As
the process of borrowing is mostly connected with the appearance of
new notions which the loan words serve to express, it is natural that
the borrowing is seldom limited to one language. Words of identical
origin that occur in several languages as a result of simultaneous or
successive borrowings from one ultimate source are called
international words.
Expanding
global contacts result in the considerable growth of international
vocabulary. All languages depend for their changes upon the cultural
and social matrix in which they operate and various contacts between
nations are part of this matrix reflected in vocabulary.
International
words play an especially prominent part in various terminological
systems including the vocabulary of science, industry and art. The
etymological sources of this vocabulary reflect the history of world
culture. Thus, for example, the mankind’s cultural debt to Italy is
reflected in the great number of Italian words connected with
architecture, painting and especially music that are borrowed into
most European languages: allegro,
andante, aria, arioso, barcarole, baritone (and
other names for voices), concert,
duet, opera (and
other names for pieces of music), piano
and
many many more.
The
rate of change in technology, political, social and artistic life has
been greatly accelerated in the 20th century and so has the rate of
growth of international wordstock. A few examples of comparatively
new words due to the progress of science will suffice to illustrate
the importance of international vocabulary: algorithm,
antenna, antibiotic, automation,
bionics, cybernetics, entropy, gene, genetic code, graph,
microelectronics, microminiaturisation, quant, quasars, pulsars,
ribosome, etc.
All these show sufficient likeness in English, French, Russian and
several other languages.
The
international wordstock is also growing due to the influx of exotic
borrowed words like anaconda,
bungalow, kraal, orang-outang, sari, etc.
These come from many different sources.
260
International words should not
be mixed with words of the common Indo-European stock that also
comprise a sort of common fund of the European languages.
This
layer is of great importance for the foreign language teacher not
only because many words denoting abstract notions are international
but also because he must know the most efficient ways of showing the
points of similarity and difference between such words as control
:
: контроль;
general
:
: генерал;
industry
:
: индустрия
or
magazine
:
: магазин,
etc.
usually called ‘translator’s false friends’.
The
treatment of international words at English lessons would be
one-sided if the teacher did not draw his pupils’ attention to the
spread of the English vocabulary into other languages. We find
numerous English words in the field of sport: football,
out, match, tennis, time. A
large number of English words are to be found in the vocabulary
pertaining to clothes: jersey,
pullover, sweater, nylon, tweed, etc.
Cinema and different forms of entertainment are also a source of many
international words of English origin: film,
club, cocktail, jazz.
At
least some of the Russian words borrowed into English and many other
languages and thus international should also be mentioned: balalaika,
bolshevik, cosmonaut, czar, intelligentsia, Kremlin, mammoth, rouble,
sambo, soviet, sputnik, steppe, vodka.
To
sum up this brief treatment of loan words it is necessary to stress
that in studying loan words a linguist cannot be content with
establishing the source, the date of penetration, the semantic sphere
to which the word belonged and the circumstances of the process of
borrowing. All these are very important, but one should also be
concerned with the changes the new language system into which the
loan word penetrates causes in the word itself, and, on the other
hand, look for the changes occasioned by the newcomer in the English
vocabulary, when in finding its way into the new language it pushed
some of its lexical neighbours aside. In the discussion above we have
tried to show the importance of the problem of conformity with the
patterns typical of the receiving language and its semantic needs.
Chapter
14
REGIONAL
VARIETIES OF THE ENGLISH VOCABULARY
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International Words in the Russian and English Languages
Introduction
Expanding global contacts and the development of mass media, especially the Internet, result in the considerable growth of international vocabulary. All languages depend for their changes upon the cultural and social matrix in which they operate and various contacts between nations are part of this matrix reflected in vocabulary. International words play an especially prominent part in various terminological systems including the vocabulary of science, industry and art. The etymological sources of this vocabulary reflect the history of world culture.
The research question:to find out the percentage of international words used in the Lifestyle-Politics category via analysis of the news article.
The objectives of this research are:
to identify the difference between internationalisms and cognates
to study the origin of some international words
to design an educational wall poster on the top ten words in the Lifestyle-Politics category.
Topicality of the project
The percentage of internationalisms in the news articles and in the scientific texts is rather high, e.g. according to some linguists, in the Russian vocabulary there are more than 10 per cent of international words. They are the most easily recognizable and perceived when reading these kinds of texts. The study of international words and their origin can be very useful for those who are interested in politics and science.
Definitions
Internationalism – or international word in linguistics is a loanword that occurs in several languages with the same or at least similar meaning and etymology. These words exist in ‘several different languages as a result of simultaneous or successive borrowings from the ultimate source’ [http://en.academic.ru/].
Cognate — A word either descended from the same base word of the same ancestor language as the given word, or strongly believed to be a regular reflex of the same reconstructed root of proto-language as the given word [ http://en.wiktionary.org/ ].
Background information
One of the first linguists to pay attention to the existence of some similar words in European languages was Antoine Meillet, a French linguist of the early 20th century, one of the most influential comparative linguists of his time. He steadily emphasized that any attempt to account for linguistic change must recognize that language is a social phenomenon. He supported the use of an international auxiliary language and at the beginning of the 20h century he studied the origin of some international words. A lot of internationalisms were considered to have originated from Latin and Greek.
The cross-linguistic influence was the subject of investigation of Lev Shcherba, a Russian linguist and lexicographer specializing in phonetics and phonology.
Uriel Weinreich, a Polish-American linguist, first noted that learners of second languages consider linguistic forms from their first language equal to forms in the target language. However, the essential inequality of these forms leads to speech which the native speakers of the target language consider unequal.
Einar Haugen, Armin Schwegler, А.А. Bukov, L.A. Tarasova and some other linguists made a contribution to the study of cross-linguistic influence.
The rate of change in technology, political, social and artistic life has been greatly accelerated in the 20th century and so has the rate of growth of international word stock. A few examples of comparatively new words due to the progress of science will suffice to illustrate the importance of international vocabulary: algorithm, antenna, antibiotic, automation, bionics, cybernetics, entropy, gene, genetic code, graph, microelectronics, quant, quasars, pulsars, ribosome, etc.
Nowadays a great number of English words are to be found among the internationalisms e.g. bank, business, consult, design, disk, drive, hit, man, market, media, net, style, test etc. The English vocabulary penetrates into other languages. We find numerous English words in the field of sport: football, out, match, tennis, volley-ball, basketball, cricket, golf, time in different parts of the world.It is due to the prestigious of the English language and its status of a global language.
Internationalisms vs Cognates
In the 1950th it was decided to differentiate the internationalisms and the cognates. It was stated that the word could be described as international if:
no fewer than three languages use it.
its spelling and pronunciation is completely or partly similar in different languages so that the word is understandable between the different languages.
its meaning is the same in different languages.
So, Internationalism – or international word in linguistics is a loanword that occurs in several languages with the same or at least similar meaning and etymology. These words exist in ‘several different languages as a result of simultaneous or successive borrowings from the ultimate source’ [http://en.academic.ru/].
European internationalisms originate primarily from Latin or Greek, but from other languages as well. Many non-European words have also become international, often by the way of one or more European languages.
Internationalisms often spread together with the innovations they designate. Accordingly, there are semantic fields of internationalisms that are dominated by specific languages, e.g. the computing vocabulary which is mainly English with internationalisms such as computer, disk, spam. New inventions, political institutions, food stuffs, leisure activities, science, and technological advances have all generated new lexemes and continue doing it.
Internationalisms are often spread by speakers of one language living in geographical regions where other languages are spoken.
In linguistics, cognates are words that have a common etymological origin. This learned term
derives from the Latin cognatus (blood relative).
Cognates do not need to have the same meaning, which may have changed as the languages developed separately. For example, consider English starve and Dutch sterven or German sterben («to die»); these three words all derive from the same Proto-Germanic root, *sterbaną («die»). English dish and German Tisch («table»), with their flat surfaces, both come from Latin discus, but it would be a mistake to identify their later meanings.
Cognates also do not need to have obviously similar forms: e.g., English father, French père, and Armenian hayr all descend directly from Proto-Indo-European *ph₂tḗr.
So, Cognate — A word either descended from the same base word of the same ancestor language as the given word, or strongly believed to be a regular reflex of the same reconstructed root of proto-language as the given word [ http://en.wiktionary.org/ ].
Analysis of the News Article
The following article is taken from the CNN official site (homepage). The underlined words can be described either as internationalisms or cognates. Some of them are proper names, geographical names or numerals.
Ukraine crisis centerstage as Obama, EU leaders meet in Belgium
By Laura Smith-Spark, CNN
March 26, 2014 — Updated 1243 GMT (2043 HKT)
(CNN)— The rapidly unfolding crisis in Ukraine is set to be the focus of talks between U.S. PresidentBarack Obama and European Union leaders Wednesday in Brussels, Belgium.
Russia’s formal annexation last week of Ukraine’s Crimea region has sparked the biggest East-West confrontation since the end of the Cold War.
Meanwhile, Moscow’s massing of troops near Ukraine’s eastern borders has worried the interim government in Kiev, as well as causing ripples of concern in other former Soviet republics that now belong to the EU and NATO.
Wednesday’s EU-U.S. summit in Brussels comes on the heels of talks on the sidelines of a nuclear security summit in The Hague, the Netherlands.
Obama will also meet with NATO Secretary General Anders Fogh Rasmussen while in Brussels.
Speaking at The Hague on Tuesday, Obama said Russia had a way out of tensions over the crisis: Negotiate with Kiev and be prepared to «act responsibly» and respond to international norms, such as respecting Ukraine’s territorial integrity.
If Russia doesn’t act responsibly, «there will be additional costs» that could hurt the global economy but will affect Russia most of all, Obama said.
The U.S. president said Russia’s annexation of Crimea «is not a done deal» because it’s not internationally recognized.
But he acknowledged that the Russian military controls Crimea, and said the world can make sure, through diplomacy and sanctions, that Russia pays a price.
Ukraine: We need support
Russia insists its actions are legitimate and denies having used its armed forces in Crimea, saying the troops that took control of key installations were local «self-defense» forces.
Russia also insists the government in Kiev is illegitimate because ousted President ViktorYanukovych, a close ally of Moscow’s, was forced out in an armed coup. Yanukovych’s ouster followed months of street protests sparked by his decision to ditch an EU trade deal in favor of closer ties to Russia.
In an interview Tuesday with PBS, acting Prime Minister Arseniy Yatsenyuk said Ukraine is struggling to maintain a fighting capability after it was «deliberately dismantled» under Yanukovych.
«What we need is support from the international community. We need technology and military support to overhaul the Ukrainian military and modernize — to be ready not just to fight, but to be ready to win,» Yatsenyuk said.
With an estimated 30,000 Russian troops now positioned near Ukraine’s eastern border, Yatsenyuk repeated his pledge to defend Ukrainian territory.
His government ceded Crimea without a shot to demonstrate to the world that Russia was the aggressor, he said — but if Moscow moves against another portion of Ukraine, the duty of all Ukrainians is «to protect our country,» he said. «We will fight.»
Moscow tightens grip
The United States and EU are seeking to exert pressure on Russia through a combination of sanctions and diplomatic isolation.
But Moscow has so far doggedly pursued its own course, even as Western leaders have denounced its actions as violations of Ukraine’s sovereignty and a breach of international law.
Amid heightened tensions within Ukraine, the Russian Foreign Ministry on Wednesday accused the Ukrainianborderservice of refusing to let air crew off Aeroflot jets for rest periods after landing in Ukraine. Aeroflot is the Russian national carrier.
This «breaks the international acts in compliance with flight safety requirements,» the ministry said in an online statement.
Meanwhile, Russia is tightening its grip on Crimea.
Crimea belonged to Russia until 1954 when it was given to Ukraine, which was then part of the SovietUnion. The region has a majority ethnic Russian population and other historic ties to Russia.
A large majority of its population voted in favor of joining Russia in a controversial referendum 10 days ago. Russian lawmakers in turn swiftly voted to absorb the Black Sea peninsula, where Russia has a major naval base, into the Russian Federation, and President Vladimir Putin signed the treaty into law.
In another step to cement the process, the vice-speaker of the Crimean parliament, Sergei Tsekov, was made a senator in Russia’s upper house Wednesday, Russia’s state-run ITAR-Tass news agencyreported.
At the same time, Kiev has ordered the withdrawal of Ukrainian armed forces from Crimea, citing Russian threats to the lives of military staff and their families effectively yielding the region to Moscow’s forces. They stormed one of Kiev’s last bases there Monday.
Aleksey Chaly, often referred to as Sevastopol’s new de facto mayor, announced Tuesday the dismissal of all «self-defense» teams, saying the «enemy» was now gone, as no forces loyal to Kiev remain in the city.
«I would like to draw the attention of some commanders of the self-defense units to the fact that the revolution is over,» he said in a video published on YouTube. «This week, federal agencies are being established, and we’re beginning to live by the laws of the Russian Federation.»
The G7 group of leading industrialized countries has condemned both the Crimean vote to secede and Russia’s annexation of Crimea. As a result, Russia has now been excluded from what was the G8.
Total: 859 words
Internationalisms Appendix I
|
word |
translation |
origin |
definition |
|
|
1 |
aggressor (1) |
агрессор, нападающая сторона |
from late Latin aggredi — атака |
a person or country that attacks another first |
|
2 |
agency (1) |
агентство |
from medieval Latin agentia — агентство |
a business or organization providing a particular service on behalf of another business, person, or group |
|
3 |
annexation (3) |
аннексия |
from Latin annexus – соединение |
the action of appropriating something, especially territory |
|
4 |
action (2) |
акция, действие |
from Latin actio(n-) — действие |
the fact or process of doing something, typically to achieve an aim |
|
5 |
centre (1) |
центр |
from Latin centrum, from Greek kentron, центр |
the point from which an activity or process is directed, or on which it is focused |
|
6 |
commander (1) |
командир |
from Old French comandeor, from late Latin commandare — командир |
a person in authority, especially over a body of troops or a military operation |
|
7 |
combination (1) |
комбинация |
from late Latin combinatio(n-) – объединение |
the process of combiningdifferent parts or qualities or the state of being combined |
|
8 |
confrontation (1) |
конфронтация |
from medieval Latin confrontare – сопоставлять, сравнивать |
a hostile or argumentative situation or meeting between opposing parties |
|
9 |
control (2) |
контроль |
from medieval Latin contrarotulare – копиясвитка |
the power to influence or direct people’s behaviour or the course of events |
|
10 |
crisis (3) |
кризис |
from ancient Greek κρίσις — решение, поворотный пункт |
any event that is expected to lead to an unstable and dangerous situation affecting an individual, group, community, or whole society |
|
11 |
de facto (2) |
фактический, реальный |
from Latin, literally ‘of fact’ |
in fact, whether by right or not |
|
12 |
demonstrate (1) |
демонстрировать |
from Latin demonstrat -шоу |
clearly show the existence or truth of (something) by giving proof or evidence |
|
13 |
diplomatic (1) |
дипломатический |
from Greek diplōma, —atis– официальное письмо, грамота |
of or concerning diplomacy |
|
14 |
effectively (1) |
эффективно |
from Latin ‘efficere ‘ accomplish |
In such a manner as to achieve a desired result |
|
15 |
federal (1) |
федеральный |
from Latin foedus — договор |
having or relating to a system of government in which several states form a unity but remain independent in internal affairs |
|
16 |
federation (2) |
федерация |
from late Latin foederatio(n-), from the verb foederare ‘to ally’, from foedus ‘league’. |
a group of states with a central government but independence in internal affairs |
|
17 |
focus (1) |
фокус |
from Latin focus – очаг, центр |
the centre of interest or activity |
|
18 |
formal (1) |
формальный |
from Latin formalis – формальный |
done in accordance with convention or etiquette |
|
19 |
General (1) |
генеральный |
from Latin generalis – всеобщий |
chief or principal |
|
20 |
global (1) |
глобальный |
from Latin globus — шар |
relating to the whole world; worldwide |
|
21 |
group (1) |
группа |
from French groupe, from Italian gruppo — группа |
a number of people or things that are located, gathered, or classed together |
|
22 |
industrialize (1) |
индустриализировать |
from French industriel — промышленные |
develop industries in (a country or region) on a wide scale |
|
23 |
installation (1) |
инсталляция |
from medieval Latin installare — устанавливать |
The action of installing someone or something, or the state of being installed |
|
24 |
integrity (1) |
интеграция — связанность |
from Latin integritas – сохранность, нетронутость |
the state of being whole and undivided |
|
25 |
international (5) |
интернациональный |
from French inter – между, national — национальный |
agreed on by all or many nations |
|
26 |
interview (1) |
интервью |
from French entrevue — встреча |
a meeting of people face to face, especially for consultation. |
|
27 |
isolation (1) |
изоляция |
mid 19th century: from isolate, partly on the pattern of French isolation — изоляция |
the process or fact of being apart from others |
|
28 |
leader (3) |
лидер |
from English lead – вести за собой |
the person who leads or commands a group, organization, or country |
|
29 |
legitimate (2) |
легитимный |
from Latin legitimus — законный |
conforming to the law or to rules |
|
30 |
local (1) |
локальный |
from late Latin localis — местный |
relating or restricted to a particular area or one’s neighbourhood. |
|
31 |
military (4) |
милитаристский, военный |
from French militaire or Latin militaris — военный |
relating to or characteristic of soldiers or armed forces |
|
32 |
ministry (2) |
министерство |
from Latin ministerium – служба, должность |
a government department headed by a minister |
|
33 |
modernize (1) |
модернизировать |
from late Latin modernus — современность |
adapt (something) to modern needs or habits, typically by installing modern equipment or adoptingmodern ideas or methods |
|
34 |
norm (1) |
норма |
from Latin norma — правило |
a standard or pattern, especially of social behavior |
|
35 |
online (1) |
available on or performed using the Internet or other computer network: |
||
|
36 |
parliament (1) |
парламент |
from Old French parlement ‘speaking’, from the verb parler |
the highest legislature |
|
37 |
period (1) |
период |
via Latin from Greek periodos — период |
a length or portion of time |
|
38 |
President (4) |
президент |
from Latin praesident – ‘sitting before’ – председательствующий |
the elected head of a republican state |
|
39 |
Prime Minister (1) |
премьер-министр |
from Latin primus- первый, minister –служитель, соратник |
the head of an elected government; the principal minister of a sovereign or state |
|
40 |
position (1) |
позиция, положение |
from Old French, from Latin positio -положение |
a place where someone or something is located or has been put |
|
41 |
process (1) |
процесс |
from Latin processus ‘progression, course’ — прогресс |
a series of actions or steps taken in order to achieve a particular end |
|
42 |
protest (1) |
протест |
from Latin protestari — утверждение |
a statement or action expressing disapproval of or objection to something |
|
43 |
referendum (1) |
референдум |
mid 19th century: from Latin, gerund ( ‘referring’) or neuter gerundive ( ‘something to be brought back or referred’) of referre |
a general vote by the electorate on a single political question which has been referred to them for a direct decision |
|
44 |
region (3) |
регион |
from Latin regio(n-) ‘ – регион |
an administrative district of a city or country |
|
45 |
republic (1) |
республика |
from Latin respublica, from res – суть+publicus – народ |
a state in which supreme power is held by the people and their elected representatives |
|
46 |
result (1) |
результат |
from medieval Latin resultare — отражаться |
a thing that is caused or produced by something else; a consequence or outcome |
|
47 |
revolution (1) |
революция |
from Old French, or from late Latin revolutio(n-) — революция |
a forcible overthrow of a government or social order, in favour of a new system |
|
48 |
sanctions (2) |
санкции |
from Latin sanctio(n-) — санкция |
measures taken by a state to coerce another to conform to an international agreement or norms of conduct, typically in the form of restrictions on trade or official sporting participation |
|
49 |
Secretary (1) |
Секретарь |
from late Latin secretarius – пользующийся доверием чиновник |
an official in charge of a US government department |
|
50 |
security (1) |
секьюрити |
from Latin secures – безопасный, надежный |
the safety of a state or organization. |
|
51 |
senator (1) |
сенатор |
from Latin senator |
a member of a senate |
|
52 |
Soviet (2) |
советский |
early 20th century: from Russian совет – орган государственной власти в СССР |
of or concerning the former Soviet Union |
|
53 |
sovereignty (1) |
суверенитет |
from Old French sovereinete – суверенитет |
the authority of a state to govern itself or another state |
|
54 |
summit (2) |
саммит |
From Latin summum, neuter of summus – высочайший, главный |
a meeting between heads of government |
|
55 |
technology (1) |
технология |
from Greek tekhnologia — технология |
the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes, especially in industry |
|
56 |
territory (2) |
территория |
from Latin territorium – территория, область |
of or relating to the ownership of an area of land or sea |
|
57 |
vice-speaker (1) |
вице-спикер |
from Old English sprecan |
The presiding officer in a legislative assembly, especially the House of Commons |
|
58 |
video (1) |
видео |
from Latin videre — видеть |
the recording, reproducing, or broadcasting of moving visual images |
The number of internationalisms found in the text – 58. Considering that some of them are repeated more often than once, the total number of international words in the text is – 86, i.e. 10 per cent.
Cognates Appendix II
|
word |
translation |
origin |
definition |
|
|
1 |
absorb (1) |
абсорбировать, впитывать, поглощать |
from Latin absorbere, from ab- ‘from’ + sorbere ‘suck in’ — впитывать |
take control of (a smaller or less powerful entity) and make it a part of a larger one |
|
2 |
act (1) |
акт, соглашение |
from Latin actus ‘event, thing done’ |
a thing done; a legal document codifying the result of deliberations of a committee or society or legislative body |
|
3 |
base (2) |
база |
from Latin basis ‘base, pedestal’ |
A place used as a centre of operations by the armed forces or others; a headquarters |
|
border service |
пограничная служба |
a branch of State Security Service tasked with patrol of the state border |
||
|
4 |
border (3) |
бордюр, граница |
from Old French bordeure — край |
a line separating two countries, administrative divisions, or other areas |
|
5 |
service (1) |
сервис |
from Latin servitium – рабство |
a public department or organization run by the state |
|
6 |
breach (1) |
брешь, нарушение закона |
from Old French breche -нарушать |
an act of breaking or failing to observe a law, agreement, or code of conduct |
|
7 |
cement (1) |
цементировать, скреплять |
from Latin caedere — высекать |
to settle or establish firmly |
|
centerstage |
основная позиция, положение |
(mainly journalism) a position in which someone or something is attracting a lot of attention |
||
|
8 |
stage (1) |
стадия, период, этап |
based on Latin stare – стоять. Current senses of the verb date from the early 17th century. |
a scene of action or forum of debate, especially in a particular political context |
|
9 |
community (1) |
коммуна, сообщество |
from Old French comunete — сообщество |
the people of a district or country considered collectively, especially in the context of social values and responsibilities; society |
|
10 |
сontroversial (1) |
контроверсивный, спорный, противоречивый |
from late Latin controversialis – относящийсякспору |
giving rise to public disagreement |
|
11 |
course (1) |
курс |
from Latin cursus- курс |
the way in which something progresses or develops |
|
12 |
ethnic (1) |
этничский |
from Greek ethnos ‘nation’ |
relating to a population subgroup with a common national or cultural tradition |
|
13 |
favor (2) |
фавор, протекция |
from Latin favor — доброжелательность |
approval, support, or liking for someone or something: |
|
14 |
historic (1) |
исторический |
via Latin from Greek historikos |
famous or important in history, or potentially so |
|
15 |
mayor (1) |
мэр |
from the Latin adjective major ‘greater’, used as a noun in late Latin. |
the head of a town |
|
16 |
portion (1) |
порция |
from Old French porcion, from Latin portio — часть |
a part of something divided between people |
|
17 |
publish (1) |
публиковать |
from Latin publicare ‘make public |
print (something) in a book or journal so as to make it generally known |
|
18 |
report (1) |
сообщать |
from Latin reportare ‘bring back’ |
give a spoken or written account of something |
|
19 |
respect (1) |
респект, уважение |
From Latin respectus – уважение |
avoid harming or interfering with |
|
20 |
respond (1) |
отвечать, респондент –отвечающий |
from Latin respondere – отвечать |
say something in reply |
The number of cognates found in the text – 20. Considering that some of them are repeated more often than once, the total number of cognates in the text is – 24, i.e. about 3 per cent.
The definitions of some Russian words were taken from the following dictionaries:
Словарь иностранных слов.- Комлев Н.Г.,2006.
РЕСПОНДЕНТ- соц. лицо, отвечающее на анкету социологического, демографического или психологического исследования.
САММИТ — полит. встреча, переговоры глав государств; встреча в верхах.
СЕКЬЮРИТИ — государственная безопасность; контрразведка (обычно об англосаксонских странах).
Словарь иностранных слов, вошедших в состав русского языка.- Чудинов А.Н.,1910.
БОРДЮР (франц. bordure, от bord — край). Украшение по краям чего-либо.
Толковый словарь С.И. Ожегова
II. А́КЦИЯ, -и, жен. (книжн.). Действие, предпринимаемое для достижения какой-н. цели. Дипломатическая а. Военная а.
АННЕ́КСИЯ, -и, жен. (книжн.). Насильственное присоединение государства или части его к другому государству.
КОНФРОНТА́ЦИЯ, -и, жен. (книжн.). Противостояние, противоборство. Политическая к.
ЛЕГИТИ́МНЫЙ, -ая, -ое (спец.). Признаваемый законом, соответствующий закону.
ЛОКА́ЛЬНЫЙ, -ая, -ое; -лен, -льна (книжн.). Местный, не выходящий за определённые пределы. Локальная война.
СА́НКЦИЯ, -и, жен. 2. Мера, принимаемая против стороны, нарушившей соглашение, договор, а также вообще та или иная мера воздействия по отношению к правонарушителю (спец.). Уголовные, административные, дисциплинарные санкции.
ФАВО́Р, -а, муж. (устар.). Покровительство, протекция (употр. теперь в нек-рых выражениях). Барский ф. Быть в фаворе у кого-н. (пользоваться чьим-н. покровительством; разг.). Он сейчас не в фаворе (разг.).
Толковый словарь Д.Н.Ушакова
БРЕШЬ, бреши, жен. 2. перен. Ущерб, ничем не возмещенная утрата, недостача (книжн.). Брешь в бюджете.
ИЗОЛЯ́ЦИЯ, изоляции, мн. нет, жен. 2. Состояние по гл. изолироваться; разобщенность с другими, изолированное положение (книжн.). Обвиняемый приговорен к лишению свободы со строгой изоляцией.
РЕСПЕ́КТ и (ирон. шутл.) решпект, респекта, муж. ( (устар.). Уважение, почтение.
СУВЕРЕНИТЕ́Т, суверенитета, мн. нет, муж. (полит.). || Независимость государства в его внутренних делах, право собственного законодательства.
Энциклопедический словарь 2009г.
ИНСТАЛЛЯ́ЦИЯ -и; ж. 2. Установочные работы, монтаж сооружений, проводка осветительной сети, сборка системы кондиционирования воздуха и т. п.
ИНТЕГРА́ЦИЯ [тэ], -и; ж. 1) Понятие, означающее состояние связанности отдельных дифференцированных частей и функций системы, организма в целое, а также процесс, ведущий к такому состоянию.
Proper names Appendix III
|
word |
translation |
definition |
|
|
1 |
Aeroflot (2) |
Аэрофлот |
the largest airline in Russia |
|
2 |
Aleksey Chaly (2) |
Алексей Чалый |
|
|
3 |
Anders Fogh Rasmussen (3) |
Андерс Фог Расмуссен |
|
|
4 |
Arseniy Yatsenyuk (4) |
Арсений Яценюк |
|
|
5 |
Barack Obama (6) |
Барак Обама |
|
|
6 |
Belgium (2) |
Бельгия |
|
|
7 |
Brussels (3) |
Брюссель |
the capital and largest city of Belgium and the de facto capital of the European Union |
|
8 |
Crimea (11) |
Крым |
the peninsula on the northern coast of the Black Sea that is almost completely surrounded by water |
|
9 |
European Union, EU (8) |
ЕС, Европейский союз |
a politico-economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe |
|
10 |
G7 (1) |
Большая Семерка |
the Group of 7 (G7) is a group consisting of the finance ministers and central bank governors of seven major advanced economies |
|
11 |
G8 (1) |
Большая Восьмерка |
|
|
12 |
ITAR-TASS (1) |
ИТАР-ТАСС |
Russian News Agency |
|
13 |
Kiev (6) |
Киев |
the capital of Ukraine |
|
14 |
Moscow (6) |
Москва |
the capital of Russia |
|
15 |
NATO (2) |
НАТО |
North Atlantic Treaty Organization |
|
16 |
PBS (1) |
Служба общественного вещания |
Public Broadcasting Service |
|
17 |
Russia (29) |
Россия |
|
|
18 |
Sevastopol (1) |
Севастополь |
a federal city within the Crimean Federal District |
|
19 |
The Hague (2) |
Гаага |
one of the major cities hosting the United Nation |
|
20 |
the Netherlands (1) |
Нидерланды |
|
|
21 |
Sergei Tsekov (2) |
Сергей Чехов |
|
|
22 |
Viktor Yanukovych (4) |
Виктор Янукович |
|
|
23 |
Vladimir Putin (2) |
Владимир Путин |
|
|
24 |
Ukraine (13) |
Украина |
|
|
25 |
U.S. (3) |
США |
|
|
26 |
YouTube (2) |
a video-sharing website headquartered in San Bruno, California |
The number of proper names found in the text – 26. Considering that some of them are repeated more often than once, the total number of proper names in the text is – 117, i.e. about 13 per cent.
Lexical Analysis of the News Article
All in all, in the presented article there are 227 words (26 per cent), which can be understood by speakers of different European languages. Taking the definite articles the (57 in the news article) into consideration, the number of easily understood words amounts to 33 per cent. This fact highlights how languages and societies are becoming ever more interwoven because of globalization.
The Origin of Internationalisms
Analysis of the data in appendix I demonstrates that most international words originated from Latin (38 out of 58, that is 65 per cent). The other international words originated from Old French – 11 words out of 58, that is 19 per cent; from Ancient Greek – 5 words out of 58, that is – 9 per cent; from English – 3 words out of 58, that is 5 per cent; from Russian – 1 word out of 58, that is 2 per cent.
Top Ten International Words in the Lifestyle-Politics Category
|
English |
Russian |
French |
definition |
|
annexation |
аннексия |
annexion |
the action of appropriating something, especially territory |
|
confrontation |
конфронтация |
confrontation |
a hostile or argumentative situation or meeting between opposing parties |
|
integrity |
интеграция |
intégrité |
the state of being whole and undivided |
|
international |
интернациональный |
international |
agreed on by all or many nations |
|
isolation |
изоляция |
isolation f; isolement m |
the process or fact of being apart from others |
|
protest |
протест |
protêt |
a statement or action expressing disapproval of or objection to something |
|
referendum |
референдум |
referendum |
a general vote by the electorate on a single political question which has been referred to them for a direct decision |
|
sanction |
санкция |
sanction |
measures taken by a state to coerce another to conform to an international agreement or norms of conduct, typically in the form of restrictions on trade |
|
sovereignty |
суверенитет |
souveraineté |
the authority of a state to govern itself or another state |
|
Soviet |
советский |
soviétique |
of or concerning the former Soviet Union |
Conclusion
This research work reveals that the share of international words in the Lifestyle-Politics category is considerable and amounts to 10 per cent. Most of these words originated from Latin. But with the development of communication and contacts the number of Internationalisms taken from other languages is growing.
Languages are the essential medium in which the ability to communicate across culture develops. Knowledge of one or several languages enables us to perceive new horizons, to think globally, and to increase our understanding of ourselves and of our neighbors. Languages are, then, the very lifeline of globalization: without language (or communication), there would be no globalization; and vice versa, without globalization, there would be no world languages (e.g. English, Chinese, French, Spanish, and so on).
The global language system is very much interconnected. And the existence of international words proves it.
References
Schwegler Armin Language and Globalization. University of California, Irvine, 2006
Быков А.А. Анатомия терминов 400 словообразовательных элементов из латыни и греческого. Словообразование и заимствование. http://coollib.net/b/103116/read
Тарасова Л.А. Интернациональная лексика как частный случай заимствований. http://www.rusnauka.com/23_SND_2008/Philologia/26333.doc.htm
Словарь иностранных слов.- Комлев Н.Г.,2006
Словарь иностранных слов, вошедших в состав русского языка.- Чудинов А.Н.,1910.
Толковый словарь С.И. Ожегова
Толковый словарь Д.Н. Ушакова
Энциклопедический словарь 2009г.
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/
http://lingvo.mail.ru/
http://useful_english.enacademic.com
http://www.globalization101.org/uploads/File/Syllabus-Lang-Globalization.pdf
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Lecture №2. Foreign Elements in Modern English. International Words
The term source of borrowing should be distinguished from the term origin of borrowing. The first should be applied to the language from which the loan word was taken into English. The second, on the other hand, refers to the language to which the word may be traced. Thus, the word paperhas French as its source of borrowing and Greek as its origin. It may be observed that several of the terms for items used in writing show their origin in words denoting the raw material. Papyros is the name of a plant; cf. book“the beech tree” (boards of which were used for writing).
Alongside loan words, we distinguish loan translation and semantic loans. Translation loans are words or expressions formed from the elements existing in the English language according to the patterns of the source language. They are not taken into the vocabulary of another language more or less in the same phonemic shape in which they have been functioning in their own language, but undergo the process of translation. It is quite obvious that it is only compound words (i. e. words of two or more stems) which can be subjected to such an operation, each stem being translated separately: masterpiece (from Germ. Meisterstück), wonder child (from Germ. Wunderkind), first dancer (from Ital. prima-ballerina), the moment of truth (from Sp. el momento de la verdad), collective farm (from Rus. колхоз), five-year plan (from Rus. пятилетка). The Russian колхоз was borrowed twice, by way of translation-loan (collective farm) and by way of direct borrowing (kolkhoz). The case is not unique. During the 2nd World War the German word Blitzkrieg was also borrowed into English in two different forms: the translation-loan lightning-war and the direct borrowings blitzkrieg and blitz: Eng. chain-smoker Ger. Kettenraucher; Eng. wall newspaper Rus. стенная газета; Ukr. настінна газета; Eng. (it) goes without saying Fr (cela) vasans dire; Eng. summit conference Ger. Gipfet Konferenz conference au sommet.
The term semantic loan, is used to denote the development in an English word of a new meaning due to the influence of a related word in another language, e.g. the compound word shock brigade which existed in the English language with the meaning «аварийна бригада» acquired a new meaning «ударная бригада» which it borrowed from the Russian language. Eng. pioneer — explorer; one who is among the first in new fields of activity; Rus пионер – a member of the Young Pioneers’ Organization. Each time two nations come into close contact, certain borrowings are a natural consequence. The nature of the contact may be different. It may be wars, invasions or conquests when foreign words are in effect imposed upon the reluctant conquered nation. There are also periods of peace when the process of borrowing is due to trade and international cultural relations. These latter circumstances are certainly more favourable for stimulating the borrowing process, for during invasions and occupations the natural psychological reaction of the oppressed nation is to reject and condemn the language of the oppressor. In this respect the linguistic heritage of the Norman Conquest seems exceptional, especially if compared to the influence of the Mongol-Tartar Yoke on the Russian language. The Mongol-Tartar Yoke also represented a long period of cruel oppression, yet the imprint left by it on the Russian vocabulary is comparatively insignificant.
The difference in the consequences of these evidently similar historical events is usually explained by the divergence in the level of civilisation of the two conflicting nations. Russian civilisation and also the level of its language development at the time of the Mongol-Tartar invasion were superior to those of the invaders. That is why the Russian language successfully resisted the influence of a less developed language system. On the other hand, the Norman culture of the lithe, was certainly superior to that of the Saxons. The result was that an immense number of French words forced their way into English vocabulary. Yet, linguistically speaking, this seeming defeat turned into a victory. Instead of being smashed and broken by the powerful intrusion of the foreign element, the English language managed to preserve its essential structure and vastly enriched its expressive resources with the new borrowings.
Sometimes the borrowing process is to fill a gap in vocabulary. When the Saxons borrowed Latin words for butter, plum, beet, they did it because their own vocabularies lacked words for these new objects. For the same reason the words potato and tomato were borrowed by English from Spanish when these vegetables were first brought to England by the Spaniards. But there is also a great number of words which are borrowed for other reasons. There may be a word (or even several words) which expresses some particular concept, so that there is no gap in the vocabulary and there does not seem to be any need for borrowing. Yet, one more word is borrowed which means almost the same, – almost, but not exactly. It is borrowed because it represents the same concept in some new aspect, supplies a new shade of meaning or a different emotional colouring. This type of borrowing enlarges groups of synonyms and greatly provides to enrich the expressive resources of the vocabulary. That is how the Latin cordial was added to the native friendly, the French desire to wish, the Latin admire and the French adore to like and love.
English vocabulary, which is one of the most extensive amongst the world’s languages contains an immense number of words of foreign origin. Explanations for this should be sought in the history of the language which is closely connected with the history of the nation speaking the language. In order to have a better understanding of the problem, it will be necessary to go through a brief survey of certain historical facts, relating to different epochs.
The first century B. C. Most of the territory, known to us as Europe was occupied by the Roman Empire. Among the inhabitants of the continent were Germanic tribes, «barbarians» as the arrogant Romans called them. Theirs was really a rather primitive stage of development, especially if compared with the high civilisation and refinement of Rome. They were primitive cattle-breeders and knew almost nothing about land cultivation. Their tribal languages contained only Indo-European and Germanic elements. After a number of wars between the Germanic tribes and the Romans these two opposing peoples came into peaceful contact. Trade was carried on, and the Germanic people gained knowledge of new and useful things. The first among them were new things to eat. They were to use the Latin words to name them. It was also to the Romans that the Germanic tribes owed the knowledge of some new fruits and vegetables of which they had no idea before, and the Latin names of these fruits and vegetables entered their vocabularies reflecting this new knowledge: cherry (Lat. cerasum), pear (Lat. pirum), plum (Lat. prunus), pea (Lat. pisum), beet (Lat. beta), pepper (Lat. piper). Some more examples of Latin borrowings of this period are: cup (Lat. cuppa), kitchen (Lat. coquina), mill (Lat. molina), port (Lat. portus), wine (Lat. vinum). The fact that all these borrowings occurred is in itself significant. It was certainly important that the Germanic tribal languages gained a considerable number of new words and were thus enriched. What was even more significant was that all these Latin words were destined to become the earliest group of borrowings in the future English language which was – much later – built on the basis of the Germanic tribal languages.
The fifth century A. D. Several of the Germanic tribes (the most numerous amongst them being the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes) migrated across the sea now known as the English Channel to the British Isles. There they were confronted by the Celts, the original inhabitants of the Isles. The Celts desperately defended their lands against the invaders, but they were no match for the military-minded Teutons and gradually yielded most of their territory. They retreated to the North and South-West (moden Scotland, Wales and Cornwall). Through their numerous contacts with the defeated Celts, the conquerors got to know and assimilated a number of Celtic words (Modern English bald, down, glen, druid, bard, cradle). Especially numerous among the Celtic borrowings were place names, names of rivers, bills, etc. The Germanic tribes occupied the land, but the names of many parts and features of their territory remained Celtic. For instance, the names of the rivers Avon, Exe, Esk, Usk, Ux originate from Celtic words meaning «river» and «water». Even the name of the English capital originates from Celtic Llyn + dun in which llyn is another Celtic word for «river» and dun stands for «a fortified hill», the meaning of the whole being «fortress on the hill over the river». Some Latin words entered the Anglo-Saxon languages through Celtic, among them such widely-used words as street (Lat. strata via) and wall (Lat. vallum).
The seventh century A. D. This century was significant for the christianisation of England. Latin was the official language of the Christian church, and consequently the spread of Christianity was accompanied by a new period of Latin borrowings. These no longer came from spoken Latin as they did eight centuries earlier, but from church Latin. Also, these new Latin borrowings were very different in meaning from the earlier ones. They mostly indicated persons, objects and ideas associated with church and religious rituals. E. g. priest (Lai. presbyter), bishop (Lai. episcopus), monk (Lat. monachus), nun (Lai. nonna), candle (Lai. candela). Additionally, in a class of their own were educational terms. It was quite natural that these were also Latin borrowings, for the first schools in England were church schools, and the first teachers priests and monks. So, the word school is a Latin borrowing (Lat. schola, of Greek origin) and so are such words as scholar (Lai. scholar(-is) and magister (Lat. ma-gister).
From the end of the 8th c. to the middle of the lithe. England underwent several Scandinavian invasions which inevitably left their trace on English vocabulary. Here are some examples of early Scandinavian borrowings: call, v., take, v., cast, v., die, v., law, п., husband, n. (hus+bondi, i. e. «inhabitant of the house»), window n. (vindauga, i. e. «the eye of the wind»), loose, adj., low, adj., weak, adj. Some of the words of this group are easily recognisable as Scandinavian borrowings by the initial sk- combination. E.g. sky, skin, ski, skirt. Certain English words changed their meanings under the influence of Scandinavian words of the same root. So, the Оld English bread which meant «piece» acquired its modern meaning by association with the Scandinavian brand. The О. E. dream which meant «joy» assimilated the meaning of the Scandinavian draumr (with the Germ. Traum «dream» and the Russian дрёма).
1066. With the famous Battle of Hastings, when the English were defeated by the Normans under William the Conqueror, we come to the eventful epoch of the Norman Conquest. The epoch can well be called eventful not only in national, social, political and human terms, but also in linguistic terms. England became a bi-lingual country, and the impact on the English vocabulary made over this two-hundred-years period is immense: French words from the Norman dialect penetrated every aspect of social life. Here is a very brief list of examples of Norman French borrowings.
Administrative words: state, government, parliament, council, power.
Legal terms: court, judge, justice, crime, prison.
Military terms: army, war, soldier, officer, battle, enemy.
Educational terms: pupil, lesson, library, science, pen, pencil.
Everyday life was not unaffected by the powerful influence of French words. Numerous terms of everyday life were also borrowed from French in this period: e. g. table, plate, saucer, dinner, supper, river, autumn, uncle, etc.
The Renaissance Period. In England, as in all European countries, this period was marked by significant developments in science, art and culture and, also, by a revival of interest in the ancient civilisations of Greece and Rome and their languages. Hence, they occurred a considerable number of Latin and Greek borrowings. In contrast to the earliest Latin borrowings (1st c. B. C), the Renaissance ones were rarely concrete names. They were mostly abstract words (e. g. major, minor, intelligent, permanent, to elect, to create). There were naturally numerous scientific and artistic terms (datum, status, phenomenon, philosophy, method, music). The same is true of Greek Renaissance borrowings (e. g. atom, cycle, ethics). The Renaissance was a period of extensive cultural contacts between the major European states. Therefore, it was only natural that new words also entered the English vocabulary from other European languages. The most significant once more were French borrowings. This time they came from the Parisian dialect of French and are known as Parisian borrowings: routine, police, machine, ballet, scene, technique etc. Italian also contributed a considerable number of words to English, e. g. piano, violin, opera, alarm, colonel. Latin Loans are classified into the subgroups:
Early Latin Loans. Those are the words which came into English through the language of Anglo-Saxon tribes. The tribes had been in contact with Roman civilization and had adopted several Latin words denoting objects belonging to that civilization long before the invasion of Angles, Saxons and Jutes into Britain (cup, kitchen, wine).
Later Latin Borrowings. To this group belong the words which penetrated the English vocabulary in the sixth and seventh centuries, when the people of England when converted to Christianity (priest, bishop, nun, candle).
The third period of Latin includes words which came into English due to two historical events: the Norman conquest in 1066 and the Renaissance or the Revival of Learning. Some words came into English through French but some were taken directly from Latin (major, minor, intelligent, permanent).
The Latest Stratum of Latin Words. The words of this period are mainly abstract and scientific words (nylon, molecular, phenomenon, vacuum).
Norman-French Borrowings may be subdivided into subgroups:
Early loans – 12th – 15th century.
Later loans – beginning from the 16th century.
T
he Early French borrowings are simple short words, naturalized in accordance with the English language system (state, power, war, pen, river). Later French borrowings can
be identified by their peculiarities of form and pronunciation (police, ballet, scene) (table 1). There are certain structural features which enable us to identify some words as borrowings and even to determine the source language.
Lexical correlations are defined as lexical units from different languages which are phonetically and semantically related. The number of Ukrainian-English lexical correlations is about 6870. The history of the Slavonic-German ties resulted in the following correlations: beat – бити, widow – вдова, call – голос, young – юний, day – день etc. Some Ukrainian-English lexical correlations have common Indo-European back-ground: garden – город, murder – мордувати, soot – сажа. Beside Ukrainian – English lexical correlations the Ukrainian language contains borrowings from modern English period: брифінг – briefing; хіт парад – hit parade; диск – жокей – disk – jockey; кітч, халтура – kitch; ескапізм – escapism; масс-медія – mass media; естеблішмент – establishment; серіал – serial.
INTERNATIONAL WORDS
Expanding global contacts result in the considerable growth of international vocabulary. All languages depend for their changes upon the cultural and social matrix in which they operate and various contacts between nations are part of this matrix reflected in vocabulary. International words play an especially prominent part in various terminological systems including the vocabulary of science, industry and art. The etymological sources of this vocabulary reflect the history of world culture. Thus, for example, the mankind’s cultural debt to Italy is reflected in the great number of Italian words connected with architecture, painting and especially music that are borrowed into most European languages: allegro, aria, barcarole, baritone (and other names for voices), concert, opera (and other names for pieces of music), piano and many more. The rate of change in technology, political, social and artistic life has been greatly accelerated in the 20th century and so has the rate of growth of international word stock. A few examples of comparatively new words due to the progress of science will suffice to illustrate the importance of international vocabulary: algorithm, antenna, antibiotic, cybernetics, gene, genetic code, microelectronics, etc. All these show sufficient likeness in English, French, Russian and several other languages. The international word stock is also growing due to the influx of exotic borrowed words like anaconda, bungalow, kraal etc. These come from many different sources. International words should not be mixed with words of the common Indo-European stock that also comprise a sort of common fund of the European languages. This layer is of great importance for the foreign language teacher not only because many words denoting abstract notions are international but also because he must know the most efficient ways of showing the points of similarity and difference between such words as control – контроль; general – генерал; industry – индустрия or magazine – магазин, etc. usually called ‘translator’s false friends’. The treatment of international words at English lessons would be one-sided if the teacher did not draw his pupils’ attention to the spread of the English vocabulary into other languages. We find numerous English words in the field of sport: football, match, tennis, time. A large number of English words are to be found in the vocabulary pertaining to clothes: sweater, nylon, tweed, etc. Cinema and different forms of entertainment are also a source of many international words of English origin: film, club, jazz. At least some of the Russian words borrowed into English and many other languages and thus international should also be mentioned: balalaika, czar, Kremlin, soviet, sputnik, vodka. To sum up this brief treatment of loan words it is necessary to stress that in studying loan words a linguist cannot be content with establishing the source, the date of penetration, the semantic sphere to which the word belonged and the circumstances of the process of borrowing. All these are very important, but one should also be concerned with the changes the new language system into which the loan word penetrates causes in the word itself, and, on the other hand, look for the changes occasioned by the newcomer in the English vocabulary, when in finding its way into the new language it pushed some of its lexical neighbours aside. In the discussion above we have tried to show the importance of the problem of conformity with the patterns typical of the receiving language and its semantic needs.
So, international words are defined as “words of identical origin that occur in several languages as a result of simultaneous or successive borrowings from one ultimate source” (I. V. Arnold). International words reflect the history of word culture, they convey notions which are significant in communication. New inventions, political institutions, leisure activities, science, technological advances have all generated new lexemes and continue to do so: sputnik, television, antenna, gene, cybernetics, bungalow, anaconda, coffee, chocolate, grapefruit, etc. The English language contributed a considerable number of international words to world languages, e.g. the sports terms: football, baseball, cricket, golf. International words are mainly borrowings.
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