Is an abstract system of word meanings and symbols for all aspects of culture

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1_______. This system was first developed in India in the 3rd century BC. 2_______.
The important innovation in the Arabic system was the use of positional notation, in which individual number symbols assume different values according to their position in the written numeral. 3_______. The symbol 0 makes it possible to differentiate between 11, 101, and 1,001 without the use of additional symbols, and all numbers can be expressed in terms of ten symbols, the numerals from 1 to 9 plus 0. 4_______.

The study of culture is an
important part of contemporary sociological work. The major aspects
of culture include language, norms, sanctions and values.

Language is a critical element
of culture that sets apart humans from other living beings.
Language
is the foundation of every living culture, though particular
languages may differ in striking ways. Language is an abstract system
of word meanings and symbols for all aspects of culture. It includes
speech, written characters, numerals, symbols and gestures of
nonverbal communication. People depend upon language for it describes
and shapes the reality of a culture. The word symbols and the grammar
of a language organize the world for us. Linguists suggest that
language may influence our behavior and interpretations of social
reality. But they also think that language is not a «given», rather
it is culturally determined and it leads to different interpretations
of reality and certain phenomena. For example, in the United States
you ask a hardware store clerk for a «flashlight», while in
England, if you needed this item, you would have to ask for «an
electric torch». Languages differ in the number of colors that are
recognized. There are 11 basic terms in English. But the Russian and
Hungarian languages have 12 color terms.

The language barrier extends
even to nonverbal communication. Many people in the United States
interpreted Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev’s hands-clasped gesture
following a 1973 White House meeting with President Nixon as meaning
«I’ve won» or «I’m the champ.» While that is indeed the American
meaning of this gesture, Russians use the gesture as asymbol of
friendship.

Language is of great interest
to the sociological perspective because it can shape how we see,
taste, smell, feel and hear. It also influences the way we think
about the people, ideas and objects around us. A culture’s most
important aspects are communicated to people through
language. It is
for these reasons that the introduction of new languages into a
society is such a sensitive issue in many parts of the world.

While the United States
remains resistant to official use of languages other than English,
other societies experience the pervasiveness of the English language.
The domination of English stems from such factors as the demands of
world trade, where English is used to negotiate many international
business deals. In addition, English pervades rock music throughout
the world. The leading popular and rock groups record in English.

This does not mean that
English is being enthusiastically welcomed in all countries. For
example, «linguistic integrity» is somewhat a passion in France.
The French minister of culture limited the number of American songs
that French radio stations and discotheques could play, but later
dropped the idea when a survey revealed ‘that many discos would
promptly have gone bankrupt. The government has gone so far as to
establish committees to abolish Anglicisms and invent suitable French
alternatives, such as «informatique» for «data processing».
Responding with a dry sarcasm to such campaigns, the newspaper Le
Monde suggested
that the widely used term «sandwich» could be replaced with «two
pieces of bread with something in the middle». Less concise but more
French, Le Monde
observed.

All societies have particular
ways of encouraging what they view as appropriate behavior while
discouraging and punishing what they consider to be improper conduct.
«Put on some clean clothes for dinner» and «Thou shall not kill,»
just as respect for older people are examples of norms found in human
culture. Norms
are established standards of behavior maintained by a society.

Sociologists distinguish
between norms in two ways. First, norms are classified as formal or
informal.

Formal norms
have been written down and involve strict rules for punishment of
violators. In human society we often formalize norms into
laws,
which must be very precise in defining proper and improper behavior.

By contrast,
informal
norms are
generally understood but are not precisely recorded.

Standards of proper dress are
a common example of informal norms, while the rules of a card play
are considered formal norms.

Norms are also classified by
their relative importance to society. When classified in this way,
they are known as mores and folkways. Mores
are norms highly necessary to the welfare of a society. Thus human
society has strong mores against murder, treason and child abuse.
Each society demands obedience to its mores; their violation can lead
to severe penalties.

Folkways
are norms governing everyday behavior whose violation raises
comparatively little concern. Folkways very often are not shared in
all societies. Let us look at one fascinating example: the folkways
that govern how far we should stand from people when interacting with
them. The anthropologist Edward Hall suggests that Americans and
northern Europeans operate in four distance zones:

1. Intimate distance: up to 18
inches. That is the distance of lovemaking, wrestling, comforting,
protecting and also of confrontation as in «Get your face out of
mine!»

2. Personal distance: 18
inches to 4 feet. This is the conversational distance generally used
with friends.

3. Social distance: 4 to 7
feet. Within this distance we conduct impersonal business, such as
purchasing products or interviewing strangers.

4. Public distance: 12 feet
and more. This is viewed as the proper distance for public occasions.
It will be used to separate a speaker or a famous person from
admiring fans.

It is important to note that
these distances are not universally upheld in all cultures. Southern
Europeans, Arabs and Latin Americans stand closer together when
conversing and are more likely to touch one another and maintain eye
contact.

What happens when people
violate a widely shared and understood norm? In this case they will
receive sanctions. Sanctions are penalties and rewards for conduct
concerning a social norm. Positive sanctions are a pay raise, a
medal, a word of gratitude or a pat on the back. Negative sanctions
include fines, threats, imprisonment and even states of contempt.

The relationship between norms
and sanctions in a culture reflects that culture’s values and
priorities. Values are those collective conceptions of what is
considered good, desirable and proper or bad, undesirable and
improper in a culture.

They indicate what people in a
given culture prefer as well as what they find important and morally
right (or wrong). Values may be specific, such as honoring one’s
parents, or they may be more general, such as health, love and
democracy.

Values influence people’s
behavior and serve as criteria for evaluating the actions of
others.There is
a direct relationship between the values, norms and sanctions of a
culture. For example, if a culture views private property as a basic
value, it will probably have laws against theft and vandalism. The
values of a culture may change but most remain relatively stable
during any one person’s lifetime.

The sociologist Robin Williams
has offered a list of basic American values, including achievement,
efficiency, material comfort, nationalism, equality and the supremacy
of science and reason over faith. Socially shared, intensely felt
these values are a fundamental part of human lives in the United
States.

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1. Language:

            Language
is an abstract system of word meaning and symbols for all aspects of culture.
Language includes speech characters, numeral, symbols and gestures of nonverbal
communication. Language is the foundation of every culture. Language tells a
great deal about a culture. In contrast to some others elements of culture,
language permanents all parts of society. People invariably depend upon language
for the use and transmission of the rest of a culture. Language does more than
simply describe reality; it also serves to shape the reality of a culture.
Language can shape how we see, taste, smell, fell and hear. It also influences
the way we think about people, ideas and object around us. A culture’s most
important norms, values and sanction are communicated to people through
language.

2. Norms:

            Norms are established standards
of behavior maintained by a society. Norms imposes restrictions on our behavior.
They are model practice; they determine, control and guide our behavior. For
example, in movie theaters in the United States, we typically expect that
people will be quite while the term is showing. Because of this norms, as users
can tell a member of the audience to stop talking so loudly.

            Types
of norms: Sociologists distinguish between norms in two ways. Firstly, norms
are classified as:

                               
i.           
Formal norms: Formal norms have generally been
written down and involve strict rules for punishment of violators. Law is an
important example of formal norms.

                             
ii.           
Informal Norms: Informal norms are generally
understood but are not recorded. Standards of proper dress are all common
example of informal norms. Our society has no specific punishment or sanction
for a person who comes to school or to college dressed quite differently from
everyone else.

Norms are also classified by their relative
importance to society. When classified in this way they are known as:

                               
i.           
Mors: Mores are norms deemed highly
necessary to the welfare of a society, often because they embody the most
cherished principles of a people. Each society demands, obedience to its mores
violation can lead to serve penalties.

                             
ii.           
Folkways:
Folkways are
mores governing everybody’s behavior whose violation, raises, comparatively
title concern. For example, walking up a “down” escalator in a department store
challenges our standards of appropriate behavior, but it will not result in a
fine or a jail sentence.

3. Values:

            Each
individual develops his or her own personal goals and ambitions, yet each
culture provides a general set of objectives for its members. Values are these
collective conceptions of what is considered good, desirable and proper or bad,
undesirable and improper- in a culture. They indicate what people in a culture
prefer as well as what they find important and morally right or wrong. Values
maybe specific such as honoring one’s parents and owning a home, or they may be
more general, such as health, love and democracy. Values influence people’s
behavior and serve as criteria for evaluating the action of others. There is
often a direct relationship between the values, norms of a culture may change,
but most remain relatively stable during any one person’s life time. It is emphasized
that value systems can be quite different from that of own culture.

4. Sanction:

            Sanctions
are penalties and rewards for conduct concerning a social norm. Conformity to
norms can lead to positive sanctions such as a pay raise, a medal, a word of
gratitude, or a pat on the back. Negative sanctions include fines, threats, and
imprisonment and even stared of contempt. Implicit in the application of
sanctions is the detecting of norm violation or obedience. A person cannot be
penalized or rewarded. Unless someone with the power to provide sanctions is
aware of the person’s actions.

            The
entire fabric of norms and sanctions in a culture reflects that culture’s
values and priorities. The most cherished values will be most heavily
sanctioned, matters regarded as less critical on the other hand will carry
light and informal sanction.

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