History of the word sport

Sport pertains to any form of physical activity or game,^[1] often competitive and organised, that aims to use, maintain, or improve physical ability and skills while providing enjoyment to participants and, in some cases, entertainment to spectators.^[2] Sports can, through casual or organised participation, improve participants’ physical health. Hundreds of sports exist, from those between single contestants, through to those with hundreds of simultaneous participants, either in teams or competing as individuals. In certain sports such as racing, many contestants may compete, simultaneously or consecutively, with one winner; in others, the contest (a match) is between two sides, each attempting to exceed the other. Some sports allow a «tie» or «draw», in which there is no single winner; others provide tie-breaking methods to ensure one winner and one loser. A number of contests may be arranged in a tournament producing a champion. Many sports leagues make an annual champion by arranging games in a regular sports season, followed in some cases by playoffs.

Sport is generally recognised as system of activities based in physical athleticism or physical dexterity, with major competitions such as the Olympic Games admitting only sports meeting this definition.^[3] Other organisations, such as the Council of Europe, preclude activities without a physical element from classification as sports.^[2] However, a number of competitive, but non-physical, activities claim recognition as mind sports. The International Olympic Committee (through ARISF) recognises both chess and bridge as bona fide sports, and SportAccord, the international sports federation association, recognises five non-physical sports: bridge, chess, draughts (checkers), Go and xiangqi,^[4][5] and limits the number of mind games which can be admitted as sports.^[1]

Sport is usually governed by a set of rules or customs, which serve to ensure fair competition, and allow consistent adjudication of the winner. Winning can be determined by physical events such as scoring goals or crossing a line first. It can also be determined by judges who are scoring elements of the sporting performance, including objective or subjective measures such as technical performance or artistic impression.

Records of performance are often kept, and for popular sports, this information may be widely announced or reported in sport news. Sport is also a major source of entertainment for non-participants, with spectator sport drawing large crowds to sport venues, and reaching wider audiences through broadcasting. Sport betting is in some cases severely regulated, and in some cases is central to the sport.

According to A.T. Kearney, a consultancy, the global sporting industry is worth up to $620 billion as of 2013.^[6] The world’s most accessible and practised sport is running, while association football is the most popular spectator sport.^[7]

Meaning and usage

Etymology

The word «sport» comes from the Old French desport meaning «leisure», with the oldest definition in English from around 1300 being «anything humans find amusing or entertaining».^[8]

Other meanings include gambling and events staged for the purpose of gambling; hunting; and games and diversions, including ones that require exercise.^[9] Roget’s defines the noun sport as an «activity engaged in for relaxation and amusement» with synonyms including diversion and recreation.^[10]

Nomenclature

The singular term «sport» is used in most English dialects to describe the overall concept (e.g. «children taking part in sport»), with «sports» used to describe multiple activities (e.g. «football and rugby are the most popular sports in England»). American English uses «sports» for both terms.

Definition

The precise definition of what differentiates a sport from other leisure activities varies between sources. The closest to an international agreement on a definition is provided by the Global Association of International Sports Federations (GAISF), which is the association for all the largest international sports federations (including association football, athletics, cycling, tennis, equestrian sports, and more), and is therefore the de facto representative of international sport.

GAISF uses the following criteria, determining that a sport should:^[1]

• have an element of competition
• be in no way harmful to any living creature
• not rely on equipment provided by a single supplier (excluding proprietary games such as arena football)
• not rely on any «luck» element specifically designed into the sport.

They also recognise that sport can be primarily physical (such as rugby or athletics), primarily mind (such as chess or Go), predominantly motorised (such as Formula 1 or powerboating), primarily co-ordination (such as billiard sports), or primarily animal-supported (such as equestrian sport).^[1]

The inclusion of mind sports within sport definitions has not been universally accepted, leading to legal challenges from governing bodies in regards to being denied funding available to sports.^[11] Whilst GAISF recognises a small number of mind sports, it is not open to admitting any further mind sports.

There has been an increase in the application of the term «sport» to a wider set of non-physical challenges such as video games, also called esports (from «electronic sports»), especially due to the large scale of participation and organised competition, but these are not widely recognised by mainstream sports organisations. According to Council of Europe, European Sports Charter, article 2.i, «‘Sport’ means all forms of physical activity which, through casual or organised participation, aim at expressing or improving physical fitness and mental well-being, forming social relationships or obtaining results in competition at all levels.»^[12]

Competition

There are opposing views on the necessity of competition as a defining element of a sport, with almost all professional sports involving competition, and governing bodies requiring competition as a prerequisite of recognition by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) or GAISF. ^[1]

Other bodies advocate widening the definition of sport to include all physical activity. For instance, the Council of Europe include all forms of physical exercise, including those competed just for fun.

In order to widen participation, and reduce the impact of losing on less able participants, there has been an introduction of non-competitive physical activity to traditionally competitive events such as school sports days, although moves like this are often controversial.^[13][14]

In competitive events, participants are graded or classified based on their «result» and often divided into groups of comparable performance, (e.g. gender, weight and age). The measurement of the result may be objective or subjective, and corrected with «handicaps» or penalties. In a race, for example, the time to complete the course is an objective measurement. In gymnastics or diving the result is decided by a panel of judges, and therefore subjective. There are many shades of judging between boxing and mixed martial arts, where victory is assigned by judges if neither competitor has lost at the end of the match time.

History

Artifacts and structures suggest sport in China as early as 2000 BC.^[15] Gymnastics appears to have been popular in China’s ancient past. Monuments to the Pharaohs indicate that a number of sports, including swimming and fishing, were well-developed and regulated several thousands of years ago in ancient Egypt.^[16] Other Egyptian sports included javelin throwing, high jump, and wrestling. Ancient Persian sports such as the traditional Iranian martial art of Zoorkhaneh had a close connection to warfare skills.^[17] Among other sports that originated in ancient Persia are polo and jousting. The traditional South Asian sport of kabaddi has been played for thousands of years, potentially as a preparation for hunting.^[18]

A wide range of sports were already established by the time of Ancient Greece and the military culture and the development of sport in Greece influenced one another considerably. Sport became such a prominent part of their culture that the Greeks created the Olympic Games, which in ancient times were held every four years in a small village in the Peloponnesus called Olympia.^[19]

Sports have been increasingly organised and regulated from the time of the ancient Olympics up to the present century. Industrialisation has brought motorised transportation and increased leisure time, letting people attend and follow spectator sports and participate in athletic activities. These trends continued with the advent of mass media and global communication. Professionalism became prevalent, further adding to the increase in sport’s popularity, as sports fans followed the exploits of professional athletes – all while enjoying the exercise and competition associated with amateur participation in sports. Since the turn of the 21st century, there has been increasing debate about whether transgender sports people should be able to participate in sport events that conform with their post-transition gender identity.^[20]

Fair play

Sportsmanship

Sportsmanship is an attitude that strives for fair play, courtesy toward teammates and opponents, ethical behaviour and integrity, and grace in victory or defeat.^[21][22][23]

Sportsmanship expresses an aspiration or ethos that the activity will be enjoyed for its own sake. The well-known sentiment by sports journalist Grantland Rice, that it is «not that you won or lost but how you played the game», and the modern Olympic creed expressed by its founder Pierre de Coubertin: «The most important thing… is not winning but taking part» are typical expressions of this sentiment.

Cheating

Key principles of sport include that the result should not be predetermined, and that both sides should have equal opportunity to win. Rules are in place to ensure fair play, but participants can break these rules in order to gain advantage.

Participants may cheat in order to unfairly increase their chance of winning, or in order to achieve other advantages such as financial gains. The widespread existence of gambling on the results of sports events creates a motivation for match fixing, where a participant or participants deliberately work to ensure a given outcome rather than simply playing to win.

Doping and drugs

The competitive nature of sport encourages some participants to attempt to enhance their performance through the use of medicines, or through other means such as increasing the volume of blood in their bodies through artificial means.

All sports recognised by the IOC or SportAccord are required to implement a testing programme, looking for a list of banned drugs, with suspensions or bans being placed on participants who test positive for banned substances.

Violence

Violence in sports involves crossing the line between fair competition and intentional aggressive violence. Athletes, coaches, fans, and parents sometimes unleash violent behaviour on people or property, in misguided shows of loyalty, dominance, anger, or celebration. Rioting or hooliganism by fans in particular is a problem at some national and international sporting contests.^{[citation needed]}

Participation

Gender participation

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (March 2012)

Female participation in sports continues to rise alongside the opportunity for involvement and the value of sports for child development and physical fitness. Despite increases in female participation during the last three decades, a gap persists in the enrolment figures between male and female players in sports-related teams. Female players account for 39% of the total participation in US interscholastic athletics.

Certain sports are mixed-gender, allowing (or even requiring) men and women to play on the same team. One example of this is Baseball5, which is the first mixed-gender sport to have been admitted into an Olympic event.^[24]

Youth participation

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (March 2012)

Youth sport presents children with opportunities for fun, socialisation, forming peer relationships, physical fitness, and athletic scholarships. Activists for education and the war on drugs encourage youth sport as a means to increase educational participation and to fight the illegal drug trade. According to the Center for Injury Research and Policy at Nationwide Children’s Hospital, the biggest risk for youth sport is death or serious injury including concussion. These risks come from running, basketball, association football, volleyball, gridiron, gymnastics, and ice hockey.^[25] Youth sport in the US is a $15 billion industry including equipment up to private coaching.^[26]

Disabled participation

Disabled sports also adaptive sports or parasports, are sports played by people with a disability, including physical and intellectual disabilities. As many of these are based on existing sports modified to meet the needs of people with a disability, they are sometimes referred to as adapted sports. However, not all disabled sports are adapted; several sports that have been specifically created for people with a disability have no equivalent in able-bodied sports.

Spectator involvement

The competition element of sport, along with the aesthetic appeal of some sports, result in the popularity of people attending to watch sport being played. This has led to the specific phenomenon of spectator sport.

Both amateur and professional sports attract spectators, both in person at the sport venue, and through broadcast media including radio, television and internet broadcast. Both attendance in person and viewing remotely can incur a sometimes substantial charge, such as an entrance ticket, or pay-per-view television broadcast. Sports league and tournament are two common arrangements to organise sport teams or individual athletes into competing against each other continuously or periodically.

It is common for popular sports to attract large broadcast audiences, leading to rival broadcasters bidding large amounts of money for the rights to show certain events. The football World Cup attracts a global television audience of hundreds of millions; the 2006 final alone attracted an estimated worldwide audience of well over 700 million and the 2011 Cricket World Cup Final attracted an estimated audience of 135 million in India alone.^[27]

In the United States, the championship game of the NFL, the Super Bowl, has become one of the most watched television broadcasts of the year.^[28][29]
Super Bowl Sunday is a de facto national holiday in America;^[30][31] the viewership being so great that in 2015, advertising space was reported as being sold at $4.5m for a 30-second slot.^[28]

Amateur and professional

Sport can be undertaken on an amateur, professional or semi-professional basis, depending on whether participants are incentivised for participation (usually through payment of a wage or salary). Amateur participation in sport at lower levels is often called «grassroots sport».^[2][32]

The popularity of spectator sport as a recreation for non-participants has led to sport becoming a major business in its own right, and this has incentivised a high paying professional sport culture, where high performing participants are rewarded with pay far in excess of average wages, which can run into millions of dollars.^[33]

Some sports, or individual competitions within a sport, retain a policy of allowing only amateur sport. The Olympic Games started with a principle of amateur competition with those who practised a sport professionally considered to have an unfair advantage over those who practised it merely as a hobby.^[34] From 1971, Olympic athletes were allowed to receive compensation and sponsorship,^[35] and from 1986, the IOC decided to make all professional athletes eligible for the Olympics,^[35][36] with the exceptions of boxing,^[37][38] and wrestling.^[39][40]

Technology

Technology plays an important part in modern sport. It is a necessary part of some sports (such as motorsport), and it is used in others to improve performance. Some sports also use it to allow off-field decision making.

Sports science is a widespread academic discipline, and can be applied to areas including athlete performance, such as the use of video analysis to fine-tune technique, or to equipment, such as improved running shoes or competitive swimwear. Sports engineering emerged as a discipline in 1998 with an increasing focus not just on materials design but also the use of technology in sport, from analytics and big data to wearable technology.^[41] In order to control the impact of technology on fair play, governing bodies frequently have specific rules that are set to control the impact of technical advantage between participants. For example, in 2010, full-body, non-textile swimsuits were banned by FINA, as they were enhancing swimmers’ performances.^[42][43]

The increase in technology has also allowed many decisions in sports matches to be taken, or reviewed, off-field, with another official using instant replays to make decisions. In some sports, players can now challenge decisions made by officials. In Association football, goal-line technology makes decisions on whether a ball has crossed the goal line or not.^[44] The technology is not compulsory,^[45] but was used in the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil,^[46] and the 2015 FIFA Women’s World Cup in Canada,^[47] as well as in the Premier League from 2013–14,^[48] and the Bundesliga from 2015–16.^[49] In the NFL, a referee can ask for a review from the replay booth, or a head coach can issue a challenge to review the play using replays. The final decision rests with the referee.^[50] A video referee (commonly known as a Television Match Official or TMO) can also use replays to help decision-making in rugby (both league and union).^[51][52] In international cricket, an umpire can ask the Third umpire for a decision, and the third umpire makes the final decision.^[53][54] Since 2008, a decision review system for players to review decisions has been introduced and used in ICC-run tournaments, and optionally in other matches.^[53][55] Depending on the host broadcaster, a number of different technologies are used during an umpire or player review, including instant replays, Hawk-Eye, Hot Spot and Real Time Snickometer.^[56][57] Hawk-Eye is also used in tennis to challenge umpiring decisions.^[58][59]

Sports and education

Research suggests that sports have the capacity to connect youth to positive adult role models and provide positive development opportunities, as well as promote the learning and application of life skills.^[60][61] In recent years the use of sport to reduce crime, as well as to prevent violent extremism and radicalization, has become more widespread, especially as a tool to improve self-esteem, enhance social bonds and provide participants with a feeling of purpose.^[61]

There is no high-quality evidence that shows the effectiveness of interventions to increase sports participation of the community in sports such as mass media campaigns, educational sessions, and policy changes.^[62] There is also no high-quality studies that investigate the effect of such interventions in promoting healthy behaviour change in the community.^[63]

Politics

Benito Mussolini used the 1934 FIFA World Cup, which was held in Italy, to showcase Fascist Italy.^[64][65] Adolf Hitler also used the 1936 Summer Olympics held in Berlin, and the 1936 Winter Olympics held in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, to promote the Nazi ideology of the superiority of the Aryan race, and inferiority of the Jews and other «undesirables».^[65][66] Germany used the Olympics to give off a peaceful image while secretly preparing for war.^[67]

When apartheid was the official policy in South Africa, many sports people, particularly in rugby union, adopted the conscientious approach that they should not appear in competitive sports there. Some feel this was an effective contribution to the eventual demolition of the policy of apartheid, others feel that it may have prolonged and reinforced its worst effects.^[68]

In the history of Ireland, Gaelic sports were connected with cultural nationalism. Until the mid-20th century a person could have been banned from playing Gaelic football, hurling, or other sports administered by the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) if she/he played or supported Association football, or other games seen to be of British origin. Until recently the GAA continued to ban the playing of football and rugby union at Gaelic venues. This ban, also known as Rule 42,^[69] is still enforced, but was modified to allow football and rugby to be played in Croke Park while Lansdowne Road was redeveloped into Aviva Stadium. Until recently, under Rule 21, the GAA also banned members of the British security forces and members of the RUC from playing Gaelic games, but the advent of the Good Friday Agreement in 1998 led to the eventual removal of the ban.

Nationalism is often evident in the pursuit of sport, or in its reporting: people compete in national teams, or commentators and audiences can adopt a partisan view. On occasion, such tensions can lead to violent confrontation among players or spectators within and beyond the sporting venue, as in the Football War. These trends are seen by many as contrary to the fundamental ethos of sport being carried on for its own sake and for the enjoyment of its participants.

Sport and politics collided in the 1972 Olympics in Munich. Masked men entered the hotel of the Israeli Olympic team and killed many of their men. This was known as the Munich massacre.

A study of US elections has shown that the result of sports events can affect the results. A study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences showed that when the home team wins the game before the election, the incumbent candidates can increase their share of the vote by 1.5 percent. A loss had the opposite effect, and the effect is greater for higher-profile teams or unexpected wins and losses.^[70] Also, when Washington Redskins win their final game before an election, then the incumbent President is more likely to win, and if the Redskins lose, then the opposition candidate is more likely to win; this has become known as the Redskins Rule.^[71][72]

As a means of controlling and subduing populations

Étienne de La Boétie, in his essay Discourse on Voluntary Servitude describes athletic spectacles as means for tyrants to control their subjects by distracting them.

Do not imagine that there is any bird more easily caught by decoy, nor any fish sooner fixed on the hook by wormy bait, than are all these poor fools neatly tricked into servitude by the slightest feather passed, so to speak, before their mouths. Truly it is a marvellous thing that they let themselves be caught so quickly at the slightest tickling of their fancy. Plays, farces, spectacles, gladiators, strange beasts, medals, pictures, and other such opiates, these were for ancient peoples the bait toward slavery, the price of their liberty, the instruments of tyranny. By these practices and enticements the ancient dictators so successfully lulled their subjects under the yoke, that the stupefied peoples, fascinated by the pastimes and vain pleasures flashed before their eyes, learned subservience as naïvely, but not so creditably, as little children learn to read by looking at bright picture books.^[73]

During the British rule of Bengal, British and European sports began to supplant traditional Bengali sports, resulting in a loss of native culture.^[74]

Religious views

Sport was an important form of worship in Ancient Greek religion. The ancient Olympic Games were held in honour of the head deity, Zeus, and featured various forms of religious dedication to him and other gods.^[75] As many Greeks travelled to see the games, this combination of religion and sport also served as a way of uniting them.

The practice of athletic competitions has been criticised by some Christian thinkers as a form of idolatry, in which «human beings extol themselves, adore themselves, sacrifice themselves and reward themselves.»^[76] Sports are seen by these critics as a manifestation of «collective pride» and «national self-deification» in which feats of human power are idolised at the expense of divine worship.^[76]

Tertullian condemns the athletic performances of his day, insisting «the entire apparatus of the shows is based upon idolatry.»^[77] The shows, says Tertullian, excite passions foreign to the calm temperament cultivated by the Christian:

God has enjoined us to deal calmly, gently, quietly, and peacefully with the Holy Spirit, because these things are alone in keeping with the goodness of His nature, with His tenderness and sensitiveness. … Well, how shall this be made to accord with the shows? For the show always leads to spiritual agitation, since where there is pleasure, there is keenness of feeling giving pleasure its zest; and where there is keenness of feeling, there is rivalry giving in turn its zest to that. Then, too, where you have rivalry, you have rage, bitterness, wrath and grief, with all bad things which flow from them – the whole entirely out of keeping with the religion of Christ.^[78]

Christian clerics in the Wesleyan-Holiness movement oppose the viewing of or participation in professional sports, believing that professional sports leagues profane the Sabbath as in the modern era, certain associations hold games on the Lord’s Day.^[79] They also criticise professional sports for its fostering of a commitment that competes with a Christian’s primary commitment to God in opposition to 1 Corinthians 7:35, what they perceive to be a lack of modesty in the players’ and cheerleaders’ uniforms (which are not in conformity with the Methodistic doctrine of outward holiness), its association with violence in opposition to Hebrews 7:26, what they perceive to be the extensive use of profanity among many players that contravenes Colossians 3:8–10, and the frequent presence of gambling, as well as alcohol and other drugs at sporting events, which go against a commitment to teetotalism.^[79]

Popularity

Popularity in 2018 of major sports by size of fan base:^[7]

Rank	Sport	Estimated Global Following	Sphere of Influence
1	Association football (Soccer)	4 billion	Globally
2	Cricket	2.5 billion	primarily UK and Commonwealth, South Asia (Indian subcontinent)
3	Hockey (Ice and Field)	2 billion	Europe, North America, Africa, Asia and Australia
4	Tennis	1 billion	Globally
5	Volleyball (along with Beach Volleyball)	900 million	Americas, Europe, Asia, Oceania
6	Table tennis	875 million	Mainly East Asia
7	Basketball	825 million	Globally
8	Baseball	500 million	primarily United States, Caribbean and East Asia
9	Rugby (League and Union)	475 million	primarily UK, Ireland, France, Italy, Oceania, South Africa, Argentina, and Japan.
10	Golf	450 million	primarily Western Europe, East Asia and North America

See also

Related topics

Sources

 This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO. Text taken from Strengthening the rule of law through education: a guide for policymakers​, UNESCO, UNESCO. UNESCO. To learn how to add open license text to Wikipedia articles, please see this how-to page. For information on reusing text from Wikipedia, please see the terms of use.

References

Sources

• European Commission (2007), The White Paper on Sport.
• Council of Europe (2001), The European sport charter.

Further reading

• The Meaning of Sports by Michael Mandel (PublicAffairs, ISBN 1-58648-252-1).
• Journal of the Philosophy of Sport
• Sullivan, George. The Complete Sports Dictionary. New York: Scholastic Book Services, 1979. 199 p. ISBN 0-590-05731-6

Of OE spyrd Bowsorth-Toller says,

The word glosses stadium (1) with the meaning a course :— Ða ðe in spyrde iornaþ qui in stadio currunt, Rtl. 5, 33. (2) with the meaning a measure of distance :— Swelce spyrdas fífténe (spyrdum fífténum, Lind.) quasi stadiis quindecim, Jn. Skt. Rush. 11, 18. Swelce spyrdo fífe and twoegentig quasi stadia .xxv., 6, 19. Ðara spyrda stadiorum, Lk. Skt. Lind. Rush. 24, 13. In all these passages the West-Saxon uses furlang. [Goth. spaurds (1) a course; (2) a distance: O. H. Ger. spurt stadium.]

It is not clear whether the ‘racecourse’ sense derives from the ‘distance’ sense or vice versa; the same is true of the Latin word it glosses, stadium, although the Online Etymology Dictionary suggests the Greek original of the Latin term suggests that the ‘distance’ sense was prior.

This is a very shaky foundation upon which to build an origin for ModE sport—especially since I find no evidence that the OE term survived into ME.

As OP points out, Middle English Dictionary gives sport(e with the senses:

1. (a) Amusement, entertainment; pleasure, fun; also, an activity that brings pleasure or amusement; a pastime or game; also, ?a sexual exploit, an amorous deed [quot. ?c1450, 2nd]; don sportes, to play games; haven (taken) ~, take (one’s) pleasure, have fun; ?participate in merrymaking; maken ~, create amusement, make sport; (b) a source of pleasure or delight; (c) joking; foolery; in ~, in jest; connen no ~, to engage in no foolery.

2. Solace, consolation; also, ?a means of comfort or consolation; maken ~, to console (sb.), cheer up.

There are also related words, sportaunce, sportelet, sporten, sportful, sporting.

MED sees all of these as «Shortened form[s] of disport«, «disporten, &c., which first appear in ME a generation earlier than sport(e and its relatives. For the noun MED gives the following senses:

1. (a) An activity that offers amusement, pleasure, or relaxation; entertainment, merry-making, fun, recreation; maken ~, to entertain (sb.); taken ~, amuse oneself, have fun; (b) a pastime, sport, or game; also, the game of love, flirtation; (c) in ~, in jest.

2. (a) Pleasure taken in an activity or enjoyment derived from it; haven ~, to take pleasure (in sth.), be gratified; (b) consolation, solace; a source of comfort; don ~, to cheer (sb.) up.

3. (a) Deportment, conduct; customary behavior, custom, manner; (b) an instance of behavior, an act or activity; don ~, to do something.

4. Departure; maken ~, to set out (for a place).

The first two of these senses are clearly identical with those of sport(e. They carry over into EME, whence they give rise to the modern senses.

Among the «disportes» mentioned by the MED citations are dice, reveling, minstrels singing songs and telling jests, and finding Venus on a bed of gold, as well as recreations which would be regarded as «sports» today, hawking, hunting, angling, archery.

None of the citations alludes to racing or reflects (except for one allusion to the «actes and disportes Olimpicalle») a sense of «competitive» sport.

And there is no other MED headword of the form sp?rt*, sp?rd*, spr?t*, or spr?d* which could be taken as derivative of spyrd.

It looks like the similarity of the OE term is coincidental, since it cannot be traced into ME.

Sport originated as a leisure activity and has evolved, in many cases, into a fierce, competitively-played activity which has risen to the top of the global popularity chart. All sports are governed by a set of rules or customs that ensure that the integrity of the sport is not compromised. Sports commonly refer to activities where one’s physical ability will propel one to be victorious; however, the mental aspect (for example, toughness) is also crucial in any sport.

Etymology

The term,»Sport» comes from the old French desport meaning «leisure»

History

Overview

There are artifacts and structures that suggest that the Chinese engaged in sporting activities as early as 4000 B.C.E.^[1] Gymnastics appears to have been a popular sport in China’s ancient past. Monuments to the Pharaohs indicate that a number of sports, including swimming and fishing, were well-developed and regulated several thousands of years ago in ancient Egypt.^[2] Other Egyptian sports included javelin throwing, high jump, and wrestling. Ancient Persian sports such as the traditional Iranian martial art of Zourkhaneh had a close connection to the warfare skills.^[3] Among other sports that originate in Persia are polo and jousting.

A wide range of sports were already established by the time of the rise of Ancient Greece; the military culture and the development of sports in Greece influenced one another considerably. Sports became a prominent part of their culture, leading to the creation of the Olympic Games, which in ancient times were held every four years in a small village in the Peloponnesus called Olympia.^[4]

Sports have become increasingly organized and regulated from the time of the Ancient Olympics. Industrialization has brought increased leisure time to the citizens of developed and developing countries, leading to more time for citizens to attend and follow spectator sports, greater participation in athletic activities, and increased accessibility. These trends continued with the advent of mass media and global communication. Professionalism became prevalent, further adding to the increase in sport’s popularity, as sports fans began following the exploits of professional athletes through radio, television, and the internet, as well as enjoying the exercise and competition associated with amateur participation in sports.

Ancient history

Prehistoric cave art discovered in France, Africa, and Australia, carbon dated up to 30,000 years ago, provides evidence of ritual archery. The art’s very existence demonstrates interest in skills unrelated to the functional tasks of staying alive, and is evidence of leisure time. It depicts other non-functional and apparently ritual activities as well.

Captain Cook, as the first Western visitor to the Hawaiian Islands, in 1778, reported on the native people surfing. The Native Americans engaged in games and sports, such as lacrosse-type games, foot racing, and other athletic activities before the coming of Europeans. The ancient Mayan and Aztec civilizations played organized, ritualized ballgames. Some of the courts used at that time are still standing today.

Individual sports, such as wrestling and archery, have been practiced worldwide since ancient times. Sport has been increasingly organized and regulated from the time of the Ancient Olympics up to the present century. Activities necessary for food and survival became regulated activities done for pleasure or competition on an increasing scale.

Egypt

Monuments to the Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt indicate that a range of sports were well-developed and regulated several thousands of years ago, including swimming and fishing. This is not surprising, perhaps, given the importance of the Nile River in the life of Egypt. Other sports included javelin throwing, high jump, and wrestling. As in Ancient Greece, the nature of the sports popular at the time suggests close correspondence with everyday non-sporting activities.

China

There are artifacts and structures which suggest that Chinese people engaged in activities which meet our definition of sport as early as 2000 years B.C.E. The origin and development of China’s sports activities seem to have been closely related to the production, work, war and entertainment of the time. Gymnastics appears to have been a popular sport in China’s past. It certainly remains so today, as the skill of Chinese acrobats is internationally recognized. China has a Beijing Museum which is dedicated to the subject of Chinese sport and its history.

Greece

A wide range of sports were already in operation at the time of the ancient Greeks. Wrestling, running, boxing, chariot racing, javelin and discus throwing were prevalent, and there were ball games for children and adults. This suggests that the military culture of Greece was an influence on the development of its sports. Sporting competitions are described in the Iliad, one of the most important books of ancient Greek culture. Various competitions were held in honor of Patroclus’ death. The Olympic Games were held every four years in Ancient Greece. In the noble Grecian ideal, victory at the Games was much sought after and was rewarded with an olive branch. Winners at the Games were often received with much honor throughout Greece and were often granted large sums of money, particularly in their home towns.

The games were held not simply as a sporting event, but as a celebration of individual excellence, cultural and artistic variety, and a showplace for architectural and sculptural innovation. Fundamentally, it was a time of gratitude and respect for the Gods of the Greek religion. The games are named after Mount Olympus, a sacred place where the Gods were said to live. A time of truce was declared during the Olympic Games, as military actions and public executions were suspended. This was to enable people to congregate peacefully and to compete in a civilized and respectful atmosphere.

Mexico

Archaeologists have dated the earliest ballcourts in Mesoamerica to 1600 B.C.E. The ball game was an extremely important part of ancient Mexican society, as testified by [Olmec]] statues that depict chiefs and important men wearing ballplaying gear such as helmets and padded clothing around 1200 B.C.E. The most important Classic Maya legend, the story of the Popul Vuh, centers around a pair of Hero Twins who play ball against the Lords of the Underworld. The Mesoamerican ball game had important symbolic associations, but also had more mundane functions—facilitating the celebration of holidays and gambling.

Rome

There were four types of Roman sports: Ludi (chariot racing, equestrian sports, boxing), munera (gladiatorial sports and wild beast shows), Greek-style athletics (foot race, pentathlon), and recreation sports which were (apparently) not professional, such as ludi pilae (ball games).

Modern sport

In the twenty-first century, the opportunity to participate in sports is limitless. There are a myriad of sports for different kinds of people. Beginning simply as a leisure activity, sport has evolved into a well-developed recreational pursuit as well as a huge professional business. Whether it is cricket in India, or basketball in the United States, spectators are watching these sports on television at an exponentially rising rate. Certain sports, for example basketball, are taking their organization, the National Basketball Association to global heights in their «Basketball Without Borders» program.

Football (American)

What once began as rugby has transformed itself into one of the globe’s most watched sports. With stadiums built to seat an average of seventy thousand fans and some exceeding one hundred thousand, football has the greatest turnout of any sport. The violent tackles and quarterback sacks coupled with interceptions and exciting touchdowns have made football the most popular American game and the National Football League the most popular professional sports league. The object of the game is to score points by advancing the ball to the opponent’s end zone for a touchdown, or to kick field goals, and to prevent the other team from doing likewise. The team with the most points when time has expired wins. The game begins with a coin toss as the winning team chooses whether they would like to receive the ball or begin with a kickoff. The team with the possession of the ball is given four chances (downs) to make a first down. The main options of scoring are the touchdown and the field goal, while you can also give up the ball by fumbling or throwing an interception. This sport is played on all levels: High school, college, amateur, and professional. In addition, it is one of the most played leisure sports by younger children.

Baseball

Baseball is a team sport popular in North America, Latin America, the Caribbean and East Asia. The modern game was developed in the United States from early bat-and-ball games played in Britain and is known as the «national pastime» of the United States, although American football may arguably draw more fans and television viewership.

Basketball

Basketball is a team sport in which two teams of five active players each try to score points against one another by throwing a basketball through a 10-foot high hoop (the basket) under organized rules. It was created by James A. Naismith in 1891 in Springfield, Massachusetts. Basketball is one of the most popular and widely viewed sports in the world. There are professional and amateur basketball leagues in many countries and it is one of the most popular of Olympics sports as well. Like other team sports, basketball stresses not only athletic agility but also team work and competition.

Points are scored by passing the ball through the basket from above; the team with more points at the end of the game wins. The ball can be advanced on the court by bouncing it (dribbling) or passing it between teammates. Disruptive physical contact (fouls) is not permitted and there are restrictions on how the ball can be handled.

The National Basketball Association (NBA) is the world’s premier men’s basketball league. It has 30 teams; 29 in the United States and 1 in Canada. It is an active member of USA Basketball (also known as FIBA), which is recognized by the International Basketball Federation as the National Governing Body (NGB) for basketball in the United States. The league was founded in New York City, on June 6, 1946, as the Basketball Association of America (BAA). The league adopted the name National Basketball Association in the Autumn of 1949, after merging with the rival National Basketball League (United States). The NBA represents the highest level of competition in the world of basketball. It has grown in international popularity as the best players of the world have joined America’s top players.

Ice hockey

one of the more physical sports, is one of the four major professional sports, and is represented by the National Hockey League (NHL) at its highest level. The sport itself is played on numerous levels, including men and women’s NCAA hockey, men and women’s national hockey league, and so on. What arose as a pastime in Canada has become popular in almost all parts of the world, especially the colder areas, where hockey can be played outdoors on ice. In fact, Canadian hockey comprises of six teams of the NHL, and the number of Canadian players in comparison to Americans is approximately four to one.
The sport’s popularity in the U.S. is concentrated in certain regions, notably the Northeast, the Midwest, and Alaska. This concentration helps to make ice hockey the least watched major sport in the United States, though it is by far the most watched sport in Canada. Nonetheless, in certain major U.S. cities like Buffalo, Detroit, Pittsburgh, Minneapolis, Chicago, Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Tampa Bay, Denver, San Jose, and Columbus it commands popularity levels similar to and occasionally exceeding basketball for winter sports fans.

The NHL was founded in 1917 in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, with only four teams. Through a series of expansions, contractions, and relocations, the league is now composed of 30 teams, 24 of which are based in the United States and six in Canada. After a labor dispute that led to the cancellation of the complete 2004–05 season, the league has staged a successful comeback, including revenue and profit growth. As a result of the Canadian influence, the majority of the hockey league consists of players of Canadian descent.

Golf

Main article: Golf

Golf is a sport in which individual players or teams of players strike a ball into a hole using several types of clubs. Golf is one of the few ball games that does not use a fixed, standardized playing field or area; defined in the Rules of Golf as «playing a ball with a club from the teeing ground into the hole by a stroke or successive strokes in accordance with the Rules.»

The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews The first game of golf for which records survive was played at Bruntsfield Links, in Edinburgh, Scotland, in A.D. 1456, recorded in the archives of the Edinburgh Burgess Golfing Society, now The Royal Burgess Golfing Society.

Soccer

As one of the most popular sports in the world, soccer is a team sport that consists of eleven players vying to kick the ball past the goalie and into the net. In terms of scoring, soccer generates the fewest points (goals); however, game play is more intense and physical than in many sports. There is almost never a rupture in the action, and upon scoring a goal, the fans break into a frenzy that can rarely be matched by other sports.

Tennis

Tennis is a game played between two players (singles) or between two teams of two players (doubles). Players use a stringed racket to strike a hollow rubber ball covered with felt over a net into the opponent’s court. Originating in Europe in the late nineteenth century, tennis spread first throughout the English-speaking world, particularly among the upper classes. Tennis is now once again an Olympic sport and is played at all levels of society, by all ages, and in many countries around the world. Except for the adoption of the tie-breaker in the 1970s, its rules have remained remarkably unchanged since the 1890s. Along with its millions of players, millions of people follow tennis as a spectator sport, especially the four Grand Slam tournaments: Australian Open, French Open, Wimbledon, and the U.S. Open.

Volleyball

Volleyball is a globally recognized sport that originated in the United States. Play is started by a player on one side serving the ball over the the net into the opponents’ field or court. The opponents then, without allowing the ball to strike the floor, return it, and it is in this way kept going back and forth until one side fails to return it or it hits the floor. This counts a «score» for one side, or a «server out» for the other, depending on the side in point. The game consists of nine innings, each side serving a certain number of times, as per the rules, per inning. The complete rules of volleyball are extensive, but in general, play proceeds as follows. Points are scored by grounding the ball on the opponents’ court, or when the opponent commits a fault. The first team to reach 25 points wins the set and the first team to win three sets wins the match. Teams can contact the ball no more than three times before the ball crosses the net, and consecutive contacts must be made by different players. The ball is usually played with the hands or arms, but players can legally strike or push (short contact) the ball with any part of the body.

Other sports

There are numerous sports that are played frequently and are in demand in terms of popularity and appeal. These include cricket, lacrosse, rugby, fishing, horse racing, and water polo, among others.

Sportsmanship

Sportsmanship is an attitude that strives for fair play, courtesy toward teammates and opponents, ethical behavior and integrity, and grace in losing.^[5]

Sportsmanship expresses an aspiration or ethos that the activity will be enjoyed for its own sake. The well-known sentiment by sports journalist Grantland Rice, that it is “not that you won or lost but how you played the game,» and the Modern Olympic creed expressed by its founder Pierre de Coubertin: «The most important thing … is not winning but taking part» are typical expressions of this sentiment.

But often the pressures of competition or an obsession with individual achievement—as well as the intrusion of technology—can all work against enjoyment and fair play by participants.

People responsible for leisure activities often seek recognition and respectability as sports by joining sports federations such as 5 IOC, or by forming their own regulatory body. In this way, sports evolve from leisure activity to more formal sports: Relatively recent newcomers are BMX cycling, snowboarding, and wrestling. Some of these activities have been popular but uncodified pursuits in various forms for different lengths of time. Indeed, the formal regulation of sport is a relatively modern and increasing development.

Sportsmanship, within any given game, is how each competitor acts before, during, and after the competition. The challenge of huge monetary rewards, as sport has become a big business, has made some impact on the notion of sportsmanship.

Still, each sport has its own definition of what counts as good sportsmanship, informal rules which are to be obeyed. Failure to do so usually results in criticism or even a fight. For example, in football it is considered sportsmanlike to kick the ball out of play to allow treatment for an injured player on the other side. Reciprocally, the other team is expected to return the ball from the throw-in. Ice hockey players traditionally don’t take a shot after the whistle blows. Doing so could lead to retaliation.

Violence in sports involves crossing the line between fair competition and intentional aggressive violence. Athletes, coaches, fans, and parents sometimes unleash violent behavior on people or property, in misguided shows of loyalty, dominance, anger, or celebration. Rioting or hooliganism are common and ongoing problems at national and international sporting contests, particularly football matches

Politics

At times, sports and politics can have a large amount of influence on each other.

When apartheid was the official policy in South Africa, many athletes, particularly in rugby, adopted the conscientious approach that they should not appear in competitive sports there. Some feel this was an effective contribution to the eventual demolition of the policy of apartheid, others feel that it may have prolonged and reinforced its worst effects.^[6]

The 1936 Summer Olympics, held in Berlin, was an illustration, perhaps best recognized in retrospect, of a political ideology using an event for propaganda purposes. The 1980 Olympics were boycotted by the United States in response to the Soviet invastion of Afghanistan. The Soviets retaliated, boycotting the 1984 Games in Los Angeles.

In the history of Ireland, Gaelic sports were connected with cultural nationalism. Until the mid twentieth century, a person could have been banned from playing Gaelic football, hurling, or other sports administered by the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) if she/he played or supported soccer, or other games seen to be of British origin. Until recently the GAA continued to ban the playing of soccer and rugby at Gaelic venues. This ban is still enforced, but has been modified to allow football and rugby be played in Croke Park while Lansdowne Road is being redeveloped. Until recently, under Rule 21, the GAA also banned members of the British security forces and members of the RUC from playing Gaelic games, but the advent of the Good Friday Agreement, in 1998, led to the eventual removal of the ban.

Nationalism is often evident in the pursuit of sports, or in its reporting: People compete in national teams, or commentators and audiences can adopt a partisan view. Usually, the result is good, clean competition. However, on occasion, such tensions can lead to violent confrontation among players or spectators within and beyond the sporting venue (see Football War). These trends are seen by many as contrary to the fundamental ethos of sports being carried on for its own sake and for the enjoyment of its participants.

Physical art

Sports have many affinities with art. Ice skating and Tai chi, and Dancesport for example, are sports that bear similarities to artistic spectacles. Similarly, there are other activities that have elements of sport and art in their execution, such as artistic gymnastics, Bodybuilding, Parkour, performance art, Yoga, bossaball, dressage, culinary arts, etc. Perhaps the best example is Bull-fighting, which in Spain is reported in the arts pages of newspapers. The fact that art is so close to sports in some situations is probably related to the nature of sports. Sport, like art, has a utilitarian purpose, but is also pursued for its own sake, for beauty and enjoyment.

Art and sports have been clearly linked since the time of Ancient Greece, when gymnastics and calisthenics invoked admiration and aesthetic appreciation for the physical build, prowess and «arete» displayed by participants. The modern term «art» as skill, is related to this ancient Greek term arete, which roughly translates as excellence. The closeness of art and sport in these times was revealed by the nature of the Olympic Games which, as we have seen, were celebrations of both sporting and artistic achievements, poetry, sculpture, and architecture.

Spectator sport

As well as being a form of recreation for the participants, much sport is played in front of an audience. Most professional sport is played in a ‘theater’ of some kind–a stadium, arena, golf course, race track, or the open road, with provision for the (often paying) public.

Large television or radio audiences are also commonly attracted, with rival broadcasters bidding large amounts of money for the ‘rights’ to show certain fixtures. The football World Cup attracts a global television audience of hundreds of millions; the 2006 Final alone attracted an estimated worldwide audience of well over 700 million. In the United States, the championship game of the NFL, the Super Bowl, has become one of the most watched television broadcasts of the year. Super Bowl Sunday is a «de facto» national holiday; the viewership is so great that in 2007 advertising space was reported as being sold at $2.6m for a 30 second slot.

The impact of sports: The unification factor

Sports in general are a medium through which many experience stress relief, and furthermore, a way through which a conglomeration of cultures can become unified. «Sports affect politics, fuel our economy, and shape our culture. The American Dream is personified in our champions, in the records they set and the barriers they break. The dynamic interaction of athletes, fans, and the media produces inexplicable loyalties, lasting legends, and revered heroes. The greatest champions stand for more than the records they break. They stand for the barriers they shatter—physical, social, psychological, racial, cultural—and change the way we think about our world.»^[7]

Breaking barriers and records

Boxing: America’s first national sports celebrity: John L. Sullivan

«John L. Sullivan fought his way to the heavyweight championship and charmed his way to truly national celebrity. The bare-knuckle prizefighter personified the masculine, aggressive spirit of the era, and the fans who loved him vastly outnumbered his detractors. Though boxing was illegal in most states, the press-savvy Sullivan won fans from every walk of life, including the president of the United States. At the high point of his career, Sullivan’s supporters bought him a diamond-encrusted belt which was presented to him by the mayor of Boston. «The Great John L.» lost only one of his nearly 50 career fights, falling to James «Gentleman Jim» Corbett in 1892.»^[7]

Swimming: Gertrude Ederle

• Gertrude Ederle was the first woman to swim the English Channel.
• Born: New York City, New York, 1906–2003
• Gold Medalist, 400-meter freestyle relay, Paris Olympics, 1924
• Bronze Medalist, 100- and 400-meter freestyle, Paris Olympics, 1924
• 29 U.S. and world swimming records
• Taught deaf children to swim after water damaged her own hearing^[7]

Breaking the color barrier: Jackie Robinson

• Name: Jackie Roosevelt Robinson
• Born: Cairo, Georgia, 1919–1972
• First African American to play Major League Baseball, 1947
• First African American inducted into Baseball Hall of Fame, 1962
• 6 National League pennants, 1 World Series win
• Stole home 19 times
• Retired with .311 batting average, 1956
• Rookie of the Year, 1947
• Lifetime civil rights activist^[7]

Gibson’s Wimbledon

• Name: Althea Gibson
• Born: Silver, South Carolina, 1927–2003
• First African American to play in U.S. Nationals, 1950, and at Wimbledon, 1951
• First African American to win French Open Singles Championship, 1956
• U.S. National Singles Champion, 1957, 1958
• Wimbledon Singles Champion, 1957, 1958
• Actress and singer
• Civil rights activist^[7]

The mile run

• Name: Roger Gilbert Bannister
• Born: Harrow, Middlesex, England, 1929–
• First to break the four-minute mile (3:59.4), 1954
• Chairman of Sports Council of Great Britain, 1971–1974
• President of International Council for Sports and Recreation, 1976–1983
• Knighted by Queen Elizabeth II, 1975
• Graduated from Oxford University Medical School, became neurologist
• Editor of numerous medical books and journals ^[7]

See also

• Sports journalism
• Combat Sport
• Sports equipment

Notes

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Hickock, Ralph. The Encyclopedia of North American Sports History. New York: Facts on File, Copyright 1992. ISBN 9780816020966.
• Mandel, Michael. The Meaning of Sports. PublicAffairs. ISBN 1-58648-252-1.
• Menke, G. Frank. The Encyclopedia of Sports. South Brunswick: A.S. Barnes, 1975. ISBN 9780498014406.