereas quantitative work lends itself to a nomothetic style of analysis.^[15] He adds that «the defining feature of qualitative work is its use of noncomparable observations—observations that pertain to different aspects of a causal or descriptive question», whereas quantitative observations are comparable.^[15]

According to John Gerring, the key characteristic that distinguishes case studies from all other methods is the «reliance on evidence drawn from a single case and its attempts, at the same time, to illuminate features of a broader set of cases».^[13] Scholars use case studies to shed light on a «class» of phenomena.

Research designs[edit]

As with other social science methods, no single research design dominates case study research. Case studies can use at least four types of designs. First, there may be a «no theory first» type of case study design, which is closely connected to Kathleen M. Eisenhardt’s methodological work.^[16][17] A second type of research design highlights the distinction between single- and multiple-case studies, following Robert K. Yin’s guidelines and extensive examples.^[16][9] A third design deals with a «social construction of reality», represented by the work of Robert E. Stake.^[16][18] Finally, the design rationale for a case study may be to identify «anomalies». A representative scholar of this design is Michael Burawoy.^[16][19] Each of these four designs may lead to different applications, and understanding their sometimes unique ontological and epistemological assumptions becomes important. However, although the designs can have substantial methodological differences, the designs also can be used in explicitly acknowledged combinations with each other.

While case studies can be intended to provide bounded explanations of single cases or phenomena, they are often intended to raise theoretical insights about the features of a broader population.^[20]

Case selection and structure[edit]

Case selection in case study research is generally intended to find cases that are representative samples and which have variations on the dimensions of theoretical interest.^[20] Using that is solely representative, such as an average or typical case is often not the richest in information. In clarifying lines of history and causation it is more useful to select subjects that offer an interesting, unusual, or particularly revealing set of circumstances. A case selection that is based on representativeness will seldom be able to produce these kinds of insights.

While a random selection of cases is a valid case selection strategy in large-N research, there is a consensus among scholars that it risks generating serious biases in small-N research.^{[21][22][20][23][24]} Random selection of cases may produce unrepresentative cases, as well as uninformative cases.^[24] Cases should generally be chosen that have a high expected information gain.^[25][20][26] For example, outlier cases (those which are extreme, deviant or atypical) can reveal more information than the potentially representative case.^[26][27][28] A case may also be chosen because of the inherent interest of the case or the circumstances surrounding it. Alternatively, it may be chosen because of researchers’ in-depth local knowledge; where researchers have this local knowledge they are in a position to «soak and poke» as Richard Fenno put it,^[29] and thereby to offer reasoned lines of explanation based on this rich knowledge of setting and circumstances.

Beyond decisions about case selection and the subject and object of the study, decisions need to be made about the purpose, approach, and process of the case study. Gary Thomas thus proposes a typology for the case study wherein purposes are first identified (evaluative or exploratory), then approaches are delineated (theory-testing, theory-building, or illustrative), then processes are decided upon, with a principal choice being between whether the study is to be single or multiple, and choices also about whether the study is to be retrospective, snapshot or diachronic, and whether it is nested, parallel or sequential.^[30]

In a 2015 article, John Gerring and Jason Seawright list seven case selection strategies:^[20]

1. Typical cases are cases that exemplify a stable cross-case relationship. These cases are representative of the larger population of cases, and the purpose of the study is to look within the case rather than compare it with other cases.
2. Diverse cases are cases that have variations on the relevant X and Y variables. Due to the range of variation on the relevant variables, these cases are representative of the full population of cases.
3. Extreme cases are cases that have an extreme value on the X or Y variable relative to other cases.
4. Deviant cases are cases that defy existing theories and common sense. They not only have extreme values on X or Y (like extreme cases) but defy existing knowledge about causal relations.
5. Influential cases are cases that are central to a model or theory (for example, Nazi Germany in theories of fascism and the far-right).
6. Most similar cases are cases that are similar on all the independent variables, except the one of interest to the researcher.
7. Most different cases are cases that are different on all the independent variables, except the one of interest to the researcher.

For theoretical discovery, Jason Seawright recommends using deviant cases or extreme cases that have an extreme value on the X variable.^[26]

Arend Lijphart, and Harry Eckstein identified five types of case study research designs (depending on the research objectives), Alexander George and Andrew Bennett added a sixth category:^[31]

1. Atheoretical (or configurative idiographic) case studies aim to describe a case very well, but not to contribute to a theory.
2. Interpretative (or disciplined configurative) case studies aim to use established theories to explain a specific case.
3. Hypothesis-generating (or heuristic) case studies aim to inductively identify new variables, hypotheses, causal mechanisms, and causal paths.
4. Theory testing case studies aim to assess the validity and scope conditions of existing theories.
5. Plausibility probes, aim to assess the plausibility of new hypotheses and theories.
6. Building block studies of types or subtypes, aim to identify common patterns across cases.

Aaron Rapport reformulated «least-likely» and «most-likely» case selection strategies into the «countervailing conditions» case selection strategy. The countervailing conditions case selection strategy has three components:^[32]

1. The chosen cases fall within the scope conditions of both the primary theory being tested and the competing alternative hypotheses.
2. For the theories being tested, the analyst must derive clearly stated expected outcomes.
3. In determining how difficult a test is, the analyst should identify the strength of countervailing conditions in the chosen cases.

In terms of case selection, Gary King, Robert Keohane, and Sidney Verba warn against «selecting on the dependent variable». They argue for example that researchers cannot make valid causal inferences about war outbreaks by only looking at instances where war did happen (the researcher should also look at cases where war did not happen).^[22] Scholars of qualitative methods have disputed this claim, however. They argue that selecting the dependent variable can be useful depending on the purposes of the research.^[25][33][34] Barbara Geddes shares their concerns with selecting the dependent variable (she argues that it cannot be used for theory testing purposes), but she argues that selecting on the dependent variable can be useful for theory creation and theory modification.^[35]

King, Keohane, and Verba argue that there is no methodological problem in selecting the explanatory variable, however. They do warn about multicollinearity (choosing two or more explanatory variables that perfectly correlate with each other).^[22]

Uses[edit]

Case studies have commonly been seen as a fruitful way to come up with hypotheses and generate theories.^{[21][22][36][25][37][15]} Case studies are useful for understanding outliers or deviant cases.^[38] Classic examples of case studies that generated theories includes Darwin’s theory of evolution (derived from his travels to the Easter Island), and Douglass North’s theories of economic development (derived from case studies of early developing states, such as England).^[37]

Case studies are also useful for formulating concepts, which are an important aspect of theory construction.^[39] The concepts used in qualitative research will tend to have higher conceptual validity than concepts used in quantitative research (due to conceptual stretching: the unintentional comparison of dissimilar cases).^[25] Case studies add descriptive richness,^[40][34] and can have greater internal validity than quantitative studies.^[41] Case studies are suited to explain outcomes in individual cases, which is something that quantitative methods are less equipped to do.^[33]

Case studies have been characterized as useful to assess the plausibility of arguments that explain empirical regularities.^[42] Case studies are also useful for understanding outliers or deviant cases.^[38]

Through fine-gained knowledge and description, case studies can fully specify the causal mechanisms in a way that may be harder in a large-N study.^{[43][40][44][21][45][38]} In terms of identifying «causal mechanisms», some scholars distinguish between «weak» and «strong chains». Strong chains actively connect elements of the causal chain to produce an outcome whereas weak chains are just intervening variables.^[46]

Case studies of cases that defy existing theoretical expectations may contribute knowledge by delineating why the cases violate theoretical predictions and specifying the scope conditions of the theory.^[21] Case studies are useful in situations of causal complexity where there may be equifinality, complex interaction effects and path dependency.^[25][47] They may also be more appropriate for empirical verifications of strategic interactions in rationalist scholarship than quantitative methods.^[48] Case studies can identify necessary and insufficient conditions, as well as complex combinations of necessary and sufficient conditions.^[25][33][49] They argue that case studies may also be useful in identifying the scope conditions of a theory: whether variables are sufficient or necessary to bring about an outcome.^[25][33]

Qualitative research may be necessary to determine whether a treatment is as-if random or not. As a consequence, good quantitative observational research often entails a qualitative component.^[15]

Limitations[edit]

Designing Social Inquiry (also called «KKV»), an influential 1994 book written by Gary King, Robert Keohane, and Sidney Verba, primarily applies lessons from regression-oriented analysis to qualitative research, arguing that the same logics of causal inference can be used in both types of research.^[22][50][39] The authors’ recommendation is to increase the number of observations (a recommendation that Barbara Geddes also makes in Paradigms and Sand Castles),^[35] because few observations make it harder to estimate multiple causal effects, as well as increase the risk that there is measurement error, and that an event in a single case was caused by random error or unobservable factors.^[22] KKV sees process-tracing and qualitative research as being «unable to yield strong causal inference» due to the fact that qualitative scholars would struggle with determining which of many intervening variables truly links the independent variable with a dependent variable. The primary problem is that qualitative research lacks a sufficient number of observations to properly estimate the effects of an independent variable. They write that the number of observations could be increased through various means, but that would simultaneously lead to another problem: that the number of variables would increase and thus reduce degrees of freedom.^[39] Christopher H. Achen and Duncan Snidal similarly argue that case studies are not useful for theory construction and theory testing.^[51]

The purported «degrees of freedom» problem that KKV identify is widely considered flawed; while quantitative scholars try to aggregate variables to reduce the number of variables and thus increase the degrees of freedom, qualitative scholars intentionally want their variables to have many different attributes and complexity.^[52][25] For example, James Mahoney writes, «the Bayesian nature of process tracing explains why it is inappropriate to view qualitative research as suffering from a small-N problem and certain standard causal identification problems.»^[53] By using Bayesian probability, it may be possible to makes strong causal inferences from a small sliver of data.^[54][55]

KKV also identify inductive reasoning in qualitative research as a problem, arguing that scholars should not revise hypotheses during or after data has been collected because it allows for ad hoc theoretical adjustments to fit the collected data.^[56] However, scholars have pushed back on this claim, noting that inductive reasoning is a legitimate practice (both in qualitative and quantitative research).^[57]

A commonly described limit of case studies is that they do not lend themselves to generalizability.^[22] Due to the small number of cases, it may be harder to ensure that the chosen cases are representative of the larger population.^[41] Some scholars, such as Bent Flyvbjerg, have pushed back on that notion.^[36]

As small-N research should not rely on random sampling, scholars must be careful in avoiding selection bias when picking suitable cases.^[21] A common criticism of qualitative scholarship is that cases are chosen because they are consistent with the scholar’s preconceived notions, resulting in biased research.^[21][36] Alexander George and Andrew Bennett also note that a common problem in case study research is that of reconciling conflicting interpretations of the same data.^[25] Another limit of case study research is that it can be hard to estimate the magnitude of causal effects.^[58]

Teaching case studies[edit]

Teachers may prepare a case study that will then be used in classrooms in the form of a «teaching» case study (also see case method and casebook method). For instance, as early as 1870 at Harvard Law School, Christopher Langdell departed from the traditional lecture-and-notes approach to teaching contract law and began using cases pled before courts as the basis for class discussions.^[59] By 1920, this practice had become the dominant pedagogical approach used by law schools in the United States.^[60]

Outside of law, teaching case studies have become popular in many different fields and professions, ranging from business education to science education. The Harvard Business School has been among the most prominent developers and users of teaching case studies.^[61][62] Teachers develop case studies with particular learning objectives in mind. Additional relevant documentation, such as financial statements, time-lines, short biographies, and multimedia supplements (such as video-recordings of interviews) often accompany the case studies. Similarly, teaching case studies have become increasingly popular in science education, covering different biological and physical sciences. The National Center for Case Studies in Teaching Science has made a growing body of teaching case studies available for classroom use, for university as well as secondary school coursework.^[63][64]

See also[edit]

• Analytic narrative
• Casebook method
• Case method
• Case competition
• Case report
• Process tracing

References[edit]

Further reading[edit]

• Baskarada, Sasa (October 19, 2014). «Qualitative Case Study Guidelines». The Qualitative Report. 19 (40): 1–25. SSRN 2559424.
• Bartlett, L. and Vavrus, F. (2017). Rethinking Case Study Research. Routledge.
• Baxter, Pamela; Jack, Susan (2008). «Qualitative Case Study Methodology: Study Design and Implementation for Novice Researchers». The Qualitative Report. 13 (4): 544–59.
• Eisenhardt, Kathleen M. (1989). «Building Theories from Case Study Research». The Academy of Management Review. 14 (4): 532–50. doi:10.2307/258557. JSTOR 258557.
• George, Alexander L. and Bennett, Andrew. (2005) Case studies and theory development in the social sciences. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-57222-2
• Gerring, John. (2008) Case Study Research. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-67656-4
• Kyburz-Graber, Regula (2004). «Does case-study methodology lack rigour? The need for quality criteria for sound case-study research, as illustrated by a recent case in secondary and higher education». Environmental Education Research. 10 (1): 53–65. doi:10.1080/1350462032000173706. S2CID 218499108.
• Mills, Albert J.; Durepos, Gabrielle; Wiebe, Elden, eds. (2010). Encyclopedia of Case Study Research. SAGE Publications. ISBN 978-1-4129-5670-3.
• Ragin, Charles C. and Becker, Howard S. Eds. (1992) What is a Case? Exploring the Foundations of Social Inquiry. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-42188-8
• Scholz, Roland W. and Tietje, Olaf. (2002) Embedded Case Study Methods. Integrating Quantitative and Qualitative Knowledge. Sage. ISBN 0-7619-1946-5
• Straits, Bruce C. and Singleton, Royce A. (2004) Approaches to Social Research, 4th ed. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-514794-4.
• Thomas, Gary (2011). How to Do Your Case Study: A Guide for Students and Researchers. SAGE Publications.
• Yin, Robert K (October 2017). Case study research: design and methods (6th ed.). Thousand Oaks, California, US: SAGE Publications. ISBN 978-1-5063-3616-9.

External links[edit]

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject’s life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in various fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.

The purpose of a case study is to learn as much as possible about an individual or group so that the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

While case studies focus on a single individual or group, they follow a format similar to other types of psychology writing. If you are writing a case study, it is important to follow the rules of APA format.  

Benefits and Limitations

A case study can have both strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these pros and cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.

Pros

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things that are often difficult to impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:

• Allows researchers to collect a great deal of information
• Give researchers the chance to collect information on rare or unusual cases
• Permits researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research

Cons

On the negative side, a case study:

• Cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
• Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
• May not be scientifically rigorous
• Can lead to bias

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they are interested in exploring a unique or recently discovered phenomenon. The insights gained from such research can help the researchers develop additional ideas and study questions that might be explored in future studies.

However, it is important to remember that the insights gained from case studies cannot be used to determine cause and effect relationships between variables. However, case studies may be used to develop hypotheses that can then be addressed in experimental research.

Case Study Examples

There have been a number of notable case studies in the history of psychology. Much of Freud’s work and theories were developed through the use of individual case studies. Some great examples of case studies in psychology include:

• Anna O: Anna O. was a pseudonym of a woman named Bertha Pappenheim, a patient of a physician named Josef Breuer. While she was never a patient of Freud’s, Freud and Breuer discussed her case extensively. The woman was experiencing symptoms of a condition that was then known as hysteria and found that talking about her problems helped relieve her symptoms. Her case played an important part in the development of talk therapy as an approach to mental health treatment.
• Phineas Gage: Phineas Gage was a railroad employee who experienced a terrible accident in which an explosion sent a metal rod through his skull, damaging important portions of his brain. Gage recovered from his accident but was left with serious changes in both personality and behavior.
• Genie: Genie was a young girl subjected to horrific abuse and isolation. The case study of Genie allowed researchers to study whether language could be taught even after critical periods for language development had been missed. Her case also served as an example of how scientific research may interfere with treatment and lead to further abuse of vulnerable individuals.

Such cases demonstrate how case research can be used to study things that researchers could not replicate in experimental settings. In Genie’s case, her horrific abuse had denied her the opportunity to learn language at critical points in her development.

This is clearly not something that researchers could ethically replicate, but conducting a case study on Genie allowed researchers the chance to study phenomena that are otherwise impossible to reproduce.

Types of Case Studies

There are a few different types of case studies that psychologists and other researchers might utilize:

• Collective case studies: These involve studying a group of individuals. Researchers might study a group of people in a certain setting or look at an entire community. For example, psychologists might explore how access to resources in a community has affected the collective mental well-being of those living there.
• Descriptive case studies: These involve starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are then observed, and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.
• Explanatory case studies: These are often used to do causal investigations. In other words, researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have caused certain things to occur.
• Exploratory case studies: These are sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and hypotheses.
• Instrumental case studies: These occur when the individual or group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.
• Intrinsic case studies: This type of case study is when the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Jean Piaget’s observations of his own children are good examples of how an intrinsic cast study can contribute to the development of a psychological theory.

The three main case study types often used are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Intrinsic case studies are useful for learning about unique cases. Instrumental case studies help look at an individual to learn more about a broader issue. A collective case study can be useful for looking at several cases simultaneously.

How to Write a Case Study

There are also different methods that can be used to conduct a case study, including prospective and retrospective case study methods.

Prospective case study methods are those in which an individual or group of people is observed in order to determine outcomes. For example, a group of individuals might be watched over an extended period of time to observe the progression of a particular disease.

Retrospective case study methods involve looking at historical information. For example, researchers might start with an outcome, such as a disease, and then work their way backward to look at information about the individual’s life to determine risk factors that may have contributed to the onset of the illness.

Where to Find Data

There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather information about an individual or group. Six major sources that have been identified by researchers are:

• Archival records: Census records, survey records, and name lists are examples of archival records.
• Direct observation: This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural setting. While an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of observers.
• Documents: Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc., are the types of documents often used as sources.
• Interviews: Interviews are one of the most important methods for gathering information in case studies. An interview can involve structured survey questions or more open-ended questions.
• Participant observation: When the researcher serves as a participant in events and observes the actions and outcomes, it is called participant observation.
• Physical artifacts: Tools, objects, instruments, and other artifacts are often observed during a direct observation of the subject.

Section 1: A Case History

This section will have the following structure and content:

Background information: The first section of your paper will present your client’s background. Include factors such as age, gender, work, health status, family mental health history, family and social relationships, drug and alcohol history, life difficulties, goals, and coping skills and weaknesses.

Description of the presenting problem: In the next section of your case study, you will describe the problem or symptoms that the client presented with.

Describe any physical, emotional, or sensory symptoms reported by the client. Thoughts, feelings, and perceptions related to the symptoms should also be noted. Any screening or diagnostic assessments that are used should also be described in detail and all scores reported.

Your diagnosis: Provide your diagnosis and give the appropriate Diagnostic and Statistical Manual code. Explain how you reached your diagnosis, how the client’s symptoms fit the diagnostic criteria for the disorder(s), or any possible difficulties in reaching a diagnosis.

Section 2: Treatment Plan

This portion of the paper will address the chosen treatment for the condition. This might also include the theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or any other evidence that might exist to support why this approach was chosen.

• Cognitive behavioral approach: Explain how a cognitive behavioral therapist would approach treatment. Offer background information on cognitive behavioral therapy and describe the treatment sessions, client response, and outcome of this type of treatment. Make note of any difficulties or successes encountered by your client during treatment.
• Humanistic approach: Describe a humanistic approach that could be used to treat your client, such as client-centered therapy. Provide information on the type of treatment you chose, the client’s reaction to the treatment, and the end result of this approach. Explain why the treatment was successful or unsuccessful.
• Psychoanalytic approach: Describe how a psychoanalytic therapist would view the client’s problem. Provide some background on the psychoanalytic approach and cite relevant references. Explain how psychoanalytic therapy would be used to treat the client, how the client would respond to therapy, and the effectiveness of this treatment approach.
• Pharmacological approach: If treatment primarily involves the use of medications, explain which medications were used and why. Provide background on the effectiveness of these medications and how monotherapy may compare with an approach that combines medications with therapy or other treatments.

This section of a case study should also include information about the treatment goals, process, and outcomes.

Discussion

When you are writing a case study, you should also include a section where you discuss the case study itself, including the strengths and limitiations of the study. You should note how the findings of your case study might support previous research. 

In your discussion section, you should also describe some of the implications of your case study. What ideas or findings might require further exploration? How might researchers go about exploring some of these questions in additional studies?

A Word From Verywell

Case studies can be a useful research tool, but they need to be used wisely. In many cases, they are best utilized in situations where conducting an experiment would be difficult or impossible. They are helpful for looking at unique situations and allow researchers to gather a great deal of information about a specific individual or group of people.

If you have been directed to write a case study for a psychology course, be sure to check with your instructor for any specific guidelines that you are required to follow. If you are writing your case study for professional publication, be sure to check with the publisher for their specific guidelines for submitting a case study.

Кейс-стади (case-study) представляет собой методику обучения, которая была создана для того, чтобы студенты не только учились лучше понимать других людей, но и работать с большим объемом информации, изучать предложенные бизнес-ситуации, анализировать данные и принимать на основе этого решения.

Общая характеристика метода case-study

В основе метода case-study лежит разбор разных ситуаций, которые сложились в бизнесе или в других сферах. Его ценность в том, что слушатели курса учатся действовать в команде. Они анализируют данные и общими силами вырабатывают управленческие решения.

Говоря о методе ситуационного обучения, которым является кейс-стади, нужно обратить внимание на его идеи. Метод хорошо подходит для разбора ситуаций, на которые нельзя дать однозначных ответов.

Это значит, что после анализа кейса слушатели могут рекомендовать несколько вариантов действий. Все они будут правильными, только отличающимися степенью истинности.

Задача преподавателя становится более сложной, если сравнивать разбор кейса с классической схемой получения знаний. Руководитель должен получить не 1 ответ, а несколько. Потом он должен оценить, можно ли применять предложенные студентами решения на практике.

Изменяется акцент обучения. Слушатели сами вырабатывают решения, а не получают готовые знания. В процессе обсуждения преподаватель и студенты тесно сотрудничают, они равноправны.

В результате использования метода слушатели не просто получают знания, но и на практике оттачивают профессиональные навыки.

Метод кейс-стади заключается в следующем: из жизни берется ситуация, участники обсуждения разрабатывают модель. Преподаватель поддерживает дискуссию, направляет обсуждение. Он задает вопросы и фиксирует ответы, которые дают студенты.

Занимаясь анализом ситуации, участники не только приобретают знания. Они формируют систему ценностей, которая присуща специалистам, работающим в этой сфере.

Если традиционное обучение у многих ассоциируется с «сухостью», то case-study отличается наличием эмоций. Дело в том, что при хорошей организации процесса обсуждения между участниками возникает конкуренция.

Case-study позволяет применить теорию на практике. Работая в коллективе, студенты учатся выслушивать разные точки зрения, учитывать их. Также они учатся предлагать свои решения, приводя аргументы в защиту позиции.

Признаки метода кейс-стади

Обучение имеет свои признаки, от других методов оно также отличается технологическими особенностями.

Ситуационное обучение отличается следующими признаками:

1. В ходе обсуждения рассматривается модель в выбранный период времени и в рамках какой-либо социально-экономической системы.
2. Решения вырабатываются коллективно. Деятельность студентов тоже оценивается группой.
3. Есть несколько вариантов решений, невозможно дать единственный ответ.
4. Цель обсуждений одна.
5. В ходе дискуссии возникает эмоциональное напряжение, участники обмениваются мнениями.

Руководитель направляет слушателей, помогает выработать ответы на предложенную задачу.

В основе кейс-стади лежат анализ ситуации и коллективное обучение.

Важным моментом можно назвать обмен информацией между участниками группы. Перед началом работы ведущий выбирает процедуры, помогающие погрузить слушателей в ситуацию. Он следит за дискуссией, помогает студентам обмениваться открытиями.

Метод отличается тем, что он вобрал в себя все варианты развивающего подхода. Это индивидуальное развитие учащихся, а также инструменты группового тренинга. Работа в коллективе помогает развить личностные качества слушателей.

Case-study относится к проектной технологии, но есть отличия от стандартных вариантов. Если взять групповую модель обучения, то студенты занимаются деятельностью совместно. При этом они используют сторонние источники информации. В конце процесса обсуждения они озвучивают свои варианты решения. В case-study работа строится на основе кейса. Он одновременно является техническим заданием и источником, из которого можно брать данные для решения задачи.

Кейс-стади невозможно представить без технологии «достижения успеха». Метод используется для того, чтобы сделать студентов более активными. Высоко оцениваются их достижения, это стимулирует слушателей конкурировать за первое место. В основе метода лежит стремление к достижению успеха. Это используется для того, чтобы сформировать у учащихся положительную мотивацию.

Если говорить об основной функции метода, то она заключается в обучении студентов решению сложных задач, которые аналитическими методами не решить.

Анализ кейсов помогает развить аналитические способности, а обсуждение в группе оттачивает коммуникативные навыки. Участники дискуссии сталкиваются с разными ситуациями, взятыми из бизнес-среды.

В case-study анализируются ситуации следующих видов:

1. Примеры из жизни. Участники стараются найти решение или определить, что на этом этапе оно невозможно. Студенты примеряют на себя роли руководителя предприятия и топ-менеджеров.
2. Участникам предлагают рассмотреть ситуацию, когда решение уже найдено. В этом случае студенты занимаются критическим анализом принятых управленческих решений. Слушатели в ходе обсуждения занимают позицию стороннего наблюдателя.
3. Кейс-упражнение. Его решают, чтобы на практике более подробно рассмотреть сложную ситуацию или проблему. Студенты в ходе обсуждения могут спрашивать ведущего, критиковать или одобрять сложившееся положение вещей.
4. Кейс-упражнение. В ходе решения задачи находят применение наработки, сделанные ранее.

В ходе обсуждения руководитель выстраивает работу по следующим направлениям:

1. Разыгрывание ситуации по ролям. В этом случае участники заранее изучают ситуацию, а потом на основе сделанного анализа принимают участие в игре.
2. Обсуждение в коллективе.

Использование метода ситуационного обучения помогает обогатить опыт слушателей.

Типы и жанры кейсов, способы их представления

Кейсы классифицируют по разным признакам.

Чаще всего их разделяют по степени сложности:

1. Иллюстративные. Они помогают на выбранном примере обучить слушателей, как принимать правильное решение.
2. Учебные. Они созданы для диагностирования ситуации, сложившейся в сфере. Участники обсуждения должны самостоятельно принять решение.
3. Учебные ситуации. Дискуссия протекает без формирования проблемы со стороны ведущего, это делает работу над кейсом еще более сложной. Студенты должны выявить проблему, назвать пути ее решения с учетом имеющихся в распоряжении ресурсов.
4. Практические упражнения. Руководитель описывает ситуацию, участники обсуждения должны найти пути решения поставленной перед ними задачи.

По содержанию кейсы могут быть практическими, научно-исследовательскими и обучающими.

Разработана еще 1 классификация кейсов, но уже с учетом поставленных задач:

• иллюстрирующие проблему;
• обучающие слушателей принятию решений;
• созданные для обучения анализу.

По размеру кейсы могут быть большими, на несколько страниц, или содержать всего пару предложений.

Не существует какого-то одного способа подачи информации. Участники чаще всего получают кейсы в печатном виде или на электронном носителе, но задачи могут быть представлены на видео-, аудионосителях.

Получает распространение мультимедиа-представление информации, которое включает в себя текстовое сообщение и видеоизображение.

Существует классификация по наличию сюжета. По этому признаку все кейсы можно разделить на бессюжетные и сюжетные.

По размеру выделяют:

• мини-кейсы;
• среднего размера, рассчитанные на двухчасовое занятие;
• объемные, над которыми учащиеся работают несколько дней.

Кейсы разделяются на группы в зависимости от того, кто является субъектом. По этому признаку выделяют:

1. Личностные. Главными героями, чьи действия изучают студенты, являются политики, топ-менеджеры и другие личности.
2. Организационно-институциональные. При изучении таких задач рассматривают работу предприятий или их отделов.
3. Многосубъектные. Действие в таких кейсах вращается вокруг нескольких участников.

Если рассмотреть методическую часть, то по этому типу все задачи разделяют на следующие:

• вопросные, для решения которых студенты должны дать ответы на вопросы;
• кейсы-задания, содержащие задачу.

Бывают кейсы без приложений. Если приложение есть, то студентам нужно сделать расчеты на основе статистической информации.

Источники кейсов

Главных источников информации для кейсов несколько. Важна общественная жизнь, из нее организаторы учебы берут идеи для задач. Образование определяет цели, которые стоят перед преподавателем, а наука задает методологию. Но на практике часто преобладает какой-то один источник информации.

Перечисленные источники называют первичными, или базовыми, но есть и вторичные. К ним относятся литературные произведения, информация из СМИ. Полезно использовать местные материалы, которые освещают опыт компаний, присутствующих на национальном рынке.

В качестве вторичных источников информации служат статистические материалы, отчеты, монографии и научные статьи. Они придают обсуждению реалистичность.

Научная монография показывает предмет исследования со всех сторон, а научные отчеты отличаются новизной материала. На основе таких материалов преподаватели составят кейс.

Интернет-ресурсы считаются неисчерпаемым кладезем информации. Но при работе над программой преподавателям нужно тщательно проверять информацию на достоверность.

Студенты лучше ориентируются в местных реалиях, чем в иностранной среде, поэтому преподаватели чаще всего разрабатывают кейсы с учетом этого. Для закрепления результатов можно приглашать менеджеров компании, которые подробно расскажут слушателям о шагах, предпринятых для решения проблемы.

Структура кейса и принципы его построения

Грамотно составленный кейс написан доходчиво, интересно.

Процесс создания кейсов включает в себя следующие этапы:

1. Определение дидактических целей. Постановка целей, перечисление задач.
2. Определение ситуации, которая будет рассматриваться при решении кейса.
3. Построение карты программы. В ней перечисляют тезисы, их позже воплощают в тексте.
4. Поиск организации, которая может служить примером или иметь отношение к программным тезисам.
5. Сбор информации.
6. Выбор модели ситуации.
7. Определение жанра кейса-задачи.
8. Написание текста.
9. Диагностика эффективности программы. После проведения тестирования выполняется подготовка окончательного варианта программы.
10. Внедрение в практику.
11. Подготовка методических рекомендаций. В их перечень могут быть включены вопросы, которые помогают преподавателям вести дискуссию на предложенную в задании тему.

Текст содержит описание проблемы, показывает положительные и отрицательные проблемы. Правильно составленное задание соответствует аудитории и содержит достаточное количество данных для анализа.

Требования к формату и структуре кейса

Правильно составленный кейс состоит из следующих частей:

• сюжетной;
• информационной;
• методической.

Сюжетная и информационные части часто тесно переплетаются, но они могут быть даны отдельно. Тогда слушатели сначала знакомятся с сюжетом, а информационная часть им будет доступна в приложении.

Виды анализа кейсов

Для решения бизнес-кейсов слушатели могут использовать следующие виды анализа:

• проблемный;
• причинно-следственный;
• прагматический;
• аксиологический;
• ситуационный;
• прогностический;
• рекомендательный;
• программно-целевой.

В процессе анализа участники программы решают множество задач.

Задачи, решаемые в процессе реализации метода case-study

В процессе решения задачи участники изучают ситуацию, выделяют комплекс проблем и предлагают пути решения ситуации. Сначала определяется структура ситуации. Изучается то, как происходит взаимодействие с внутренней средой, например, в организации. Проводится исследование взаимодействия с внешней средой.

Устанавливаются причины, из-за которых произошли события, моделирование ситуации, работа над созданием системы оценок, которую можно использовать для оценки положения. Осуществляется выработка возможных вариантов развития событий. На завершающем этапе участники обсуждения дают рекомендации, с их помощью можно решить проблемы.

Метод сase-study как образовательная технология

Case-study используется в сфере образования для повышения профессионального уровня слушателей. На работу студентам отводится разное время, все зависит от уровня сложности задания. Чаще это 2-3 дня, за это время слушатели знакомятся с текстом задания самостоятельно.

В методе исследования case-study центральное место занимает дискуссия. В ходе совместной работы участники обсуждают проблему. Они предлагают решения, приводят аргументы в защиту своей точки зрения.

A case study is an effective research method that specifically studies a single case over a period of time. Writing a case study is a very useful form of study in the educational process.

If students have real-life examples, it can help them learn more and synthesize information in a more effective manner. Such writing projects are one of the best ways of learning in a classroom.

A case study also has different types and forms. As a rule of thumb, all of them require a detailed and convincing answer based on a thorough analysis.

So, in this article, we are going to discuss the different types of case study research methods in detail.

What is a Case Study?

Case studies are a type of research methodology. They examine subjects, projects or organizations to tell stories and try conclusions about them based on evidence gathered during the process.

It allows you not only explore new avenues but also get insight into what drives any subject’s decisions and actions. Case studies are a great way for first-year students to develop their research skills.

A case study focuses on a single project for an extended period of time, which allows students to explore the topic in depth.

What are the Types of Case Study?

There are 6 types of case studies used for different purposes. The main purpose of case studies is to analyze problems within the boundaries of a specific organization, environment, or situation.

According to design, case studies can be divided into the following categories:

• Illustrative Case Study
• Exploratory Case Study
• Cumulative Case Study
• Critical Instance Case Study
• Descriptive Case Study
• Intrinsic Case Study

Refer to the following section for a detailed description of each type of case study with examples.

Illustrative Case Study

An illustrative case study is used to examine a familiar case in order to help others to understand it. It is one of the main types of case studies in research methodology and is primarily descriptive.

In this type of case study, usually, one or two instances are utilized to explain what a situation is like.

Exploratory Case Study

An exploratory case study is a primary project conducted before a large-scale investigation. These types of case studies are very popular in the social sciences like political science and primarily focus on real-life contexts and situations.

Typically, these are used to identify research questions and methods for a large and complex study. The main purpose of an exploratory case study is to help identify situations for the further research process.

Cumulative Case Study

A cumulative case study is one of the main types of case studies in qualitative research. It is used to collect information from different sources at different times.

The aim of this case study is to summarize the past studies without spending additional cost and time on new investigations. So, it is a form of data analysis.

Critical Instance Case Study

Critical instances case studies are used to determine the cause and consequence of an event.

The main reason for this type of case study is to investigate one or more sources with unique interest and sometimes with no interest in general. A critical case study can also be used to question a universal assertion.

Descriptive Case Study

When you have a hypothesis, you can design a descriptive study. This type of report starts with describing what you are studying. It aims is to find connections between the subject being studied and a theory.

After making these connections, the study can be concluded. The results of the descriptive case study will usually suggest how to develop a theory further.

A descriptive report would use the quantitative data as a starting point for more in-depth research.

Intrinsic Case Study

Intrinsic studies are more common in psychology. This type of case study can also be conducted in healthcare or social work. So, if you were looking for types of case study in sociology, or type of case study in social research, this is it.

The focus of intrinsic studies is on a unique individual. These types can sometimes study groups close to the researcher as well.

The aim of such studies is not only to understand the subject better, but also their history and how they interact with everything around them. Basically, studying the subject with the perspective of their suroundings is what is needed for this type of case study.

Here is a PDF example to help you learn more about different types of case studies.

Now you know the different types of case study methods in research. Make sure you follow the right case study format for great results.

Remember each type is defined in general terms but keep in mind that many aspects of a case study such as data collection and analysis, qualitative research questions, etc. are dependent on the researcher and what the study is looking to address.

Types of Subjects of Case Study

In general, there are six types of case studies and 5 types of subjects they address. Every case study whether exploratory, critical, or cumulative, fits into the following subject categories.

• Person

  This type of study focuses on one subject or individual and can use several research methods to determine the outcome.

• Group

  This type of study takes into account a group of individuals. This could be a group of friends, coworkers, or family.

• Location

  The main focus of this type of study is the place. It also takes into account how and why people use the place.

• Organization

  This study focuses on an organization or company. This could also include the company employees or people who work in an event at the organization.

• Event

  This type of study focuses on a specific event. It could be societal or cultural and examines how it affects the surroundings.

Review some case study examples online before starting working on a specific type of case study. These examples will help you understand how a specific case study is conducted.

Case studies are being used more and more in colleges and universities to help students understand how a hypothetical event can influence a person, group, or organization in real life.

Writing a case study can be tricky and complicated especially when you are facing an urgent deadline. That’s why our legitimate essay writing service is here to provide you a full case study writing service.

Not everyone can handle the case study writing assignment easily. It is even scary to think that your time and work could be wasted if you don’t do the case study paper right. So, it is better to get help from our paper writer who can write a professional case study for you.

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Dr. Barbara is a highly experienced writer and author who holds a Ph.D. degree in public health from an Ivy League school. She has worked in the medical field for many years, conducting extensive research on various health topics. Her writing has been featured in several top-tier publications.

Published on
May 8, 2019
by

Shona McCombes.

Revised on
January 30, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods, but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing, comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem.

When to do a case study

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation. They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

Case study examples

Research question	Case study
What are the ecological effects of wolf reintroduction?	Case study of wolf reintroduction in Yellowstone National Park
How do populist politicians use narratives about history to gain support?	Case studies of Hungarian prime minister Viktor Orbán and US president Donald Trump
How can teachers implement active learning strategies in mixed-level classrooms?	Case study of a local school that promotes active learning
What are the main advantages and disadvantages of wind farms for rural communities?	Case studies of three rural wind farm development projects in different parts of the country
How are viral marketing strategies changing the relationship between companies and consumers?	Case study of the iPhone X marketing campaign
How do experiences of work in the gig economy differ by gender, race and age?	Case studies of Deliveroo and Uber drivers in London

Step 1: Select a case

Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions, you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

If your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research, a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

In the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

In the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

Step 2: Build a theoretical framework

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework. This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

Step 3: Collect your data

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews, observations, and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

For a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

Step 4: Describe and analyze the case

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis, with separate sections or chapters for the methods, results and discussion.

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

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Case study research remains a controversial data collection approach. However, it is recognized widely in different social studies. That’s because it enables researchers to provide in-depth explanations of different social behaviors.

Perhaps, you’re wondering, what is a case study research? Maybe you want to know what it involves. Well, this is a research method that utilizes reports from past studies. It allows researchers to explore and understand complex issues using those reports. This research method may be considered robust, especially when researchers require holistic, in-depth investigation.

Most social sciences recognize case study research design and methods and their roles have become more prominent. This approach is used to research and write about topics in education, sociology, and community-based issues like drug addiction, poverty, and unemployment.

What is Case Study Research?

In social studies, the case study is a research method in which a phenomenon is investigated in its real-life context. It’s an empirical inquiry and research strategy that is based on an in-depth investigation of a group, event, or individual to explore the underlying principles causes.

Essentially, this study can be defined as an exploratory and descriptive analysis of a case. But, what is a case study in research? Well, a case can be anything that a researcher wants to investigate. This can include a person, a group, an event, a decision, a policy, period, institution, or any other system that can be studied historically.

Methods Used in Case Study Research

This type of research uses the same study methodology with other research types. But, the most common case study research method starts with the definition of a single case. It can also be a group comprising similar cases. These can be incorporated for a multiple-case study.

This is followed by a search to determine what is already known about the case or cases. This search can involve a review of grey literature, reports, and media content. This review plays a critical role in enabling the researchers to understand the case. It also informs researchers when it comes to developing case study research questions.

In most case studies, data is often qualitative, though not exclusively. Thus, researchers engage in case study qualitative research. When researchers use multiple cases, they analyze each case separately. Themes can arise from assertions or analysis about the entire case.

Case study research methodology can include:

• Personal interviews
• Archival records
• Psychometric tests
• Direct observation

Case studies are more in-depth when compared to observational research. That’s because they use several records or measures while focusing on a single subject. In some cases, a multiple-case design can be used. What’s more, a case study can be retrospective or prospective. A retrospective case study uses criteria to choose cases from historical records. Prospective case studies, on the other hand, uses established criteria while including extra cases as long as they meet the set criteria.

Because case studies use qualitative data like the one collected from interviews, they tend to be more liable. However, quantitative data and questionnaires can also be used. For instance, a case study can be used in clinical research to monitor and determine the effectiveness of treatment.

Types of Case Study Research

When you research case study, you explore causation to identify the underlying principles. But, they can’t be generalized to a larger population the way researchers do when conducting experimental research. They also can’t provide predictive power the same way correlational research can do. Rather, they provide extensive data that can be used to develop new hypotheses that can be used for further research. It can also be used to study rare conditions or events that are hard-to-study.

A case study research paper can fall into any of these categories:

• Illustrative case study- This is a descriptive type of case study. It uses one or two instances to describe an event. The purpose of an illustrative case study is to make what is considered unfamiliar familiar. It also provides a common language for the readers about a subject.
• Exploratory case study- This is also called a pilot case study. It comprises condensed case studies that are performed before a large-scale investigation. Its purpose is to help researchers identify research questions and select the measurement types before the main investigation. The major drawback of this study is that it can make initial findings convincing and lead to their premature release as conclusions.
• Cumulative case study- This is a case study that entails the aggregation of information from different sources that were collected at varying times. The goal is to collect past studies to enhance generalization without spending more time or cost on new and probably repetitive studies.
• Critical instance case study- This examines one or several sites to examine a situation of specific interest with no or little interest in generalizing them. It can also be used to challenge or question universal or highly generalized assertions. This method can be used to answer the cause and effect study questions.

People may define case study research differently based on these major types of this investigation. Nevertheless, it’s an intensive and systematic investigation of a group, community, individuals, or other units where the researchers examine in-depth data that relate to several variables.

Example of Case Study Research

Case study definition in research may vary. However, students should be keen to choose topics they are comfortable researching and writing about. Here are case study research question examples that be used for this kind of investigation.

• How and why are employees abusing drugs at workplaces?
• How is social media influencing modern businesses?
• What are the most effective ways for small businesses to plan their advertising budget?
• How can social media ads help in driving customers?
• How can employees engage during tough times?
• How can a business consider small customers to make bigger profits?
• How good is care quality for complex patients at major Nurse Practitioner-Led Clinics?
• How effective are pediatric pain management practices by nurses?

Different data collection methods can be used to assess and understand each case separately. This can lead to a better understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. The goal of the case study research design is to provide a framework that can be used to evaluate and analyze complex issues. For instance, in the last two examples above, a case study can be used to shed light on the nursing practice as a holistic approach. It can also provide a perspective that will inform the nurses to give improved care to their patients.

How to Do Case Study Research

When writing a case study paper, follow these steps, suggested by our writing professionals:

1. Determine the case to study, data collection methods, and the information to gather.
2. Select the subjects or people to participate in the case study.
3. Prepare relevant materials like questionnaires to collect relevant information. This should also include your research problem.
4. Use the collected data to write your case.
5. Add the appendices and references
6. Proofread and edit your final case study paper

In a nutshell, a case study entails collecting data that leads to a better understanding of a phenomenon. The methodology of a case study provides a framework that is used to analyze and evaluate more complex issues.

Developing Educational Case Studies

Case studies can be used in education as a teaching tool. Many students learn better using real-life examples, and case studies can be an effective way to learn in the classroom.

Case studies have a history of being used in business schools, law schools, medical schools, and other master programs. These cases can come in different forms, with some being basic «what would you do?» type questions, and some being very detailed and requiring data analysis.

Assignments and homework for these types of studies usually require students to answer open-ended questions about a possible solution to a problem. Usually these projects are done by a group of students, as group learning is often more effective.

What Are Case Studies?

A case is basically a story. A case recounts events or problems in a way that students can learn from their complexities and ambiguities. The students can learn from the original participants in the case, whether it is business people, doctors, or other professionals.

The students are able to take over a case, and dissect key information in order to find solutions to the problems. This allows students to be able to:

1. Determine pertinent information

2. Identify the problem and its parameters

3. Identify possible solutions

4. Form strategies and ideas for action

5. Make decisions to fix the problems

The History of the Case Study Method

The founder of the case study method was Christopher Langdell, who attended Harvard Law School from 1851-1854. He was very studious, and spent most of his time in the library. This is when he started to formulate the case method.

At the time, law schools used the Dwight Method of teaching, which was a combination of lecture, recitations and drills. This method focused highly on memorization, and didn’t allow for much actual learning, just rote repetitions.

Langdell’s method was completely different. He required his students to only read cases, and to draw their own conclusions. To help them, he published sets of cases with a short introduction.

Narrative Case Studies

Narrative case studies use a comprehensive history of a problem, along with the several parts of the typical case study, to teach using the case method. With this method students try to find better solutions to problems, and find ways to analyze why their chosen solution is best.

An example of a narrative case study is the Tylenol cyanide scandal. In 1982 seven people died after ingesting Tylenol tablets laced with cyanide.

Almost immediately Tylenol’s market share dropped from 37% to 7%. Johnson & Johnson, the parent company had to work quickly to save the product. They reintroduced the product with tamper resistant packaging and a large media campaign.

Johnson & Johnson was successful. The Tylenol brand recovered and regained customer trust.

The Tylenol Scandal case study details everything that happened from beginning to end. It also details each step J&J took when turning the scandal around…both positive and negative steps.

This case study is now used in business, marketing, crisis management and other disciplines to help them solve their own problems. They can look at what J&J did to solve their problems, and use that information to fix their own issues.

As a teaching tool, this case study allows the students to analyze each step Johnson & Johnson went through, and whether or not any other solutions were possible.

Decision-Forming Case

A decision-forcing case doesn’t provide an outcome, and therefore forces the students to determine an outcome on their own. Often these cases have an epilogue, which completes the story.

The formats of these cases can vary. They can be standard written cases, PowerPoint presentations, movies or movie clips, or even TV or news stories. Regardless of the type of case, they all:

• llustrate the issues typical to the type of case study

• Show theoretical frameworks

• Leave out assumptions

• Show realistic ambiguities and tensions.

Common Case Elements

Most cases, whether legal, business, or other, have the same common elements. These are:

1. A decision maker who has a problem that needs to be solved.

2. A description of the context of the problem.

3. Data that supports the study, which could include interviews, documents or images.

Case studies can be done individually, but are usually done in a small group so students can problem solve together as a team.

The Case Study Method

The case study method is two-parted. One part is the case itself, and other part is the discussion of the case. Case studies are chosen for teaching based on how rich the narrative is, and whether the people in the study are required to make a decision or solve a problem.

When using case studies, the focus is not on the data or the analysis. The students analyze the case and try to find ways to find solutions and solve problems. This method is most often used in groups, with a focus on classroom discussion.

When students are given a study by a teacher, they should attack each case with the following checklist.

1. Thoroughly read the case and formulate your own opinions before sharing ideas with others in your group or class. You must be able to identify the problems on your own, as well as be able to offer solutions and alternatives. Before the study is discussed with the group, you must be able to form your own outline and course of action.

2. Once you have a clear understanding of the case, you can share your ideas with other members of your group.

3. Open discussion of the case and listen to the input of others in your group and class.

4. Reflect back on how your original ideas changed as a result of the group discussion.

Teaching the Case Method

Professors have several ways to use case studies in the classroom. The first way is as an adjunct to normal lectures. A lecture might discuss a certain facet of business, and the case study can be used to backup the information learned in the lecture.

This type of teaching doesn’t require large case studies, and can get by using excerpts and other extractions. The benefits of this method are that it only needs little preparation, and is a great way to introduce case studies into the classroom.

The second way is to use the case studies to challenge the student’s solutions, and help them formulate new strategies. This is the typical case study method. Students work together to formulate solutions and conclusions, and allow students to learn from each other.

Gaining Skills With The Case Method

The case method is an excellent way for students to learn new cognitive skills, as well as improve their analysis and evaluation skills. Here is a list of the skills that can be improved, and how the case method helps this process.

Knowledge – This is the student’s ability to remember information and ability to recall it.

Comprehension – This is the student’s ability to understand what they are learning. The case method helps this by using examples in a real-world context.

Application – This is the student’s ability to use their knowledge in new ways. This could mean new rules, ideas or theories. The case method helps students understand how these ideas and theories are used in the real world.

Analysis – This is the student’s ability to break down information so it can be better understood. Since analysis is the basis of the case method, this skill is greatly improved.

Synthesis – This is the student’s ability to form new ideas. Case studies help this skill by requiring them to identify new information and concepts. This is developed during group activities and discussions.

Evaluation – This is the student’s ability to judge information for a particular reason. Again, this skill is a hallmark of the case study method, and the use of cases will help improve the student’s evaluation skills.

Case Method Advantages

The largest advantage of the case study method is that students must actively and openly discuss the principals of the study. This helps develop their skills in:

• Problem solving

• Analysis, both quantitative and qualitative

• Decision making

• Dealing with ambiguities

Case Method Criticisms

While the case study method has been seen as a very successful way of learning, it does have its criticisms. Here is a list of some of the drawbacks of the learning method.

1. Students often fight for airtime, and may not fully think through their thoughts. Many students want to be first, and place more importance in that than being right. This results in analysis that is superficial and not well thought-out.

2. Students in business management courses don’t always have the same background experience, and this can contribute to issues with experience.

3. The background information provided for the case analysis is often limited to whatever was supplied with the case.

4. If cases are too old, they may no longer be relevant. Cases that are older than 10 years shouldn’t be used if possible. This is particularly the case with business studies, since changes occur quite frequently in the business world. For example, case studies that detail companies before the Internet are often out of date. You wouldn’t want to study Barnes & Noble without knowing how eBooks affected their bottom line.

5. The case study method is not a good way to learn the technicals of finance and accounting. Not every MBA student has a strong background in accounting or finance, and vice versa. Furthermore, students don’t always attend business school at the same time in their careers. Many students get their MBA’s while in their 20’s, while other students wait until they are in their 30’s or 40’s.

6. With the case method, there isn’t a right or wrong answer. This can cause students to leave the lesson without key takeaways. In addition, this method cannot work for areas that have unique answers…this is why the case method would never work in physics or mathematics.

Those who disagree with the total case method teaching method believe the best alternative is a balance between cases and lectures.

The most recent iteration is a combination of both. They offer lectures to learn the fundamentals, and cases to determine whether or not the students understand the fundamentals enough to apply them to real-world situation.

The Case Study Method in Business School

Most top business schools use the case study method, including Harvard Business School. When students are given a case, they are required to be the decision maker, and they must read the study and identify the problems.

Once the problem has been identified, the student must analyze the situation and find solutions that can solve the problem. There can often be several possible solutions.

Students work in teams to solve the cases, discussing each facet of the case with their classmates. The teacher or instructor guides the students when necessary, and will often suggest courses of action when necessary.

In classrooms that use the case method, students do about 90% of the talking. The professors only speak in order to explain fundamentals or to steer the conversation. Class participation is essential, and it can amount to up to 50% of a student’s grade. During the two years spent in business school, students will normally study over 500 cases.

Case Studies in Psychology and Social

Sciences

Case studies are used in just about every discipline, from business, to the arts, and education. But case studies are most prevalent in psychology and the social sciences, where case studies form a strong basis for all other clinical and non-clinical research.

If you are studying psychology, a part of your education will include the use of case studies. Case studies are how we learn and expand our knowledge, and how we build on older ideas and theories and attempt to make them better.

The Most Well-Known Psychological Case Studies

One of the best ways to learn about and better understand psychological case studies is to read and familiarize yourself with the most well-known case studies. These are the studies that every psychology student will learn about.

John-John

The John-John case was a pioneering study about gender and sexuality. This is one of those unique cases that cannot be recreated.

John-John focused on a set of twin boys, both of whom were circumcised at the age of 6 months. One of the twin’s circumcisions failed, causing irreparable damage to the penis. His parents were concerned about the sexual health of their son, so they contacted Dr. John Money for a solution.

Dr. Money believed that sexuality came from nurture, not nature, and that the injured baby, Bruce, could be raised as a girl. His penis was removed and he was sexually reassigned to become a girl. Bruce’s name was changed to Brenda, and his parents decided to raise him as a girl.

In this case, Dr. Money was dishonest. He believed that gender could be changed, which has since been proven false. Brenda’s parents were also dishonest, stating that the surgery was a success, when in fact that wasn’t the case.

As Brenda grew up, she always acted masculine and was teased for it at school. She did not socialize as a girl, and did not identify as a female. When Brenda was 13 she learned the truth, and was incredibly relieved. She changed her name to David, and lived the rest of her life as a male.

Jill Price

Jill Price was believed to have a condition called hyperthymesia, which gave her a remarkable memory. She could remember the tiniest details, such as what she ate for lunch 10 years prior on a random Monday.

This condition caused her great harm because she focused on all the negative events in her life, even the small ones like derogatory remarks. Price participated in the study hoping it would help her deal with her condition.

Through the study, it was determined that Price wasn’t a memory whiz, and that her abilities were completely blown out of proportion. She wasn’t able to memorize lists of words or names. Her memory was focused only on events that were relevant to her. For example, she could remember famous dates, but only if they were relevant to her or her life.

Doctors also did brain scans, and through the study, determined that she had a form of obsessive-compulsive disorder, or OCD. Price was obsessed with the negative things that had happened to her in her life, and that obsession cause the increased memory in her instance.

Future research will have to be done to corroborate this theory.

H.M.

H.M., the initials of Henry Molaison, is probably the most important case study in the field of neuroscience. HM was in a bike accident at the age of 9, and it caused brain damage that resulted in seizures.

In an attempt to end his seizures, surgeons removed small slivers of his brain from the hippocampus, which we now know is the area of the brain that is critical to memory. As a result of the surgery, HM was left with amnesia. He was unable to form new memories, and had issues remembering old memories.

This case study was the basis for future studies of human memory. Because of this study, we know that memory has two parts that work together. One part is located in the hippocampus, which is where facts and memories are stored. This one study revolutionized the study of the brain and memory.

Phineas Gage

Phineas Gage was a railroad worker who was injured in a workplace accident. He was packing gunpowder into a rock, and a spark caused the tampering iron to shoot through his cheek into his skull. His frontal lobe was damaged, but he survived the accident and was able to talk and walk immediately after.

The study was done about his personality, which immediately changed. He became short tempered and angry. He lost his friends, family, and his job. This study allowed researchers to study the frontal lobe and how it is involved in higher mental functions. It also proved that the brain was the basis for personality and behavior.

Genie

By now you are probably familiar with Genie case, and why it was such a breakthrough case study. Of all the case studies that exist, it is Genie that has allowed the most inroads to be made in the psychological field.

Genie was a feral child. She was raised in completed isolation, with little human contact. Because of the abuse she withstood, she was unable to develop cognitively. From infancy she was strapped to a potty chair, and therefore never acquired the physicality needed for walking, running and jumping.

If Genie made a noise, her father beat her. Therefore, she learned to not make a noise. Once she was found, researchers studied her language skills, and attempted to find ways to get her to communicate. They were successful. While she never gained the ability to speak, she did develop other ways to communicate. However, the public soon lost interest in her case, and with that, the funds to conduct the study.

However, her case was extremely important to child development psychology and linguistic theory. Because of her, we know that mental stimulation is needed for proper development. We also now know that there is a «critical period» for the learning of language.

The Most Well-Known Case Studies in Sociology

Sociology is a science much like psychology. In sociology, the study is of social behavior, how it originated, and how it exists today. Like most sciences, it isn’t perfect, and therefore benefits from the use of case studies.

Sociological case studies have helped us identify problems in our culture, and have helped define possible solutions. Here are some of the most well-known studies in sociology, the ones that defined and shaped the field.

Fast Food Nation

Fast Food Nation is a book by Eric Schlosser, about how the fast food industry is related to the American life.

Americans love their fast food. It is said that most toddlers are able to identify the golden arches of McDonald’s before they are able to read. Fast Food Nation uncovered some disturbing facts about the fast food industry. He discovered that fast food has widened the gap between rich and poor, and has contributed to the obesity epidemic.

His study details how much of this happened, and most of it is very unsettling.

The study also touched on other sociological issues, such as farming and ethics. Since fast food restaurants needed more beef than ever, cattle farmers would find ways to make bigger cows, and would find ways to own more cattle. This often led to overcrowding and poor care of the animals.

Milgram Obedience Studies

Stanley Milgram did a study from 1960 to 1974 in which he studied the effects of social pressure. The study was set up as an independent laboratory. A random person would walk in, and agree to be a part of the study. He was told to act as a teacher, and ask questions to another volunteer, who was the learner.

The teacher would ask the learner questions, and whenever he answered incorrectly, the teacher was instructed to give the learner an electric shock. Each time the learner was wrong, the shock would be increased by 15 volts. What the teacher didn’t know was that the learner was a part of the experiment, and that no shocks were being given. However, the learner did act as if they were being shocked.

If the teacher tried to quit, they were strongly pushed to continue. The goal of the experiment was to see whether or not any of the teachers would go up to the highest voltage. As it turned out, 65% of the teachers did.

This study opened eyes when it comes to social pressure. If someone tells you it is okay to hurt someone, at what point will the person back off and say «this is not ok!» And in this study, the results were the same, regardless of income, race, gender or ethnicity.

Nickel and Dimed

Nickel and Dimed is a book and study done by Barbara Ehrenreich. She wanted to study poverty in America, and did so by living and working as a person living on minimum wage.

She set up her experiment with three rules.

1. When looking for a job, she is unable to use her education or skills.

2. She had to take the highest paying job she gets, and do her best to keep it.

3. She had to take the cheapest housing she could find.

She lived in three cities in Florida, Maine and Minnesota.

Through her experiment, she discovered that poverty was almost inescapable. As soon as she saved a little money, she was hit with a crisis. She might get sick, or her car might break down, all occurrences that can be destructive when a person doesn’t have a safety net to fall back on.

It didn’t matter where she lived or what she did. Working a minimum wage job gave her no chances for advancement or improvement whatsoever. And she did the experiment as a woman with no children to support.

This study opened a lot of eyes to the problem of the working poor in America. By living and working as the experiment, Ehrenreich was able to show first-hand data regarding the issues surrounding poverty. The book didn’t end with any solutions, just suggestions for the reader and points for them to think about.

The Culture of Fear

This study was written in 1999 by Barry Glassner, a professor of sociology at the University of Southern California. The study investigated why Americans are so engrossed with fear.

The study examined the organizations that caused the fear, and how they profited from the anxiety that resulted. Politicians, television news and magazine programs, were all found guilty of peddling fear, which causes people to worry needlessly and cost billions of dollars.

The study investigated why Americans have so many fears today, and why Americans are more fearful now than they were 20 years ago. Life is not more dangerous now than it was 20 years ago, and yet Americans are more afraid.

Glassner discovered that there are businesses and organizations that actually profit from these fears, and as such, find ways to create them. This of course leads to wasted money, time and resources.

Much of the blame is placed with the news media, who constantly inundates us with news stories that will increase their ratings. This is called the media-effects theory.

Think of shows like 20/20 or Dateline. These news programs focus on stories about crime, drugs and disasters, and they are extremely popular. Then these news networks sell advertising based on how many people watch their programs. So the news media has a vested interest in keeping people watching the news. The more crime and disaster increase, so do their ratings and advertising income.

Case studies have become powerful business tools. But what is a case study? What are the benefits of creating one? Are there limitations to the format?

If you’ve asked yourself these questions, our helpful guide will clear things up. Learn how to use a case study for business. Find out how cases analysis works in psychology and research.

We’ve also got examples of case studies to inspire you.

Haven’t made a case study before? You can easily create a case study with Venngage’s customizable templates.

Click to jump ahead:

• What is a case study?
• What is the case study method?
• Benefits of case studies
• Limitations of case studies
• Types of case studies
• FAQs about case studies

What is a case study?

Case studies are research methodologies. They examine subjects, projects, or organizations to tell a story.

Numerous sectors use case analyses. The social sciences, social work, and psychology create studies regularly.

Healthcare industries write reports on patients and diagnoses. Marketing case study examples, like the one below, highlight the benefits of a business product.

Now that you know what a case study is, we explain how case reports are used in three different industries.

What is a business case study?

A business or marketing case study aims at showcasing a successful partnership. This can be between a brand and a client. Or the case study can examine a brand’s project.

There is a perception that case studies are used to advertise a brand. But effective reports, like the one below, can show clients how a brand can support them.

Hubspot created a case study on a customer that successfully scaled its business. The report outlines the various Hubspot tools used to achieve these results.

Hubspot also added a video with testimonials from the client company’s employees.

So, what is the purpose of a case study for businesses? There is a lot of competition in the corporate world. Companies are run by people. They can be on the fence about which brand to work with.

Business reports stand out aesthetically, as well. They use brand colors and brand fonts. Usually, a combination of the client’s and the brand’s.

With the Venngage My Brand Kit feature, businesses can automatically apply their brand to designs.

A business case study, like the one below, acts as social proof. This helps customers decide between your brand and your competitors.

Don’t know how to design a report? You can learn how to write a case study with Venngage’s guide. We also share design tips and examples that will help you convert.

Related: 55+ Annual Report Design Templates, Inspirational Examples & Tips [Updated]

What is a case study in psychology?

In the field of psychology, case studies focus on a particular subject. Psychology case histories also examine human behaviors.

Case reports search for commonalities between humans. They are also used to prescribe further research. Or these studies can elaborate on a solution for a behavioral ailment.

The American Psychology Association has a number of case studies on real-life clients. Note how the reports are more text-heavy than a business case study.

Famous psychologists such as Sigmund Freud and Anna O popularised the use of case studies in the field. They did so by regularly interviewing subjects. Their detailed observations build the field of psychology.

It is important to note that psychological studies must be conducted by professionals. Psychologists, psychiatrists and therapists should be the researchers in these cases.

Related: What Netflix’s Top 50 Shows Can Teach Us About Font Psychology [Infographic]

What is a case study in research?

Research is a necessary part of every case study. But specific research fields are required to create studies. These fields include user research, healthcare, education, or social work.

For example, this UX Design report examined the public perception of a client. The brand researched and implemented new visuals to improve it. The study breaks down this research through lessons learned.

Clinical reports are a necessity in the medical field. These documents are used to share knowledge with other professionals. They also help examine new or unusual diseases or symptoms.

The pandemic has led to a significant increase in research. For example, Spectrum Health studied the value of health systems in the pandemic. They created the study by examining community outreach.

The pandemic has significantly impacted the field of education. This has led to numerous examinations on remote studying. There have also been studies on how students react to decreased peer communication.

Social work case reports often have a community focus. They can also examine public health responses. In certain regions, social workers study disaster responses.

You now know what case studies in various fields are. In the next step of our guide, we explain the case study method.

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What is the case study method?

A case analysis is a deep dive into a subject. To facilitate this case studies are built on interviews and observations. The below example would have been created after numerous interviews.

Case studies are largely qualitative. They analyze and describe phenomena. While some data is included, a case analysis is not quantitative.

There are a few steps in the case method. You have to start by identifying the subject of your study. Then determine what kind of research is required.

In natural sciences, case studies can take years to complete. Business reports, like this one, don’t take that long. A few weeks of interviews should be enough.

The case method will vary depending on the industry. Reports will also look different once produced.

As you will have seen, business reports are more colorful. The design is also more accessible. Healthcare and psychology reports are more text-heavy.

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Benefits of case studies

Designing case reports takes time and energy. So, is it worth taking the time to write them? Here are the benefits of creating case studies.

• Collects large amounts of information
• Helps formulate hypotheses
• Builds the case for further research
• Discovers new insights into a subject
• Builds brand trust and loyalty
• Engages customers through stories

For example, the business study below creates a story around a brand partnership. It makes for engaging reading. The study also shows evidence backing up the information.

We’ve shared the benefits of why studies are needed. We will also look at the limitations of creating them.

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Limitations of case studies

There are a few disadvantages to conducting a case analysis. The limitations will vary according to the industry.

• Responses from interviews are subjective
• Subjects may tailor responses to the researcher
• Studies can’t always be replicated
• In certain industries, analyses can take time and be expensive
• Risk of generalizing the results among a larger population

These are some of the common weaknesses of creating case reports. If you’re on the fence, look at the competition in your industry.

Other brands or professionals are building reports, like this example. In that case, you may want to do the same.

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Types of case studies

There are six common types of case reports. Depending on your industry, you might use one of these types.

• Descriptive case studies
• Explanatory case studies
• Exploratory case reports
• Intrinsic case studies
• Instrumental case studies
• Collective case reports

We go into more detail about each type of study in the guide below.

Related: 15+ Professional Case Study Examples [Design Tips + Templates]

Descriptive case studies

When you have an existing hypothesis, you can design a descriptive study. This type of report starts with a description. The aim is to find connections between the subject being studied and a theory.

Once these connections are found, the study can conclude. The results of this type of study will usually suggest how to develop a theory further.

A study like the one below has concrete results. A descriptive report would use the quantitative data as a suggestion for researching the subject deeply.

Explanatory case studies

When an incident occurs in a field, an explanation is required. An explanatory report investigates the cause of the event. It will include explanations for that cause.

The study will also share details about the impact of the event. In most cases, this report will use evidence to predict future occurrences. The results of explanatory reports are definitive.

Note that there is no room for interpretation here. The results are absolute.

The study below is a good example. It explains how one brand used the services of another. It concludes by showing definitive proof that the collaboration was successful.

Another example of this study would be in the automotive industry. If a vehicle fails a test, an explanatory study will examine why. The results could show that the failure was because of a particular part.

Related: How to Write a Case Study [+ Design Tips]

Exploratory case reports

An explanatory report is a self-contained document. An exploratory one is only the beginning of an investigation.

Exploratory cases act as the starting point of studies. This is usually conducted as a precursor to large-scale investigations. The research is used to suggest why further investigations are needed.

An exploratory study can also be used to suggest methods for further examination.

For example, the below analysis could have found inconclusive results. In that situation, it would be the basis for an in-depth study.

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Intrinsic case studies

Intrinsic studies are more common in the field of psychology. These reports can also be conducted in healthcare or social work.

These types of studies focus on a unique subject, such as a patient. They can sometimes study groups close to the researcher.

The aim of such studies is to understand the subject better. This requires learning their history. The researcher will also examine how they interact with their environment.

For instance, if the case study below was about a unique brand, it could be an intrinsic study.

Once the study is complete, the researcher will have developed a better understanding of a phenomenon. This phenomenon will likely not have been studied or theorized about before.

Examples of intrinsic case analysis can be found across psychology. For example, Jean Piaget’s theories on cognitive development. He established the theory from intrinsic studies into his own children.

Related: What Disney Villains Can Tell Us About Color Psychology [Infographic]

Instrumental case studies

This is another type of study seen in medical and psychology fields. Instrumental reports are created to examine more than just the primary subject.

When research is conducted for an instrumental study, it is to provide the basis for a larger phenomenon. The subject matter is usually the best example of the phenomenon. This is why it is being studied.

Take the example of the fictional brand below.

Assume it’s examining lead generation strategies. It may want to show that visual marketing is the definitive lead generation tool. The brand can conduct an instrumental case study to examine this phenomenon.

Collective case reports

Collective studies are based on instrumental case reports. These types of studies examine multiple reports.

There are a number of reasons why collective reports are created:

• To provide evidence for starting a new study
• To find pattens between multiple instrumental reports
• To find differences in similar types of cases
• Gain a deeper understanding of a complex phenomenon
• Understand a phenomenon from diverse contexts

A researcher could use multiple reports, like the one below, to build a collective case report.

Related: 10+ Case Study Infographic Templates That Convert

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FAQs about case studies

What makes a case study a case study?

A case study has a very particular research methodology. They are an in-depth study of a person or a group of individuals. They can also study a community or an organization. Case reports examine real-world phenomena within a set context.

How long should a case study be?

The length of studies depends on the industry. It also depends on the story you’re telling. Most case studies should be at least 500-1500 words long. But you can increase the length if you have more details to share.

What should you ask in a case study?

The one thing you shouldn’t ask is ‘yes’ or ‘no’ questions. Case studies are qualitative. These questions won’t give you the information you need.

Ask your client about the problems they faced. Ask them about solutions they found. Or what they think is the ideal solution. Leave room to ask them follow-up questions. This will help build out the study.

Summary

Now you know what a case study means, you can begin creating one. These reports are a great tool for analyzing brands. They are also useful in a variety of other fields.

Use a visual communication platform like Venngage to design case studies. With Venngage’s templates, you can design easily. Create branded, engaging reports, all without design experience.