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Maybe you are in the middle of an exam and suddenly come across a word that makes absolutely no sense. This is usually a cue for most people to panic if a dictionary is not handy. But don’t worry! There are several steps you can take to help you figure out the meaning of a word without a dictionary.

1
Read the entire sentence. It can be very frustrating to have your reading interrupted by an unknown word. If you are in the middle of an exam or an assignment for school or work, it can also be very stressful. If you can’t reach for a dictionary, take other steps to figure out what the word means.
- Your first step is to go back and re-read the entire sentence. You probably lost track of what your were reading when you stumbled upon the new word.
- Think about the content of the sentence. Do you understand the sentence without using the new word? Or is it incomprehensible?
- Try underlining the unknown word. This will help you separate it from the rest of the sentence.
2
Identify words you do understand. You can often use other words in the sentence to help you define the unknown word. Think about what else is happening in the sentence. Hopefully, this will help you figure out whether the unknown word is a noun, verb, or adjective.
- For example, maybe you are looking at a sentence that says, «It was a very sultry day in the middle of the summer.» You probably understand each word except for «sultry».
- Think about what you know about the summer. It is likely that «sultry» has something to do with weather.
- Maybe your biology exam has this sentence, «Many members of the canine family are predators, looking for other animals to eat.» You can surmise that «predators» prey on other animals.
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3
Look for illustrative examples. Once you have examined the other words in that sentence, you can move on. Start looking at the sentences that follow the unknown word. An author will often give descriptions that can help you figure out the meaning of an unknown word.^[1]
- For example, take the sentence, «It was a very sultry day in the middle of summer.» It could be followed by the sentence, «The heat and humidity made it appealing to sit in the shade and drink lemonade.»
- You can now more confidently define «sultry». The descriptive words such as «heat» and «humidity» are further clues that it is a description of the weather.
- Sometimes, the descriptive examples will be right in the original sentence. For example, it could say, «Sultry days are so damp and hot.»
4
Think logically. Sometimes, the context clues will not be as clear. You will have to use logic to figure out the word. You can also use experience, or prior knowledge, of the topic.^[2]
- For example, maybe a sentence says, «In the antebellum South, many plantation owners kept slaves.» It is likely that «antebellum» is the unknown word.
- The sentence itself does not offer many clues. However, the following sentences are, «But after the Civil War, slavery was outlawed. This was a major change between the two periods.»
- Think about what you know now. You are reading information about two different time periods, right? Before the Civil War and after the Civil War.
- You can now make a pretty logical assumption about the word «antebellum». Based on your experience and reading the following sentences, you know it probably means «before the war».
5
Use other context clues. Sometimes an author will offer other types of clues. Look for restatement. This is where the meaning of the word is restated in other words.
- Here is an example of «restatement»: «The pig squealed in pain. The high-pitched cry was very loud.»
- You can also look for «appositives». This is where an author highlights a specific word by placing a further description between two commas.
- This is an example of the use of an appositive: «The Taj Mahal, which is a massive white marble mausoleum, is one of the most famous landmarks in India.
- You may not know the words «Taj Mahal», but the use of appositives makes it clear that it is a landmark.

1
Look for a prefix. Etymology is the study of the meanings of words. It also looks at the origins of words, and how they have changed over time. By learning about etymology, you can find new ways to define unknown words without using a dictionary.
- Start by looking at each part of the word in question. It is very helpful to look to see if the word has a common prefix.
- Prefixes are the first part of the word. For example, a common prefix is «anti».
- «Anti» means «against». Knowing this should help you figure out the meanings of words such as «antibiotic» or «antithesis».
- «Extra» is a prefix that means «beyond». Use this to figure out words such as «extraterrestrial» or «extracurricular».
- Other common prefixes are «hyper», «intro», «macro» and «micro». You can also look for prefixes such as «multi», «neo» and «omni».
2
Pay attention to the suffix. The suffix are the letters at the end of the word. There are several suffixes in the English language that are common. They can help you figure out what kind of word you are looking at.
- Some suffixes indicate a noun. For example, «ee» at the end of the word almost always indicates a noun. Some examples are «trainee» and «employee».
- «-ity» is also a common suffix for a noun. Examples include «electricity» and «velocity».
- Other suffixes indicate verbs. For example, «-ate». This is used in words such as «create» and «deviate».
- «-ize» is another verb suffix. Think about the words «exercise» and «prioritize».
3
Identify root words. A root word is the core word, without a prefix or suffix. Most words in the English language come from either a Latin or Greek root word.^[3]
- By learning common root words, you can begin to identify new words more easily. You will also be able to recognize words that have had a prefix or suffix added.
- An example of a root word is «love». You can add many things to the word: «-ly» to make «lovely».
- «Bio» is a Greek root word. It means «life, or living matter». Think about how we have adapted this root word to become «biology», «biography», or «biodegradable».
- The root word mater- or matri- comes from the Latin word mater, meaning mother. By understanding this root, you can better understand the definitions of words like matron, maternity, matricide, matrimony, and matriarchal.

1
Keep notes. If you can increase the size of your vocabulary, you will find yourself less likely to encounter unknown words. There are several steps you can take to effectively build your vocabulary. For example, you can start by writing notes.
- Every time you encounter an unfamiliar word, write it down. Then later, when you have access to a dictionary, you can look it up for a precise definition.
- Keep a small pack of sticky notes with you while you read. You can write the unfamiliar word on a note and just stick it on the page to return to later.
- Start carrying a small notebook. You can use it to keep track of words that you don’t know and new words that you have learned.
2
Utilize multiple resources. There are a lot of tools that you can use to help you build your vocabulary. The most obvious is a dictionary. Purchase a hard copy, or book mark an online dictionary that you find useful.
- A thesaurus can also be very helpful. It will give you synonyms for all of the new words you are learning.
- Try a word of the day calendar. These handle desk tools will give you a new word to learn each day. They are available online and at bookstores.
3
Read a lot. Reading is one of the best ways to increase the size of your vocabulary. Make it a point to read each day. Both fiction and non-fiction will be helpful.
- Novels can expose you to new words. For example, reading the latest legal thriller will likely expose you to some legal jargon you’ve never heard before.
- Read the newspaper. Some papers even have a daily feature that highlights language and explores the meanings of words.
- Make time to read each day. You could make it a point to scroll through the news while you drink your morning coffee, for example.
4
Play games. Learning can actually be fun! There are many enjoyable activities that can help you to build your vocabulary. Try doing crossword puzzles.
- Crossword puzzles are a great way to learn new words. They will also stretch your brain by giving you interesting clues to figure out the right word.
- Play Scrabble. You’ll quickly learn that unusual words can often score the most points.

Add New Question

Question

Is there a list of prefixes/suffixes, or a simple etymology handbook, that I can obtain from the Internet or someplace else?

I’m sure there are many! Check websites like Amazon, Barnes and Noble, or other booksellers who might sell grammar handbooks. You could also try checking your local book stores.
Question

How does one find out and understand the formation of words?

If you can recognize the prefixes, suffixes, and anything else that might alter the root word, then you’ll know how the root is being altered. For example, ‘amuse’ is made up of ‘a’ as in ‘not’ and ‘muse’ referring to ponderous thought. Even if you don’t recognize the root ‘muse’ because it’s a more archaic term, you know that the ‘a’ inverses it’s meaning.
Question

How can I know the exact meaning of a word using dictionaries from many leanings given?

Substitute each meaning into the sentence where you encountered the word, and see which definition makes the most sense within the context of that sentence.

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Keep a notebook. This could be useful if you come across a word that you want to learn later, if you want to list any words that share suffixes or prefixes (both of which are known as «roots», which also include anything that goes into the middle.)
Read etymology dictionaries. They are found online and presumably in bookstores if you look hard enough.
Make your own notes in your personal English notebook to remember important points later on.

References

About This Article

Article SummaryX

To understand a word without a dictionary, try re-reading the entire sentence to see if the context helps you to find out what the word means. If it’s unclear, try to figure it out by thinking about the meaning of the words you’re familiar with, since the unknown word might have a similar meaning. Additionally, look for common prefixes in words, such as «anti,» which means against, or «extra,» which means beyond. Next, check the following sentences for clues, such as the topic the word is related to. Alternatively, keep a list of unknown words so you can check them in a dictionary at a later date. For tips on how to identify root words and how to learn words by doing crossword puzzles, read on!

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Источник

Determining Word Meanings

Transcript

Hi, and welcome to this video about determining word meanings!

Regardless of our level of schooling, whether you are a student or working in a corporate environment, we all come across words that we don’t know. Thankfully, figuring out the meaning of words can be done without Google or a dictionary. Here are a few tips on how to find the meaning of an unknown word.

Context

Context is the “setting” or scene in which an idea or event takes place. In writing, context can help us understand the situation in how a word is being used. In other words, the sentence the unknown word is in can help you figure out its definition. Read the sentences before and after the unknown word to help you determine what the word could mean. The actual definition of a word can be changed depending on the context around it.

Let’s look at an example.

It’s a match!

Here, the word match has little context to it. Are we referring to a match that makes fire, or did someone find an identical pair of shoes? We don’t really know in this case what match means because there is no context.

So, let’s add some:

She pulled a 3 of clubs from the deck of cards and placed it next to the 3 of diamonds and yelled, “It’s a match!”

Here, because of context we know we are not reading about a match that makes fire, but a matching pair of cards. As you can see, context can make quite the difference.

Let’s look at using structural analysis, or looking at the different parts of the word.

Many words, even some of the shortest ones you can think of, are made up of some combination of prefixes, suffixes, and roots.

Prefixes

Prefixes are the parts of words that come at the beginning. Examples of prefixes are re-, pre-, de-, and many more. Each of these word segments has a meaning.

Here are a few examples:

The prefix re- means “to do again,” like in the word reuse.

The prefix pre- means “before,” like in the word prepare.

The prefix de- means “to undo,” like in the word detach.

Prefixes can also change the original meaning of a word. For example, the word do means “to perform an action.” But what if we add the prefix un- to it? It now becomes undo, which means the opposite of do.

Knowing what prefixes mean can help you determine a word’s meaning.

Suffixes

Suffixes serve the same role as prefixes, but suffixes come at the end of a word. For example:

The suffix -ment means “a result,” like in the word government.

The suffix -ion refers to a process, like in the word invention.

The suffix -ful means “full of,” like in the word useful.

Again, just like prefixes, suffixes can change the original meaning of a word. For example, govern means to rule over something; it’s an action or verb. When we add the suffix -ment to the word it now becomes government which is a system that rules over something (the word government is a thing or noun).

Root Words

Though Latin is no longer used in the common world, many English words have Latin roots. Knowing and recognizing these root words in common English can help you determine a word’s meaning. Here are a few examples of words with similar Latin roots.

The Latin root rhino means “nose.” You can see this in the words rhinoplasty, rhinoceros, and rhinovirus.

The Latin root reg means “to control.” You can see this in the words regulate, regime, and regal.

The Latin root tox means “poison.” You can see this in the words toxic, detox, and intoxicated.

This doesn’t mean you need to learn a dead language to learn the definition of more English words. However, the more English vocabulary you learn, the more connections you’ll be able to make to new words you didn’t know before.

For example, if you don’t know the meaning of a word, look at the root word and see if you can think of other words that you do know that have similar roots. For example, if you don’t know the definition of animate but can identify the root anim, you can think of words with the same root that you do know, like animal. From there, you can determine what the root word anim means (“alive/life), along with context, if there is any, and figure out how it relates to the unfamiliar word. In this example, we know anim means “life,” just like animals are alive and move freely. Therefore, we can figure out that animate, the act of moving objects, is aptly named because it’s bringing still or motionless objects to “life.”

What if we took this example a step further and add a prefix to the word animate? The prefix in- means “not.” Therefore, if we add in- and animate together, we get the word inanimate, which means, you guessed it, “to not move.”

Prefixes, suffixes, and roots make up countless words, and the context of the sentence these mystery words are found in can also bring its true meaning to light. When put together, these tools can be used to solve the meaning of unknown words and make reading and writing easier.

Thanks for watching, and happy studying!

Return to Reading Comprehension Videos

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Источник

The
definition of the word meaning
presents no less difficulty than the definition of the word itself.
The word meaning
renders the emotion or the concept in the mind of the speaker which
he wants to convey to the listener in the process of
communication. By
concept we understand any discrete unit of human cognition. The
word being a unit of language enters a number of combinations with
other units stands in functional relations to other linguistic signs.
Thus the meaning of the word not only fixes concepts by way of
generalizing and reflecting reality, but it is realized on contexts
and combinations. The meaning of the word is not homogeneous. It is
closely connected with the object it names and the concept it fixes.
It is also connected with the sound form besides it is realized in
different relations with other concepts. There are two main
approaches to word meaning: 1. relative approach, according to which
each linguistic sign (word) gets its meaning only in some semantic
field or paradigmatic relations. 2. the referential or denotational
approach, according to which the meaning of the word is autonomous,
it’s an integral part of the word, though is realized in contexts
and this approach is shown as a triangle (symbol – the word,
concept – thought; referent – object, denoted by the word).

28 Word meaning and motivation.

The
relationship between morphemic structure and meaning is termed
morphological motivation. The main criteria in morphological
motivation is the relationship between morphemes. All one-morpheme
words (look, eat) are non-motivated. Such words as writer, worker are
described as motivated. Phonetic motivation is represented by such
words as swish, boom, splash. Beside grammatical and lexical meanings
some linguists also distinguish the co-called structural meaning,
i.e. words in a sentence are joined together according to some
specific rules (a diggled-boggle, a boggled diggle). Motivation is
the relationship existing between the morpheme or phonemic
composition and the structural pattern of the word, on the one hand,
and its meaning on the other. The words are motivated: 1.
Structurally (a shoe-maker), but sometimes due to the character of
the lexical meaning of a morphological motivation becomes rather
relevant or weak (flower-girl); 2. Phonetically (swish, boom); 3.
Semantically (the dawn of life). Sometimes motivation of the words
may be lost: a) one of the elements of compound words dropped out of
usage (mermaid – русалка,
mere – море);
b) the loss of the primary meaning of the word (spoon – щепка).

34
Homonyms.
Definition, formal classification. Homonyms
are words
which are identical in sound and spelling, or, at least, in one of
these aspects, but different in their meaning.E. g. bank, n. —a
shore,bank, n. —an
institution for receiving, lending, exchanging, and safeguarding
money. ball, n. —a
sphere; any spherical body,ball, n. —a
large dancing party. Homonyms which are the same in sound and
spelling are traditionally termed homonyms
proper. Bean, n.
and been, Past
Part, of to
be are
homophone- they
are the same in sound but different in spelling. Homographs- words
which are the same in spelling but different in sound(lead v – show
smb the way, lead n – a heavy, rather soft metal). When analysing
different cases of homonymy we find that some words are homonymous in
all their forms, i.e. we observe full h. of the paradigms of two or
more different words, e.g., in seal₁ —‘a
sea animal’ and seal₂ —‘a
design printed on paper by means of a stamp’. When only some of the
word-forms(seal, seals, etc.) are homonymous, whereas others(sealed,
sealing) are not, we can speak of partial
h. — find,
found, found, and found, founded, founded.

.lexico-grammatical
classification of homonyms. Homonyms
may be also classified by the type of meaning into lexical,
lexico-grammatical and grammatical homonyms.
In seal₁ n and seal₂ n, e.g.,
the part-of-speech meaning of the word and the grammatical meanings
of all its forms are identical (seal [si:l] Common Case Singular,
seal’s [si:lz] Possessive Case Singular for both seal₁ and
seal₂). The
difference is confined to the lexical meaning only: seal₁ denotes
‘a sea animal’,‘the fur of this animal’,etc., seal₂—‘a
design printed on paper,the stamp by which the design is made’etc.
So we can say that seal₂ and
seal₁are
lexical homonyms because they differ in lexical
meaning.If
we compare seal₁—‘a
sea animal’, and (to) seal₃—‘to
close tightly, we shall observe not only a difference in the lexical
meaning of their homonymous word-forms but a difference in their
grammatical meanings as well. Identical sound-forms, i.e.
seals[si:lz] (Common Case Plural of the noun) and (he) seals[si:lz]
(third person Singular of the verb) possess each of them different
grammatical meanings. As both grammatical and lexical meanings differ
we describe these homonymous word-forms as lexico-grammatical. Modern
English abounds in homonymic word-forms differing in grammatical
meaning only. e.g. brother’s —brothers —the
Possessive Case Singular and the Common Case Plural. It
may be easily observed
that grammatical
homonymy is
the homonymy of different
word-forms of one and the same word.

Sources
of homonyms. The
two main sources of h. are:1.diverging
meaning development
of a polysemantic word. This process can be observed when different
meanings of the same word move so far away from each other that they
come to be regarded as two separate units.
Ex.: flower and flour originally
were one wordmeaning ‘the flower’ and ‘the finest part of
wheat’.2.convergent
sound development of
two or more different words. Ex, OE. ic
and OE. еаzе have
become identical in pronunciation(ME. I
and eye). A number of lexico-grammatical homonyms appeared as a
result of convergent sound development of the verb and the noun
(MnE.love — (to)
love and OE. lufu
— lufian). Words
borrowed from other languages may through phonetic convergence become
homonymous. ONorse. ras
and Fr. race
are homonymous in Modern English (race₁ [reis]
— ‘running’ and race₂ [reis] —
‘a distinct
ethnical stock’).

35
Types of
Synonyms. The role of synonyms it the development of the
vocabulary.The
only existing classification system for synonyms was established by
Academician Vinogradov, the famous Russian scholar. In his
classification system there are three types of
synonyms: ideographic (which
he defined as words conveying the same concept but differing in
shades of meaning), stylistic (differing
in stylistic characteristics) and absolute (coinciding
in all their shades of meaning and in all their stylistic
characteristics) A more modern and a more effective approach to the
classification of synonyms may be based on the definition describing
synonyms as words differing in connotations.

36
The themantic
groups and semantic fields. Classification
of vocabulary items into thematic
groups is
based on the co-occurrence of words in certain repeatedly used
contexts. In linguistic contexts co-occurrence maу be
observed on different levels. On the level of word-groups the
word question, for
instance, is often found in collocation with the verbs raise,
put forward, discuss, etc.,
with the adjectives urgent,
vital, disputable and
so on. The verb
accept occurs
in numerous contexts together with the nouns proposal,
invitation, plan and
others.As a rule, thematic groups deal with contexts on the level of
the sentence. Words in thematic groups are joined together by common
contextual associations within the framework of the sentence and
reflect the interlinking of things or events. Common contextual
association of the words,
e.g. tree—grow—green;journey—train—taxi—bags—ticket
or sunshine—brightly—blue—sky, is
due to the regular co-occurrence of these words in a number of
sentences. Words making up a thematic group belong to different parts
of speech and do not possess any common denominator of meaning.
Contextual associations formed by the speaker of a language are
usually conditioned by the context of situation which necessitates
the use of certain words. When watching a play, for example, we
naturally speak of the actors who act the
main parts, of
good (or bad)
staging of
the play, of the wonderful scenery and
so on. When we go shopping it
is usual to speak of the prices, of the
goods we buy, of the
shops. Words
may be classified according to the concepts underlying their meaning.
This classification is closely connected with the theory of
conceptual or semantic
fields.
By the term “semantic fields” we understand closely knit sectors
of vocabulary each characterised by a common concept. For example,
the words blue,
red, yellow, black, etc.
may be described as making up the semantic field of colours, thewords
mother, father, brother, cousin, etc.
— as members of the semantic field.In
practical lang. learning thematic groups are often listed under
various headings, e. g. “At the Theatre”, “At School”,
“Shopping”, and are often found in textbooks and courses of
conversational English.The members of the semantic fields are not
synonyms but all of them are joined together by some common semantic
component — the
concept of colours or the concept of kinship, etc. It is argued that
we cannot possibly know the exact meaning of the word if we do not
know the structure of the SF to which the word belongs, the number of
the members and the concepts covered by them.It should also be
pointed out that different meanings of polysemantic words make it
possible to refer the same word to different lexico-semantic groups.
Thus, e.g. make in
the meaning of ‘construct’ is naturally a member of the same
lexico-semantic group as the verbs produce,
manufacture, etc , whereas
in the meaning of compel it
is regarded as a member of a different lexico-semantic group made up
by the verbs force,
induce.

37
Semantic
contrasts and antonymy. General problems(contrast, contradiction)The
term antonyms indicate words of the same category of parts of speech
which have contrasting meanings. And nearly identical in distribution
associated and used together so that their implication aspects render
contrary or contradictory notion:love-hate, early-late. The
opposition here is obvious, each component means the opposite of the
other. Almost every word can have synonyms comparatativly, few have
antonyms. Antonyms apposition is characterized of a)qualitative
adj-s:new-old, big-little. b)word derived from word qualitative
adj-s:gladly-sadly, sadness-gladness. c)words concern with feeling or
state and their derivatives:triumph-disaster, hope-dispair. d)words
denoting directions and position in space: up-down, far-near.
Polysemantic words may have antonyms in some of their meanings and
none in the others. E.g.a shot/long story, a short/tall man. Not so
many years ago antonymy was not universally accepted as a linguistic
problem, and the opposition within antonymic pairs was regarded as
purely logical and finding no reflection in the semantic structures
of these words. The contrast between heat and cold or big and small,
said most scholars, is the contrast of things opposed by their very
nature. Nowadays most scholars agree that in the semantic structures
of all words, which regularly occur in antonymic pairs, a special
antonymic connotation can be singled out. We are so used to coming
across hot and cold together, in the same contexts, that even when we
find hot alone, we cannot help subconsciously registering it as not
cold, that is, contrast it to its missing antonym. Contradictions
represent the type of semnantic relantions that exist between pairs
like dead and alive) single and married.

Classification
of antonyms. Depending
on the type of polarity ant-s are usually classified into absolute
and derivational. Absolute ant-s are words regularly contrasted as
homogeneous members connected by copulative, disjunctive and
adversative conjunctions or parallel constructions: good or bad,
right or wrong. Derivational a. are formed with the help of affixes
dis, un, less, ful:selfish-unselfish, useless-useful. The
contradiction is expressed morphologically and symantically too.
Absolute ant-s can be arranged into a series according to increasing
difference in one of the qualities:young-middle aged-old;
love-resentment-hate. A-s mostly form pairs not groups.

38
Connotations
of synonyms.I.The
connotation of degree
or intensity can
be traced in such groups of synonyms as to surprise — to astonish —
to amaze — to astound; to shout — to yell — to bellow — to roar.
IIconnotation of duration:
to stare — to glare — to gaze — to glance — to peep — to peer. all
the synonyms except to glance denote a lasting act of looking at smb
or smth, whereas to glance describes a brief, passing look. IIIThe
synonyms to stare — to glare — to gaze are differentiated from the
other words of the group by emotive connotations,
and from each other by the nature of the emotion they
imply. In the group alone — single — lonely — solitary, the adjective
lonely also has an emotive connotation. IV.
The evaluative connotation
conveys the speaker’s attitude towards the referent, labelling it as
good or bad. So in the group well-known — famous — notorious —
celebrated, the adjective notorious bears a negative evaluative
connotation and celebrated a positive one. V.The causativeconnotation
can be illustrated by the examples to sparkle and to glitter given
above: one’s eyes sparkle with positive emotions and glitter with
negative emotions. VI.The connotation of manner can
be singled out in some groups of verbal synonyms. The verbs to stroll
— to stride — to trot — to pace — to swagger — to stagger — to
stumble all denote different ways and types of walking,. VII.The
verbs to peep and to peer is the connotation of attendant
circumstances.
VIII.The synonyms pretty, handsome, beautiful have been mentioned as
the ones which are more or less interchangeable. Yet, each of them
describes a special type of human beauty: beautiful is mostly
associated with classical features and a perfect figure, handsome
with a tall stature, a certain robustness and fine pro portions,
pretty with small delicate features and a fresh complexion. This
connotation may be defined as the connotation of attendant
features.
IX.Stylistic connotations.
Examples :Meal. Snack, bite (coll.), snap (dial.), repast,
refreshment, feast (formal).

39
Sources
of synonyms. Euphemisms. 1)borrowings:
to ask(eng)-to question(fr)-interrogate(lat); to
gather(eng)-assemble(fr)-collect(lat) 2)dialects or
variations(amer)radio-(british)wireless; (irish)lass-(eng)girl; 3)new
formations with a post positive: to postphone-to put off, to
return-to come back, to betray-to give a way; 4)word-building by
means of :a)synonymas, affixes:changeable-changefull; b) composition
and affixation:trader-tradesman; c)affixation and
conversion:saying-say; 5) by means of shortening:microfone-mike,
doctor-doc; 6) a special groups of synonymas is comprised by the
Euphemisms. There are words in every language which people
instinctively avoid because they are considered indecent, indelicate,
rude, too direct or impolite. As the «offensive» referents,
for which these words stand, must still be alluded to, they are often
described in a round-about way, by using substitutes called
euphemisms. The
word lavatory has
produced many euphemisms:powder
room,washroom,restroom,retiring room,(public) comfort station,
ladies’ (room),gentlemen’s (room),water-closet,w.c., public
conveniences and
even Windsor. Pregnancy: in
an interesting condition,in a delicate condition,in the family
way,with a baby coming,(big) with child,expecting. Drunk:
intoxicated (form.),under the influence (form.),tipsy,mellow, fresh,
high, merry, flustered, overcome, full (coll.), drunk as a lord
(coll.), drunk as an owl (coll.), boiled (sl.), fried (sl.), tanked
(sl.), tight (sl.), stiff (sl.), pickled (sl.), soaked (sl.), three
sheets to the wind (sl.), high as a kite (sl.), half-seas-over (sl.),
etc. All the euphemisms that have been described so far are used to
avoid the so-called social taboos. Their use is inspired by social
convention. Euphemisms
may be:a) based on some social or ethical standard of behavior not to
hurt other people’s feelinfs: poor-underprivilaged
disaipled-invalid; 2) the requinment of style:to die-to join the
majority, to pass away, to go west; 3)religious taboo:the name of
God-good heavens.

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How to Guess What a Word Means

Need to know what a new word means now? Did you know the English language has over 1,000,000 words? Yet the average adult learner has a vocabulary of only 40,000-50,000 words. With so many words out there, how can you learn them all? There are various strategies that you can learn which will help you to deduce what a word means. Yes, you could just look them up in an English dictionary; but, studies show that you most likely won’t remember the word after a while. However, by making your brain figure it out, a trail of understanding is left and you are more likely to remember the meaning, thus improving your vocabulary!

Perhaps you are taking a standardized test and are being asked about particular words. These strategies will help you immensely! We also provide some example sentences to help find the meaning of the word needed or of any individual words you need help with.

Context — If the word is used in a sentence, look at the other words and see if they give you clues to the word’s meaning. This may help to guess, at least, part of the word’s meaning.

EX. «‘Proximal’ refers to points on the body that are close to the torso, as opposed to ‘distal.

Given the context of the sentence, we can see the word «opposed» which means «to be opposite of.» If ‘proximal’ is opposite of ‘distal’ we can conclude that the word distal likely is used to refer to parts of the body that are far from the torso, like fingers. At this point, you can look in the dictionary to check our guess. You can also look at similar antonyms or synonyms for meaning of the new or unfamiliar words as well. While most English words act as idioms, the meaning of a word can be tricky if you are learning English or are learning more advanced words. Collocations can also help in the word meaning process by using context clues to find the correct answer or meaning to the word’s meaning.

STRUCTURE- Probably the most important skill when it comes to understanding words. The internal structure of words is called morphology. Morphology consists of morphemes—which are minimal units of meaning, rules for combining them into words, and rules for pronouncing the resulting words. For this article, we will keep it simple and go over a few key things.

Using your understanding of morphology helps you break down a word into smaller pieces so that you can guess what it means. For example, let’s use a nonsense word, say, POIB.

*What would POIB-able mean? (Capable of being POIBed)

*What is the word class of POIB-able? (Adjective)

*So, what is the word class of POIB? (Verb)

This exercise is to show how we can make some assumptions about the word we don’t know simply by how it is used in the sentence and what affixes are attached to it (affixes are a type of morpheme). This is how we can tell the word’s word class: noun, verb, adjective, adverb, etc.

MORPHEME- A morpheme may be a word or less than a word. (EX. nation, re-, -al). Morphemes cannot be broken down into smaller units.

TYPES OF MORPHEMES- Prefixes, Suffixes, Infixes, Plurals, Possessives, and base(root) words.

**Free morphemes are words that can stand on their own and have meaning.

For example, «nation» does not require a prefix or a suffix attached to it to make sense. It’s a word by itself.

**Bound Morphemes cannot stand on their own and must be attached to another morpheme to create a word.

For example, «dental»= dent + al. Together they make a word, but neither «dent» nor «al» are words themselves. All affixes are boundmorphemes. Some base (root) words are bound.

AFFIXES — anything that is added to a base (root) word. Determine how the affix affects the base (root) word it is attached to.

*Examples of affixes that change word class (i.e. from a verb to adverb)-er, -ly, -al, -y, -ish

*Examples of affixes that add to meaning of the base (root) word.anti-, omni-, re-, -s, -ed, dis-

***There are only about 75 prefixes in English. There are less suffixes. Memorize them.

Now that you understand what a morpheme is. The next step is to take your word and try to break it down into morphemes. Let’s use the word «predetermined» as our example. Predetermined= pre + determine + ed

We may know that the base (root) word ‘determine’ means to decide; the prefix ‘pre’ means before, and the suffix ‘ed’ is used to mean the past tense of a verb.

Therefore, «predetermined» would mean to have already decided the outcome of something before it happened.

Another example: quadruped = quadru + ped, meaning four feet. Both «quad» and «ped» are bound morphemes that must be attached to another morpheme to create a word.

KNOW YOUR ROOTS — Sometimes after you break down your word, you still may not know the meaning because you don’t know what the base (root) word means. Let’s say that you didn’t know the above root word «ped» was a Greek origin word meaning ‘feet.’ How could you try to guess what it meant?

*Think of other words you know that have «ped» in them?

What do these words have in common?

EX. pedestal, pedal, pedestrian, millipede

You guessed it, FEET!

With the strategies above you can usually guess what a word means. If you are taking a test, use what you’ve assumed about the word to help with the process of elimination. Looking at word lists can also help in the meaning process.

Happy vocabulary building!

There are a few things that can help you estimate the meaning of a word, even if you have never read or heard it before. If you are taking a standardized test and will be asked about particular words, if you are learning English or if you just want to expand your vocabulary these strategies will help you immensely. Use the words around the unfamiliar word to help you guess the meaning, or use your knowledge of suffixes and prefixes to help you estimate the meaning of the new word. By figuring out the meaning of a new word, you may be more likely to remember the meaning and the new word.

Sound out the unfamiliar word if you are reading it. A word that seems unfamiliar at first may be a word you already know once you hear it out loud.

Look at the other words in the sentence to see if they give you clues to the new word’s meaning. This is called «context,» and may help you guess at part of the word’s meaning. For example, «proximal» refers to points on the body that are close to the torso, as opposed to «distal.» Here you can see the words «opposed to» which mean «to be opposite.» If «proximal» is the opposite of «distal,» you can conclude that the word «distal» likely is used to refer to parts of the body that are far from the torso such as fingers.

Break the new word down into its smallest parts. These small parts are called «morphemes.» A morpheme may be a word or less than a word. For example, «nation,» «re-,» and «-al» are all morphemes. Morphemes cannot be broken down into smaller units. There are many types of morphemes including prefixes, suffixes and root words. Free morphemes are words that can stand on their own and still have meaning. For example, «nation» does not require a prefix or a suffix attached to it to make sense. It’s a word by itself. Bound morphemes cannot stand on their own and must be attached to another morpheme to create a word. For example, the «s» in the word «dogs» is a bound morpheme. Without the word «dog,» the «s» has no meaning.

Learn about the structure of English words. English words have their roots in Greek, Latin and Germanic languages. Sometimes after you break down your word, you still may not know the meaning because you don’t know what the root word means. For example, let’s say you read the word «millipede.» There are two roots in this word. The root word «ped» is a word of Latin origin meaning «feet.» You can guess what it means by thinking of other words that have the root «ped.» You might think of «pedestal,» «pedal» and «pedestrian.» From these words, you can guess that your new word has something to do with feet. You might guess that «mille» has something to do with «million,» and you’d be on the right track. It means «thousand,» but in this word just means «many.» So, a millipede is something with many legs. If you check your dictionary, you will find that a millipede is an insect with many legs. This means you guessed most of the meaning of the word simply from looking at the root words.

Learn English affixes. Anything that is added to the beginning or end of a root word is an affix. Affixes include suffixes, prefixes and pluralization. Knowing the affixes can help you determine how the affix affects the root word it is attached to. Some affixes change the word class, for example from a verb to adverb. These include affixes like «-er,» «-ly» and «-ish.» Some affixes add to the meaning of the root word. These include affixes like «anti-,» «re-» and «-ed.» While it may take some time to learn them all, by breaking words down into morphemes you will begin to recognize which are affixes and which are roots. For example, let’s use the word «predetermined» as an example. «Predetermined» is made up of the prefix «pre,» the root «determine» and the suffix «ed.» You may know that the root word «determine» means to decide, the prefix «pre» means before and the suffix «ed» is used to mean the past tense of a verb. Therefore, «predetermined» means to have already decided the outcome of something before it happened.

Tip

Read. The more you read, the more words you will know, without even realizing it. Keep your dictionary on hand, so you can check your guesses.

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Every teacher wonders how to teach a word to students, so that it stays with them and they can actually use it in the context in an appropriate form. Have your students ever struggled with knowing what part of the speech the word is (knowing nothing about terminologies and word relations) and thus using it in the wrong way? What if we start to teach learners of foriegn languages the basic relations between words instead of torturing them to memorize just the usage of the word in specific contexts?

Let’s firstly try to recall what semantic relations between words are. Semantic relations are the associations that exist between the meanings of words (semantic relationships at word level), between the meanings of phrases, or between the meanings of sentences (semantic relationships at phrase or sentence level). Let’s look at each of them separately.

Word Level

At word level we differentiate between semantic relations:

Synonyms — words that have the same (or nearly the same) meaning and belong to the same part of speech, but are spelled differently. E.g. big-large, small-tiny, to begin — to start, etc. Of course, here we need to mention that no 2 words can have the exact same meaning. There are differences in shades of meaning, exaggerated, diminutive nature, etc.
Antonyms — semantic relationship that exists between two (or more) words that have opposite meanings. These words belong to the same grammatical category (both are nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc.). They share almost all their semantic features except one. (Fromkin & Rodman, 1998) E.g.
Homonyms — the relationship that exists between two (or more) words which belong to the same grammatical category, have the same spelling, may or may not have the same pronunciation, but have different meanings and origins. E.g. to lie (= to rest) and to lie (= not to tell the truth); When used in a context, they can be misunderstood especially if the person knows only one meaning of the word.

Other semantic relations include hyponymy, polysemy and metonymy which you might want to look into when teaching/learning English as a foreign language.

At Phrase and Sentence Level

Here we are talking about paraphrases, collocations, ambiguity, etc.

Paraphrase — the expression of the meaning of a word, phrase or sentence using other words, phrases or sentences which have (almost) the same meaning. Here we need to differentiate between lexical and structural paraphrase. E.g.
Lexical — I am tired = I am exhausted.
Structural — He gave the book to me = He gave me the book.

Ambiguity — functionality of having two or more distinct meanings or interpretations. You can read more about its types here.
Collocations — combinations of two or more words that often occur together in speech and writing. Among the possible combinations are verbs + nouns, adjectives + nouns, adverbs + adjectives, etc. Idiomatic phrases can also sometimes be considered as collocations. E.g. ‘bear with me’, ‘round and about’, ‘salt and pepper’, etc.

So, what does it mean to know a word?
Knowing a word means knowing all of its semantic relations and usages.

Why is it useful?
It helps to understand the flow of the language, its possibilities, occurrences, etc.better.

Should it be taught to EFL learners?
Maybe not in that many details and terminology, but definitely yes if you want your learners to study the language in depth, not just superficially.

How should it be taught?
Not as a separate phenomenon, but together with introducing a new word/phrase, so that students have a chance to create associations and base their understanding on real examples. You can give semantic relations and usages, ask students to look up in the dictionary, brainstorm ideas in pairs and so on.

Let us know what you do to help your students learn the semantic relations between the words and whether it helps.

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