How one could call a process of getting a word initial form

I want to get initial form of natural English words, e.g.:

'words' -> 'word'
'Jhon'  -> 'John'
'openning' -> 'open'

I have tried python Stemer lib:

st=Stemer.Stemer()
for w in ('very', 'words', 'openning'):
print st.stemWord(w),

>>>veri word open

i expect ‘very’ but instead got ‘veri’

then nltk.corpus.wordnet lib:

from nltk.corpus import wordnet
wordnet.synsets( 'beans' )
[Synset('bean.n.01'),
 >>>Synset('bean.n.02'),
 >>>Synset('bean.n.03'),
 >>>Synset('attic.n.03'),
 >>>Synset('bean.v.01')]

it give more info but not a quick dictionary.

LancasterStemmer can not get ‘english’ as ‘english’:

from nltk.stem.lancaster import LancasterStemmer
st = LancasterStemmer()
st.stem('english')
>>>>'engl'

enchant lib method check() and sugguest() is not suitable:

>>> import enchant
>>> d = enchant.Dict("en_US")
>>> d.check("Hello")

Any method to get quick original form, for a document text?

People in general have no difficulty coping the new words. We can very quickly understand a new word in our language (a neologism) and accept the use of different forms of that new word. This ability must derive in part from the fact that there is a lot of regularity in the word-formation process in our language.

In some aspects the study of the processes whereby new words come into being language like English seems relatively straightforward. This apparent simplicity however masks a number of controversial issues. Despite the disagreement of scholars in the area, there don´t seem to be a regular process involved.

These processes have been at work in the language for some time and many words in daily use today were, at one time, considered barbaric misuses of the language.

What is Coinage?

Coinage is a common process of word-formation in English and it is the invention of totally new terms. The most typical sources are invented trade names for one company´s product which become general terms (without initial capital letters) for any version of that product.

For example: aspirin, nylon, zipper and the more recent examples kleenex, teflon.

This words tend to become everyday words in our language.

What is Borrowing?

Borrowing is one of the most common sources of getting new words in English. That is the taking over of words from other languages. Throughout history the English language has adopted a vast number of loan words from other languages. For example:

• Alcohol (Arabic)
• Boss (Dutch)
• Croissant (French)
• Piano (Italian)
• Pretzel (German)
• Robot (Czech)
• Zebra (Bantu)

Etc…

A special type of borrowing is the loan translation or calque. In this process, there is a direct translation of the elements of a word into the borrowing language. For example: Superman, Loan Translation of Übermensch, German.

What is Compounding?

The combining process of words is technically known as compounding, which is very common in English and German. Obvious English examples would be:

• Bookcase
• Fingerprint
• Sunburn
• Wallpaper
• Textbook
• Wastebasket
• Waterbed

What is Blending?

The combining separate forms to produce a single new term, is also present in the process of blending. Blending, takes only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of the other word.  For instance, if you wish to refer to the combined effects of smoke and fog, there´s the term smog. The recent phenomenon of fund rising on television that feels like a marathon, is typically called a telethon, and if you´re extremely crazy about video, you may be called a videot.

What is Clipping?

Clipping is the process in which the element of reduction which is noticeable in blending is even more apparent. This occurs when a word of more than one syllable is reduced to a shorter form, often in casual speech. For example, the term gasoline is still in use but the term gas, the clipped form is used more frequently. Examples

• Chem.
• Gym
• Math
• Prof
• Typo

What is Backformation?

Backformation is a very specialized type of reduction process. Typically a word of one type, usually noun, is reduced to form another word of a different type, usually verb. A good example of backformation is the process whereby the noun television first came into ude and then the term televise is created form it.

More examples:

• Donation – Donate
• Option – Opt
• Emotion – Emote
• Enthusiasm – Enthuse
• Babysit – Babysitter

What is Conversion?

Conversion is a change in the function of a word, as for example, when a noun comes to be used as a verb without any reduction. Other labels of this very common process are “category change” and “functional shift”. A number of nouns such as paper, butter, bottle, vacation and so on, can via the process of conversion come to be used as verbs as in the following examples:

• My brother is papering my bedroom.
• Did you buttered this toast?
• We bottled the home brew last night.

What is an Acronym?

Some new words known as acronyms are formed with the initial letters of a set of other words. Examples:

• Compact Disk – CD
• Video Cassette Recorder – VCR
• National Aeronautics and Space Administration – NASA
• The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization – UNESCO
• Personal Identification Number –PIN
• Women against rape – WAR

What is Derivation?

Derivation is the most common word formation process and it accomplished by means of a large number of small bits of the English language which are not usually given separate listings in dictionaries. These small bits are called affixes. Examples:

• Unhappy
• Misrepresent
• Prejudge
• Joyful
• Careless
• Happiness

Prefixes and Suffixes

In the preceding group of words, it should be obvious that some affixes have to be added to the beginning of a word. These are called prefixes: unreliable. The other affix forms are called suffixes and are added at the end of the word: foolishness.

Infixes

One of the characteristics of English words is that any modifications to them occur at the beginning or the end; mix can have something added at the beginning re-mix or at the end, mixes, mixer, but never in the middle, called infixes.

Activities – WORDS AND WORD FORMATION PROCESSES

Activity 1

Identify the word formation process involved in the following sentences:

1. My little cousin wants to be a footballer
2. Rebecca parties every weekend
3. I will have a croissant for breakfast.
4. Does somebody know where is my bra?
5. My family is vacationing in New Zealand
6. I will babysit my little sister this weekend
7. Would you give me your blackberry PIN?
8. She seems really unhappy about her parents’ decision.
9. I always have kleenex in my car.

10.  A carjacking was reported this evening.

(To check your answers, please go to home and check the link: Activities Keyword)

*You may require checking other sources

>>> fdist1 = FreqDist(text1) >>> print(fdist1) <FreqDist with 19317 samples and 260819 outcomes> >>> fdist1.most_common(50) [(',', 18713), ('the', 13721), ('.', 6862), ('of', 6536), ('and', 6024), ('a', 4569), ('to', 4542), (';', 4072), ('in', 3916), ('that', 2982), ("'", 2684), ('-', 2552), ('his', 2459), ('it', 2209), ('I', 2124), ('s', 1739), ('is', 1695), ('he', 1661), ('with', 1659), ('was', 1632), ('as', 1620), ('"', 1478), ('all', 1462), ('for', 1414), ('this', 1280), ('!', 1269), ('at', 1231), ('by', 1137), ('but', 1113), ('not', 1103), ('--', 1070), ('him', 1058), ('from', 1052), ('be', 1030), ('on', 1005), ('so', 918), ('whale', 906), ('one', 889), ('you', 841), ('had', 767), ('have', 760), ('there', 715), ('But', 705), ('or', 697), ('were', 680), ('now', 646), ('which', 640), ('?', 637), ('me', 627), ('like', 624)] >>> fdist1['whale'] 906 >>>

Note

Your Turn:
Try the preceding frequency distribution example for yourself, for
text2. Be careful to use the correct parentheses and uppercase letters.
If you get an error message NameError: name ‘FreqDist’ is not defined,
you need to start your work with from nltk.book import *

Plan

1. Word-formation.
   General notes.

2. Affixation.

3. Compounding
   (Composition).

4. Reduplication.

5. Phrasal
   verbs.

6. Conversion

7. Substantivation.

8. Adjectivization.

9. Phrasal
   nouns.

10. Shortening.

11. Abbreviation.

12. Back-formation
    (Reversion).

13. Blending.

14. Minor
    types of word-formation: change of stress.

15. Sound
    interchange (Gradation).

16. Sound
    imitation (Onomatopoeia).

17. Lexicalization
    of the plural of nouns.

1. Word-formation

Word-formation
is the process of creating new words from the material available in
the word-stock according to certain structural and semantic patterns
specific for the given language.

Various
types of word-formation in Modern English possess different degrees
of productivity. Some of them are highly-productive
(affixation,
conversion, substantivation, compounding, shortening, forming phrasal
verbs); others are semi-productive
(back-forming,
blending, reduplication, lexicalization of the plural of nouns,
sound-imitation), and non-productive
(sound
interchange, change of stress).

2. Affixation

Affixation
is a word-formative process in which words are created by adding
word-building affixes to stems. Affixation includes preftxation,
i.e.
forming
new words with the help of prefixes, and suffixation,
i.e.
forming new words with the help of suffixes.

From
etymological point of view affixes are classified according to their
origin into native
(e.g.
-er, -nese, -ing, un-, mis-, etc.) and borrowed
(Romanic,
e.g. -tion, -ment, -ance, -re-, sub-, etc.; Greek, e,g. -ist, -ism,
anti-, etc.).

Affixes
can also be classified into
productive (e.g.-er,
-ness, -able, -y, -ize, un- re-, dis- etc.) and non-productive
(e.g.
-th, -hood, -en, -ous, etc.).

Affixes
and a root constitute the meaning of the word, the root morpheme
forming its semantic centre, affixes playing a dependent role in the
meaning
of the word.

Prefixes
and suffixes are semantically distinctive,
they
have their own
meaning. Affixes
and a root constitute the meaning of the word, the root morpheme
forming its semantic centre, affixes playing a dependent role in the
meaning of the word.

Prefixes
change
or concretize the meaning of the word. The main
word-building
prefixes are:

1. prefixes
   with a negative
   meaning (e.g.
   un-, in-, il-, ir-, im-, dis-, de-, non-);

2. prefixes
   with different
   meanings (e.g.
   anti-, co-, counter-, inter-, mis-, over-, en-, post-, pre-, re-,
   self, semi-, sub-, ultra-, super-, undre-).

   Suffixes
   have
   a grammatical meaning they indicate or derive a certain part of
   speech. Most of frequently used suffixes are:

1. noun-forming:
   -er,
   (-or), -tion (-sion), -ity, -ance, -ence, -ment, -ness, -ics, -ture,
   -sure, -age, -ing;

2. verb-forming:
   -ize,
   (-ise), -fy (-ify), -en, -ate;

3. adjective-forming:
   -able,
   -ible, -al, (-ial), -fill, -less, -ive;

4. adverb-forming:
   -ly;
   -ward (-wards).

3. Compounding
(Composition)

Compounds
are
words produced by combining two or more stems, which occur in the
language as free forms. They may be classified proceeding
from different criteria:

-according
to the parts of speech to which they belong (e.g. cut-throat,
shoe-maker- compound
nouns, watch
making , tooth-picker- verbal
compound
nouns; bring
up, sit down —
compound verbs, life-giving,
long-tailed —
compound adjectives, etc.);

-according
to the means of composition used to link their ICs (immediate
constituents) together (e.g. classroom,
timetable, H-bomb, grey-green,
etc);

-according
to the structure of their ICs (e.g. gasometre,
handicraft, Anglo-Saxon, etc.);

-according
to their semantic characteristics (e.g forget-me-not,
up-to-date, son-in-law, etc).

The
classification of compounds according to the means of joining their
ICs together distinguishes between the following structural types:

1. juxtapositional
   (neutral) compounds whose
   ICs are merely placed one after another: classroom,
   timetable, heartache, whitewash, hunting-knife, weekend, grey-green,
   deep-blue, U-turn, etc.;

2. morphological
   compounds whose
   ICs joined together with a vowel or a consonant as a linking
   element, e.g. gasometre,
   sportsman, saleswoman,
   electromotive, postman, etc.;

3. syntactic
   compounds (integrated phrases) which
   are the result of the process of semantic isolation and structural
   integration of free word-groups, e.g. blackboard
   (>black
   board), highway
   (>high
   way), forget-me-not
   (>forget
   me not), bull’s
   eye, go-between, known-all, brother-in-law, upside-down, etc.

The
classification of compounds according to the structure of their ICs
includes the following groups:

Group
1. Compounds consisting of simple stems: railway, key-board,
snow-white, bookshelf, scarecrow, browbeat, etc.

Group
2. Compounds where at least one of the ICs is a derived stem:
chain-smoker, shoe-maker, pen-holder, snow-covered, moon-tit,
price-reduction,
etc.

Group
3, Compounds where at least one of the ICs is a clipped stem:
photo-intelligence, bacco-box, maths- mistress, T-shirt, TV-set,
X-mas, etc.

Group
4. Compounds where at least one of the ICs is a compound stem:
wastepaper-basket, newspaper-ownership, etc.

Note:
Compounds of Group 2 should not be mixed with derivational compounds
(Group 5) in which the second component doesn’t occur as a free
form. Derivational compounds are built by adding a suffix to phrases
of the A+N, N+N, Num+N type.

Cf:
chain-smoker (N + (V = -er)):: slim-waisted ((A + N) + -ed).

In
many English words one can find unstressed stems approaching the
status of derivational affixes. They have generalized meaning and
their combining
capacity is very great. Such morphemes are called semi-affixes.

Semi-affixes
can be used in preposition (semi-prefixes,
e.g.:
half-, ill-, mini-, midi-, maxi-, self-) and in postposition
(semi-suffixes,
e.g.
-man, -land,
-monger, -wright, -worthy, -proof, -like, -way(s)).

4. Reduplication

In
reduplication compounds are made by doubling a stem (often a
pseudomorpheme). Reduplicative compounds fall into three main
subgroups:

1. Reduplicative
   compounds proper whose ICs are identical in their form, e.g.:
   murmur, bye-bye, blah-blah, pooh-pooh, goody-goody, etc.

2. Ablaut
   (gradational) compounds whose ICs have different root-vowels, e.g:
   riff-raff, dilly-dally, ping-pong, chit-chat, singsong, etc.

3. Rhyme
   compounds whose ICs are joined to rhyme, e.g.: willy-nilly,
   helter-skelter, hoity-toity, namby-pamby, walkie-talkie, etc.

5. Phrasal
verbs.

Phrasal
verbs are combinations of a verb and adverb or a verb and preposition
(or verb with both adverb and preposition).

Phrasal
verbs may be either non-idiomatic or idiomatic. Non-idiomatic phrasal
verbs can retain their primary local meaning, e.g.: come in, come
out, come out of, take off, put down, etc. They may also have a kind
of perfective colouring, e.g. add up, eat up, drink up, swallow up,
rise up, etc.

In
idiomatic compounds meaning cannot be derived from ICs, e.g.: bring
up — виховувати,
bear out — підтверджувати,
give in – піддаватися,
fall
out — сваритися,
take in — обманювати,
etc.

In
modern English fiction one can often come across verbs which denote
an action and at the same time modify it in occasional colligations
with prepositions
or adverbs e.g. He
then tiptoed down to dinner. We forced our way into the buffet.

6. Conversion

Conversion
is a special type of affixless derivation where a newly-formed word
acquires a paradigm and syntactic functions different from those of
the original word (by conversion we mean derivation of a new word
from the stem of a different part of speech without the adding of any
formatives).

A
s
a result the two words are homonymous, having the same morphological
structure and belonging to different parts of speech. As
a matter of fact, all parts of speech can be drawn into the
wordbuilding process of conversion to a certain extent. Its
derivational patterns are varied,
the most widespread among them being N —► V, V
N,
A —► V.

For
example: N+V:
a face-to face, a walk-to walk, a
tube — to tube, a pen — to pen. V—>N:
to make-a make, to bite-a bite,
to
smoke — a smoke, to talk — a talk.

A—>V:
narrow-to narrow, empty-to empty, cool-to
cool.

7. Substantiation

Substantivation
is the process in which adjectives (or participles) acquire the
paradigm and syntactic functions of nouns. One should distinguish two
main types of substantivation: complete
and partial.

C

ompletely
substantivized adjectives have
the full paradigm of a noun, i.e. singular and plural case forms.
They may be associated with various determiners (definite, indefinite
and zero articles, demonstrative and possessive pronouns, etc.), e.g.
an
official, the official, officials, the officials, official’s,
officials this official, our officials, etc.
Complete substantivation is often regarded as a pattern of conversion
(A N), though it may be argued, since, as a rule, it is the
result of ellipsis in an attributive phrase: a conservative
politician
—► a
conservative, a
convertible
car
a convertible.

In
the case of partial
substantivation adjectives
do not acquire the full paradigm of a noun. They fall into several
structural-semantic
groups:

1. partially
   substantivized adjectives (PSA) or participles which
   are singular in form though plural in meaning. They are used with
   the definite article and denote a group or a class of people, e.g.
   the
   rich, the accused, the English, the blind, the twing, etc.;

2. PSA
   used
   mostly in the plural and denoting a group or a class of people, e.g.
   reds,
   greens, buffs, blues, etc.

3. PSA
   used
   mostly in plural and denoting inanimate things, e.g. sweets,
   ancients, eatables, etc.

4. PSA
   presenting
   properties as substantive abstract notions, e.g. the
   good, the evil, the beautiful, the singular, etc.

5. PSA
   denoting
   languages, e.g. English,
   German, Ukrainian, Italian, etc.

8. Adjectivization

Premodification
of nouns by nouns is highly frequent in Modern English. Non-adjuncts
should not be considered as adjectives produced by means
of conversion. Nevertheless, some nouns may undergo the process of
adjectivization and function as attributes with idiomatic meanings,
e.g.: coffee-table
(n.) —> coffee-table (adj.) — «Of a large size and richly
illustrated.»

9. Phrasal
nouns

Phrasal
nouns are
built from phrasal verbs as a result of a combined effect of
compounding, conversion, and change of stress. They consist of ICs
identical to those of the corresponding phrasal verbs, but obtain, as
a rule, the single-stress pattern and either solid or hyphenated
spelling, e.g.: to
break
down —> a
breakdown (a break-down).

10. Shortenings

There
exist two main ways of shortening: contraction
(clipping) and
abbreviation
(initial shortening).

Contraction.
One
should distinguish between four types of contraction:

1. Final
   clipping (apocope), i.e. omission of the final part of the word,
   e.g.: doc (< doctor), lab (< laboratory), mag -(<
   magazine), prefab (< prefabricated),
   vegs (< vegetables), Al (< Albert), Nick (< Nickolas), Phil
   (< Philip), etc.

2. Initial
   clipping (apheresis), i.e. omission of the fore part of the word,
   e.g.: phone (< telephone), plane (< aeroplane), story (<
   history), van (< caravan), drome (< airdrome), Dora (<
   Theodora), Fred (< Alfred), etc.

1. Medial
   clipping (syncope), i.e. omission of the middle part of the word,
   e.g.: maths (< mathematics), fancy (< fantasy), specs -(<
   spectacles), binocs
   (< binoculars), through (<thorough), etc.

2. Mixed
   clipping, where the fore and the final parts of the word are dipped,
   e.g.: tec (< detective), flu (<influenza), fridge (<
   refrigerator), stach (< moustache), Liz (< Elizabeth), etc.

Contractions
may be combined with affixation, i,e. by adding the suffixes -y, -ie,
-o, to clippings, e.g.: hanky (<handkerchief), comfy
(<comfortable),
unkie (<uncle), ammo (< Ammunition), etc.

11. Abbreviation

Abbreviations
(initial shortenings) are words produced by shortening the ICs of
phrasal terms up to their initial letters. Abbreviations are
subdivided
into 5 groups:

1. Acronyms
   which are read in accordance with the rules of orthoepy as though
   they were ordinary words, e.g.: UNO /’ju:nou/ (< United Nations
   Organization), UNESCO /’ju:’neskou/ (< United Nations Educational
   Scientific and Cultural Organization), NATO /’neitou/ (< North
   Atlantic
   Treaty Organization), SALT /so:lt/ (<Strategic Arms Limitation
   Talks), STEM /stem/ (< scanning transmission electron
   microscope), radar /reida/ (< radio detecting and ranging), etc.

2. Alphabetic
   abbreviation in
   which letters get their full alphabetic pronunciation and a full
   stress, e.g.: USA /’ju:es’ei/ (< the United States ofAmerica),
   B.B.C. /’bi:’bi:’si:/ (< the British Broadcasting Corporation),
   M.P. /’em’pi:/ {<
   Member
   of Parliament), F.B.I. /’efbir’ai/ (< FederalBureau
   of Investigation), etc.

Alphabetic
abbreviations are sometimes used for famous persons’ names, eg.: B.B.
(< Brigitte Bardot), FDR (< Franklin Delano Roosevelt), G.B.S.
(< George Bernard Shaw), etc.

3)Compound
abbreviations
in which the first IC is a letter (letters) and the second a complete
word, e.g.: A-bomb (<
atomic
bomb), V-day (<

Victory
day), Z-hour (< zero hour), L-driver (< learner-driver), ACD
solution (<acid citrate dextrose solution), etc.

One
or both ICs of compound abbreviations may be clipped, e.g.:
mid-August, Interpol (< International police), hi-fi (< high
fidelity), sci-fic (< science
fiction), etc.

4) Graphic
abbreviations which
are used in texts for economy of space. They are pronounced as the
corresponding unabbreviated words,
e.g.:
Mr.
(< Mister), m. (< mile), fl. (< foot/feet), v. (< verb),
ltd. (< limited), govt. (< government), usu. (< usually),
pp. (< pages, Co (< Company), X-mas
(< Christmas), etc.

5) Latin
abbreviations which
sometimes are not read as Latin words but as separate letters or are
substituted by their English equivalents, e.g.:

i.e.
/ai’i:/-that is, a.m. /ei’em/-before midday, in the morning, e.g.
-for example, Id. -in the same place, cf. -compare, etc.

12. Back-formation
(Reversion)

Back-formation
is the derivation of new words (mostly verbs) by means of subtracting
a suffix or other element resembling it, e.g.: butle < butler,
combust
< combustion, greed < greedy, lase < laser, luminisce <
luminiscent, sculpt < sculptor, etc.

13. Blending

Blending
is the formation of new lexical units by means of merging fragments
of words into one new word, or combining the elements of one word
with
a notional word, e.g.: smog (< smoke+fog), radiotrician
(radio+electrician), drunch (drinks+lunch), cinemagnate
(cinema+magnate), etc.

14. Minor
types of word-formation: change of stress

Several
nouns and verbs of Romanic origin have a distinctive stress pattern.
Such nouns, as a rule, are forestressed, and verbs have a stress on
the second
syllable, e.g. ‘accent (a):: ac’cent (v.), ‘contest (n.):: ‘con’test
(v.), ‘record (n.):: re’cord (v.), etc.

The
same distinctive stress pattern is observed in some pairs of
adjectives and verbs, e.g.: ‘absent (a):: ab’sent (v.) ‘abstract (a)
::ab’stract(v.), etc.

15.
Sound
interchange (Gradation)

Words
belonging to different parts of speech may be differentiated due to
the sound interchange in the root, e.g.: food (a):: feed (v.), gold
(a):: gild (v,), strong (a):: strength (n), etc.

16. Sound
imitation (Onomatopoeia)

Sound-imitative
(onomatopoeic) words are made by imitating sounds produced by living
beings and inanimate objects, e.g.: babble, bang, buzz, crash,
giggle, hiss, moo, purr, rustle, etc.

17. Lexicalization
of the plural of the nouns

There
are cases when the grammatical form of the plural of nouns becomes
isolated from the paradigm and acquires a new lexical meaning. This
leads to the appearance of new lexical units, cf: look “погляд”
::
looks «зовнішність».

REVISION
MATERIAL

1. Be
   ready to discuss the subject matter of word-formation

2. Tell
   about affixation

3. What
   do you know about compounding (composition)?

4. Give
   examples of reduplication

5. What
   are phrasal verbs and phrasal nouns?

6. What
   can you tell about conversion?

7. Comment
   on the substantivation and adjectivization.

8. Tell
   about shortening: contractions and abbreviations.

9. What
   is back-formation?

10. Give
    examples of blending.

11. Comment
    on the minor types of word-formation.

12. What
    is the difference between gradation and onomatopoeia?

13. What
    does «lexicalization of the plural of nouns» stand for ?

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