Greek and latin word origin

In English grammar, a root is a word or portion of a word from which other words grow, usually through the addition of prefixes and suffixes. By learning root words, you can decipher unfamiliar words, expand your vocabulary, and become a better English speaker. 

The Roots of Words

Most words in the English language are based on words from ancient Greek and Latin. The root of the word «vocabulary,» for example, is ​voc, a Latin root meaning «word» or «name.» This root also appears in such words as «advocacy,» «convocation,» «evocative,» «vocal,» and «vowel.» By dissecting words such as these, etymologists can study how a word has evolved over time and tell us about the cultures they came from.

In some cases, root words might be slightly transformed en route to becoming part of words that we’re familiar with. In the above example, «vowel» is a word that’s clearly related to the voc root and its family of derivative words, and yet the «c» in «voc» is not present. There are several reasons for this sort of pattern, and the changes often depend on what language each individual word comes from, but it serves as a reminder that not every word with the same root will look exactly the same.

Root words are also useful for creating new words, especially in technology and medicine, where new innovations occur frequently. Think of the Greek root word tele, which means «far,» and inventions that traverse long distances, such as the telegraph, telephone, and television. The word «technology» itself is a combination of two other Greek root words, techne, meaning «skill» or «art,» and logos, or «study.»

Because several modern languages share some of the same ancestor languages, it’s not entirely uncommon for several related languages to share root words. For instance, the Latin root voc, described above, is shared by several Romance languages. Connections between languages can be found in the shared roots between them, although one always has to be wary of false cognates — that is, words that sound like they have the same roots (and thus related meanings) but actually don’t.

Greek Root Words

The table below defines and illustrates 25 of the most common Greek roots.

Latin Root Words

The table below defines and illustrates 25 of the most common Latin roots.

​Understanding the meanings of the common word roots can help us deduce the meanings of new words that we encounter. But be careful: root words can have more than one meaning as well as various shades of meaning. In addition, words that look similar may derive from different roots.

In addition, a handful of root words can stand on their own as whole words in and of themselves. This list includes words such as photo, kinesis, chrome, port, and script. Words like this tend to have related meanings on their own, then can also act as roots for longer, more complex words.

Sources

• Bryant, Alice, and Robbins, Jill. «Grow Your Vocabulary by Learning Root Words.» VOANews.com, 28 November 2017.
• Grammarly staff. «Why You Should Learn Roots.» Grammarly.com, 6 February 2016.
• McCammon, Ellen. «50 GRE Words You Should Know.» PrepScholar.com, 8 February 2017.

Most countable nouns form the plural by adding the ending s/es. (The rules of adding s/es and the peculiarities of adding s/es to the final letters Y, O, F, FE and to compound nouns are described in the material Adding the Ending s/es to Nouns and Verbs in the section Writing.)

A limited number of nouns have irregular plural forms, for example, names of some animals, some words of Latin or Greek origin.

Irregular plural forms

Some nouns form their plural not by adding the ending s/es, but by changing the letters in the root of the word.

man – men;

woman – women;

child – children;

ox – oxen;

mouse – mice;

louse – lice;

foot – feet;

tooth – teeth;

goose – geese.

Note: The noun «brother» (a member of a family) has a regular plural form: brother – brothers. If the noun «brother» is used in the meaning «a fellow member», it may have the archaic irregular plural form «brethren» (fellow members).

The same singular and plural form

Some nouns have the same singular and plural form.

one sheep – two sheep;

a deer – two deer;

a bison – five bison;

a moose – three moose;

a swine – several swine;

a fish – two fish;

a dozen – two dozen;

an aircraft – two aircraft;

a means – means;

a series – two series;

a species – different species;

a corps [ko:r] – corps [ko:rz];

a headquarters – headquarters;

a crossroads – crossroads;

an alms – alms;

a gallows – gallows;

a barracks – barracks.

Singular or plural verb form

If a noun with the same singular and plural form is used as the subject of a sentence, the choice of the singular or plural verb form depends on the meaning of the noun.

If the noun is singular in meaning, the singular form of the verb is used. For example:

A deer is a graceful animal.

The aircraft is ready for the flight.

The UN headquarters is in New York.

If the noun is plural in meaning, the plural form of the verb is used. For example:

Three sheep were missing.

Deer are rare in these places.

Modern aircraft are powerful machines.

Note: Different kinds

The word «fish» and the names of some fish, for example, «cod, flatfish, salmon, trout», usually have the same singular and plural form, especially in ordinary speech and writing. For example: She bought several fish, including a trout and two salmon. He caught three trout. They had fish for dinner.

In scientific literature, the plural form of such nouns is also often the same as the singular form. For example: Numerous varieties of fish are found in tropical waters. Tropical fish are usually brightly colored. Bass, cod, salmon, sturgeon and trout abound in these rivers and lakes.

When referring to different kinds, species and varieties, such nouns in the plural often have the plural ending s/es in scientific literature: freshwater fishes; aquarium fishes; cods, flatfishes, salmons, trouts, etc. For example: Tropical fishes are usually brightly colored. All fishes have fins.

Some uncountable mass nouns may also be used in the plural when referring to different kinds and varieties, usually in scientific literature. For example: the teas of India; soft cheeses; stainless steels. (See Articles: Uncountable Nouns in the section Grammar.)

Note: Names of animals (birds, fish, etc.) may be used as a notion representing the whole class of such species; in such cases, the noun is used in the singular with the definite article «the». For example: The leopard lives in forests. The blue whale is the largest of all mammals. (See Specific Use of THE in the section Grammar.)

Only in the plural

Nouns that denote an indivisible pair of things are used in the plural and with a plural verb. Such nouns are often used with the phrase «a pair of».

jeans; trousers, pants, slacks;

shorts, tights, breeches;

pajamas, briefs, panties;

scissors, pliers, tongs, pincers, forceps;

glasses, spectacles.

Examples:

These jeans are too long for me.

Your trousers are in the bedroom closet.

Where are my glasses?

Where are my gym tights?

She bought two pairs of jeans and a pair of shorts.

There is a pair of scissors in the kitchen.

Note: The word «pantyhose» is used in the singular.

Where is my new pantyhose?

She bought four pairs of pantyhose.

Some other plural nouns

There are some other nouns with the ending s/es that are used only in the plural, take a plural verb, and have no singular form in the given meaning.

For example: clothes, arms (weapons), goods, troops, remains, savings, belongings. In some of such cases there is a singular form, but its meaning is different (for example: a troop; troops).

These clothes need washing.

He lost all his savings.

Various consumer goods are sold in this store.

Only in the singular

Some uncountable nouns have the ending «s» in their form but are used only in the singular. For example: news; names of some games (billiards, dominoes, checkers, cards); names of some diseases (measles, mumps). Scientific subjects are also singular: mathematics, physics, phonetics, linguistics, economics, politics.

If such nouns are in the function of the subject, the verb is used in the singular form. For example:

No news is good news. (proverb)

Billiards is an interesting game.

Measles is a serious disease.

Mathematics is his favorite subject.

Note: The word «money» is used in the singular: Where is my money? This money is mine. Money makes money. Money talks. Money is the root of all evil. The plural forms «moneys, monies» are used mostly in law terminology in the meaning «sums of money».

Note: Nouns ending in «ics»

As described above, uncountable nouns ending in «ics» are used only in the singular. But some of them have meanings in which they are used in the plural, though such use is not very common.

For example, «statistics» as a science is used in the singular (Statistics is a science); «statistics» as numerical data is used in the plural (These statistics are not correct).

Other nouns that may be used in the same way: acoustics, economics, politics, gymnastics. For example:

Acoustics is a branch of physics. The acoustics of this concert hall are excellent.

She studied economics in college. What are the economics of this project?

He is studying politics. What are his politics?

Latin and Greek plural forms

Some nouns of Latin or Greek origin have kept their Latin or Greek plural endings. The plural ending «es» as in the word «analyses» is pronounced [i:z]; the ending «i» as in the word «alumni» is pronounced [ai]; the ending «ae» as in «vertebrae» is pronounced [i:].

Nouns with Latin and Greek plural endings in the list below are divided into groups according to the ending in the singular. The English plural ending s/es is also used with some of these nouns; in such cases, two variants are given, and the variant with the English ending s/es is marked with the letter (E).

Generally (but not always), English variants of plural forms are more common in ordinary speech and writing, and Latin and Greek variants are more common in scientific and academic texts.

The first variant of the plural forms in the list below is the variant that is usually listed first in American dictionaries. In some cases dictionaries differ on which of the two variants is more common.

In a few cases, English and Latin plural forms are different in meaning. For example: radio antennas, an insect’s antennae; mass media (radio, TV, newspapers), spiritualistic mediums (people regarded as mediums).

Note: The noun «data», the plural of «datum», can be used as singular or plural in meaning: this data; these data; there is no data. The noun «agenda», originally the plural of «agendum», is generally used as a singular noun: today’s agenda; a lengthy agenda.

Group 1

analysis – analyses

axis – axes

basis – bases

crisis – crises

diagnosis – diagnoses

ellipsis – ellipses

emphasis – emphases

genesis – geneses

hypothesis – hypotheses

oasis – oases

parenthesis – parentheses

synopsis – synopses

synthesis – syntheses

thesis – theses

Group 2

abacus – abacuses (E), abaci

alumnus – alumni

apparatus – apparatus, apparatuses (E)

cactus – cactuses (E), cacti

calculus – calculi, calculuses (E)

corpus – corpora

eucalyptus – eucalyptuses (E), eucalypti

focus – focuses (E), foci

fungus – fungi, funguses (E)

genus – genera, genuses (E)

hippopotamus – hippopotamuses (E), hippopotami

nucleus – nuclei, nucleuses (E)

octopus – octopuses (E), octopi

papyrus – papyri, papyruses (E)

platypus – platypuses (E), platypi

radius – radii, radiuses (E)

rhombus – rhombuses (E), rhombi

stimulus – stimuli

stylus – styluses (E), styli

syllabus – syllabuses (E), syllabi

terminus – termini, terminuses (E)

Group 3

automaton – automatons (E), automata

criterion – criteria

phenomenon – phenomena

polyhedron – polyhedrons (E), polyhedra

octahedron – octahedrons (E), octahedra

tetrahedron – tetrahedrons (E), tetrahedra

Group 4

addendum – addenda

aquarium – aquariums (E), aquaria

arboretum – arboretums (E), arboreta

atrium – atria, atriums (E)

bacterium – bacteria

compendium – compendiums (E), compendia

curriculum – curriculums (E), curricula

datum – data

emporium – emporiums (E), emporia

equilibrium – equilibriums (E), equilibria

erratum – errata

forum – forums (E), fora

maximum – maximums (E), maxima

medium – media

medium – mediums

memorandum – memorandums (E), memoranda

millennium – millenniums (E), millennia

planetarium – planetariums (E), planetaria

podium – podiums (E), podia

spectrum – spectra, spectrums (E)

stadium – stadiums (E), stadia

sternum – sterna, sternums (E)

stratum – strata, stratums (E)

symposium – symposiums (E), symposia

terrarium – terrariums (E), terraria

vacuum – vacuums (E), vacua

vivarium – vivariums (E), vivaria

Group 5

alumna – alumnae

antenna – (radio) antennas

antenna – (insects’) antennae

charisma – charismata

dogma – dogmas (E), dogmata

enigma – enigmas (E), enigmata

formula – formulas (E), formulae

stigma – stigmata, stigmas (E)

vertebra – vertebrae, vertebras (E)

Group 6

apex – apexes (E), apices

appendix – appendixes (E), appendices

index – indexes (E), indices

matrix – matrices, matrixes (E)

vertex – vertexes (E), vertices

vortex – vortexes (E), vortices.

Существительные с неправильной формой множественного числа

Большинство исчисляемых существительных образуют множественное число прибавлением окончания s/es. (Правила прибавления s/es и особенности прибавления s/es к конечным буквам Y, O, F, FE и к сложным существительным описаны в материале Adding the Ending s/es to Nouns and Verbs в разделе Writing.)

Ограниченное число существительных имеют неправильные формы мн. числа, например, названия некоторых животных, некоторые слова латинского или греческого происхождения.

Неправильные формы мн. числа

Некоторые существительные образуют множественное число не прибавлением окончания s/es, а изменением букв в корне слова.

мужчина – мужчины;

женщина – женщины;

ребенок – дети;

бык – быки, рогатый скот;

мышь – мыши;

вошь – вши;

ступня – ступни;

зуб – зубы;

гусь – гуси.

Примечание: Существительное «brother» (член семьи) имеет правильную форму мн. числа: brother (брат) – brothers (братья). Если существительное «brother» употреблено в значении «собрат, сотоварищ», оно может иметь устаревшую неправильную форму мн. числа «brethren» (собратья).

Одна и та же форма ед. и мн. числа

Некоторые существительные имеют одну и ту же форму ед. и мн. числа.

одна овца – две овцы;

один олень – два оленя;

бизон – пять бизонов;

лось – три лося;

свинья – несколько свиней;

рыба – две рыбы;

дюжина – две дюжины;

воздушное судно – два воздушных судна;

средство – средства;

серия – две серии;

вид, род – разные виды;

корпус, организация – корпусы, организации;

штаб – штабы;

перекрёсток, пересечение дорог – перекрёстки;

подаяние – подаяния;

виселица – виселицы;

казарма, барак – казармы, бараки.

Форма глагола в ед. или мн. числе

Если существительное с одинаковой формой ед. и мн. числа употреблено как подлежащее, выбор формы ед. или мн. числа глагола зависит от значения существительного.

Если существительное в ед. числе по значению, употребляется форма ед. числа глагола. Например:

Олень – грациозное животное.

Самолет готов к полёту.

Штаб-квартира ООН находится в Нью-Йорке.

Если существительное во мн. числе по значению, употребляется форма мн. числа глагола. Например:

Три овцы исчезли.

Олени редки в этих местах.

Современные самолёты – мощные машины.

Примечание: Различные виды

Слово «fish» и названия некоторых рыб, например, «cod, flatfish, salmon, trout», обычно имеют одну и ту же форму ед. и мн. числа, особенно в обычной устной и письменной речи. Например: Она купила несколько рыб, включая (одну) форель и двух лососей. Он поймал три форели. У них была рыба на обед.

В научной литературе, форма мн. числа таких существительных часто тоже одинакова с формой ед. числа. Например: Многочисленные виды рыб встречаются в тропических водах. Тропические рыбы обычно ярко окрашены. Окунь, треска, лосось, осётр и форель в изобилии встречаются в этих реках и озёрах.

Если имеются в виду различные виды и разновидности, такие существительные во мн. числе часто имеют окончание мн. числа s/es в научной литературе: freshwater fishes (виды пресноводных рыб); aquarium fishes (виды аквариумных рыб); cods, flatfishes, salmons, trouts и т.д. Например: Тропические рыбы обычно ярко окрашены. Все рыбы имеют плавники.

Некоторые неисчисляемые существительные массы могут тоже употребляться во мн. числе, когда имеются в виду различные виды, сорта, разновидности, обычно в научной литературе. Например: the teas of India (виды индийского чая); soft cheeses (мягкие сыры); stainless steels (виды нержавеющей стали). (См. Articles: Uncountable Nouns в разделе Grammar.)

Примечание: Названия животных (птиц, рыб и т.д.) могут употребляться как понятие, представляющее целый класс такого вида; в таких случаях, это существительное употребляется в ед. числе с определённым артиклем «the». Например: Леопард живёт в лесах. Голубой кит – самое крупное из всех млекопитающих. (См. Specific Use of THE в разделе Grammar.)

Только во мн. числе

Существительные, которые обозначают нераздельную пару, употребляются во мн. числе и с глаголом мн. числа. Такие существительные часто употребляются с фразой «a pair of» (пара).

джинсы; брюки;

шорты, колготки / трико, бриджи;

пижама, трусы, трусики;

ножницы, плоскогубцы, щипцы, щипчики, хирургические щипцы / пинцет;

очки.

Примеры:

Эти джинсы слишком длинные для меня.

Твои брюки во встроенном шкафу в спальне.

Где мои очки?

Где мои спортивные колготки / трико?

Она купила две пары джинсов и пару шортов.

На кухне есть пара ножниц.

Примечание: Слово «pantyhose» (колготки) употребляется в ед. числе.

Где мои новые колготки?

Она купила четыре пары колготок.

Некоторые другие существительные мн. числа

Есть некоторые другие существительные с окончанием s/es, которые употребляются только во мн. числе, принимают глагол во мн. числе и не имеют формы ед. числа в данном значении.

Например: clothes, arms (оружие), goods, troops, remains, savings, belongings. В некоторых таких случаях есть форма ед. числа, но её значение другое (например: группа людей; войска).

Эту одежду нужно постирать.

Он потерял все свои сбережения.

Различные потребительские товары продаются в этом магазине.

Только в ед. числе

Некоторые неисчисляемые существительные имеют окончание «s» по форме, но употребляются только в ед. числе. Например: news (новость); названия некоторых игр (бильярд, домино, шашки, карты); названия некоторых болезней (корь, свинка). Научные предметы тоже в ед. числе: математика, физика, фонетика, лингвистика, экономика, политика.

Если такие существительные в функции подлежащего, глагол употребляется в форме ед. числа. Например:

Отсутствие новостей – хорошая новость. (пословица)

Бильярд – интересная игра.

Корь – серьёзная болезнь.

Математика – его любимый предмет.

Примечание: Слово «money» употребляется в ед. числе: Where is my money? (Где мои деньги?) This money is mine. (Эти деньги мои.) Money makes money. (Деньги к деньгам идут.) Money talks. (С деньгами легче добиться.) Money is the root of all evil. (Деньги корень зла.) Формы мн. числа «moneys, monies» употребляются в основном в юридической терминологии в значении «денежные суммы».

Примечание: Существительные с окончанием «ics»

Как описано выше, неисчисляемые существительные, оканчивающиеся на «ics», употребляются только в ед. числе. Но некоторые из них имеют значения, в которых они употребляются во мн. числе, хотя такое употребление не очень распространено.

Например, «statistics» как наука употребляется в ед. числе (Statistics is a science); «statistics» как численные данные – во мн. числе (These statistics are not correct).

Другие существительные, которые могут употребляться таким же образом: acoustics, economics, politics, gymnastics. Например:

Акустика – это один из разделов физики. Акустические свойства этого концертного зала отличные.

Она изучала экономику в колледже. Каковы экономические характеристики этого проекта?

Он изучает политику. Каковы его политические взгляды?

Латинские и греческие формы мн. числа

Некоторые существительные латинского или греческого происхождения сохранили свои латинские или греческие окончания мн. числа. Окончание мн. числа «es» как в слове «analyses» произносится [i:z]; окончание «i» как в слове «alumni» произносится [ai]; окончание «ae» как в слове «vertebrae» произносится [i:].

Существительные с латинскими и греческими окончаниями мн. числа в списке ниже разделены на группы по окончанию ед. числа. Английское окончание мн. числа s/es также употребляется с некоторыми из этих существительных; в таких случаях даны два варианта, а вариант с английским окончанием s/es отмечен буквой (E).

Обычно (но не всегда), английские варианты форм мн. числа более употребительны в обычной устной и письменной речи, а латинские и греческие варианты более употребительны в научных и академических текстах.

Первый вариант форм мн. числа в списке ниже – это вариант, который обычно указывается первым в американских словарях. В некоторых случаях словари расходятся во мнениях, который из двух вариантов более употребителен.

В некоторых случаях, английская и латинская формы мн. числа различны по значению. Например: radio antennas, an insect’s antennae; mass media (радио, ТВ, газеты), spiritualistic mediums (люди, рассматриваемые как медиумы).

Примечание: Существительное «data» (данные), мн. число от «datum», может употребляться как ед. или мн. число по значению: this data; these data; there is no data. Существительное «agenda» (повестка дня), изначально мн. число от «agendum», обычно употребляется как существительное ед. числа: today’s agenda; a lengthy agenda.

Группа 1

анализ – анализы

ось – оси

базис, основа – основы

кризис – кризисы

диагноз – диагнозы

эллипсис, многоточие – многоточия

эмфаза, подчёркивание, выделение

происхождение, генезис

гипотеза – гипотезы

оазис – оазисы

круглая скобка – круглые скобки

синопсис, краткий обзор – краткие обзоры

синтез – синтезы

тезис, диссертация – тезисы, диссертации

Группа 2

счёты (как один предмет) – счёты (мн.ч.)

выпускник, бывший студент – выпускники

аппарат – аппараты

кактус – кактусы

исчисление – исчисления

корпус, свод, тело – корпусы

эвкалипт – эвкалипты

фокус – фокусы

грибок, плесень – грибки

род, вид, сорт – виды, сорта

гиппопотам – гиппопотамы

ядро – ядра

осьминог – осьминоги

папирус – папирусы

утконос – утконосы

радиус – радиусы

ромб – ромбы

стимул – стимулы

(техн.) игла, перо, щуп – иглы, щупы

учебный план – учебные планы

конец, конечный пункт – конечные пункты

Группа 3

автомат, робот – автоматы, роботы

критерий – критерии

феномен – феномены

многогранник – многогранники

октаэдр, восьмигранник – октаэдры

тетраэдр, четырёхгранник – тетраэдры

Группа 4

приложение – приложения

аквариум – аквариумы

дендрарий – дендрарии

атрий, атриум – атриумы

бактерия – бактерии

компендиум – компендиумы

программа (обучения) – программы (обучения)

данное – данные

торговый центр – торговые центры

равновесие, уравновешенность

опечатка – опечатки

форум – форумы

максимум – максимумы

способ, средство (связи) – средства (связи)

медиум – медиумы

меморандум – меморандумы

тысячелетие – тысячелетия

планетарий – планетарии

подиум – подиумы

спектр – спектры

стадион – стадионы

грудина – грудины

слой, пласт – слои, пласты

симпозиум – симпозиумы

террарий, террариум – террарии, террариумы

вакуум – вакуумы

виварий – виварии

Группа 5

выпускница – выпускницы

антенна – (радио) антенны

усик – усики (насекомых)

харизма

догма – догмы

загадка, необъяснимое явление – загадки

формула – формулы

клеймо, пятно – стигмы, стигматы, пятна

позвонок – позвонки

Группа 6

высшая точка, вершина – вершины

приложение – приложения

индекс – индексы

матрица, форма – матрицы, формы

вершина, макушка – вершины

водоворот, вихрь – водовороты.

This graph gives you a decent picture of the evolution of Indo-European languages:

The first line under Proto-Indo-European would benefit from a «Proto-» prefix, though (Proto-Indo-Iranian, Proto-Hellenic, etc.)

Derivation and borrowing are two different phenomena. Kernel English words derive from Proto-Indo-European, via Proto-Germanic, West-Germanic, Anglo-Frisian, Old English and Middle English. Words that come from Latin and Greek (or French, Old Norse, Celtic, Arabic or Nahuatl) are borrowings. You can spot the difference because the normal transformations that apply to derived words do not apply to borrowings. For instance, initial Latin /p/ corresponds to English initial /f/:

Pater — Father

Pisces — Fish

But English paternal, with an initial /p/ — which means it was borrowed from Latin, at a time when the transformation p->f was no longer taking place.



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This article presents the main ways of word formation in the English language, examines the role of ancient Greek and Latin affixes in the formation of neologisms. The author, using concrete examples, demonstrates the role of the most frequent prefixes and suffixes of ancient Greek and Latin origin in the formation of English neologisms, thereby indicating the connection of the English language with Greek and Latin.

Keywords:



word formation, affixation, neologisms, Greek and Latin affixes.

English is the official language in 75 countries around the world. According to modern researchers, 1.35 billion people speak English, which is 17 % of the total population of the planet [4]. English is also the language of international communication: it is taught and studied in the world’s most famous universities, most programming languages are based on it, it is used in diplomacy, tourism, trade, logistics, science and other areas of life. These spheres are constantly evolving, new ideas, phenomena, inventions arise that require the introduction of new words or the updating of old ones. This is the reason for the choice of English as the language of world communication, because English, on the one hand, has a simple and understandable grammatical structure, and on the other hand, it has not only a large number of ways of word formation, but also a wide range of morphemes.

In the theory of the English language, there are both basic and secondary ways of word formation.

The main methods include:

1. Word composition. This method is carried out by adding two bases. For example, words such as headache, barefoot were obtained by adding two simple bases, and the words pen-holder, baby-sitter by adding simple and derived bases. There is a neutral way of connecting (adding the words «butt»), for example, eye-brow, sunrise, schoolgirl, and using a connecting element (handicraft, tradesman, mother-of-pearl).

Also, word composition often serves as a means of creating a basis for the further process of word formation [3]. The basis obtained in this way can undergo conversion, reversion or affixation, resulting in a new word (blacklist — to blacklist; daydream — to daydream; babysitter — to babysit; honeymoon — to honeymoon — honeymoon).

1. Affixation. This method is one of the most common ways of word formation and occurs by adding suffixes and prefixes to the base.
2. Conversion, as a word-formation method, consists in the fact that a functional shift of a word from one part of speech to another is carried out, the formation of one part of speech from the basis of another without changing the form to finger from finger; to elbow from elbow.

Also, some researchers distinguish the differentiation of complex words and phrases as one of the methods of word formation. Very productive in modern English are formations like go out, i.e. combinations consisting of a full-valued basis and an incomplete second component [2].

Secondary ways of word formation are:

1. Abbreviation is the formation of a word by cutting off a part of a word that either coincides with a word or is a phrase united by a common meaning. Depending on the part of the word that is cut off (initial, middle or final), there are the following types of abbreviations: 1 — initial (aphesis), i.e. fend from defend, phone from telephone; 2 — medial (syncope), i.e. fancy from fantasy; 3 — final (apocop), for example, veggies from vegetables; 4 — both initial and final, for example, flu from influenza.
2. Mixing (collocation) is the formation of a new word by combining parts of two words. Fusion can be of two types: 1 — additive type, which can be transformed into a phrase consisting of complete bases united by a union and, for example, smog = smoke + fog; 2 — restrictive type, which can be transformed into a phrase, the first element of which serves as a modifier for the second, for example, telecast = television + broadcast; motel = motorist + hotel.
3. Acronym (graphic abbreviation) is the formation of a word from the initial letters of a phrase. There are two main types of abbreviations: 1 — acronyms that read like ordinary English words, for example, UNESCO — the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization; 2 — acronyms with letter reading, for example, USA = the United States of America.

A special subgroup consists of graphic abbreviations of Latin words that are reproduced in English in speech. This group includes the well-known I. E. (Lat. id est, Eng. that is); E.G. (Lat. exempli gratia, Eng. for example); etc. (Latin et cetera, English and so on), etc. The same type of graphic abbreviations also includes the designations of some banknotes accepted on the letter, for example, £ (Lat. libra, Eng. pound), d (Lat. de-narius, Eng. penny), etc.

1. Sound exchange is the formation of a word due to a change in the phonemic composition of its root. The interchangeability of sounds is divided into two groups: 1 — the interchangeability of vowels, for example, food — to feed, in some cases the interchangeability of vowels is combined with suffixation (for example, strong — strength); 2 — the interchangeability of consonants, for example, advice — to advise. The interchangeability of consonants and vowels can be combined together (for example, life — to live) [9].
2. Imitation of sound is the designation of an action or thing by more or less accurately reproducing the sound associated with it, for example, cock–a-dooodle-do = ku-ka-re-ku. Semantically, depending on the source sound, many onomatopoeic words are divided into several very specific groups: 1 — words denoting the sound produced by people in the process of communicating or expressing their feelings, for example, chatter, babble; 2 — words denoting the sound produced by animals, birds, insects, for example, moo, croak, buzz; 3 — words imitating the sound of water, the noise of metal objects, strong movement, movements, for example, splash, clink, whip, swing.
3. Reverse formation (reversion) is the formation of a new word by subtracting a real or assumed suffix from existing words. The process is based on analogy. For example, the word butle was made from butler; baby-sit from baby-sitting.
4. Characteristic stress is the formation of a word by shifting the stress in the original word, for example, absent — ab’sent.

As mentioned above, affixation is one of the most common ways of word formation. Affixal word formation or deprivation is the formation of new words using affixes, according to word–formation models peculiar to a given language [1].

Affixes, with the help of which relatively many neoplasms are created in a certain period, are called productive. These include: suffixes -ing, -y, -her, -ist, -er, -ette, ed, etc.; prefixes anti-, super-, pro-, mis-, re-, etc. With the help of these affixes, new derived words (simple and complex) are created, for example: summitologist (supporter of the summit meeting), superwar (war with the use of atomic weapons); weightlessness (weightlessness), kitchenette (small kitchen), environmentalist (struggling with environmental pollution), a smarty (clever), a cuty (pretty), a lefty (lefty).

In this regard, special attention should be paid to the role of Greek and Latin roots and affixes in the formation of neologisms of the English language. It should be noted that the Greek and Latin languages had a great influence on the formation of the lexical composition of the English language.

Thus, the Latin language had a significant influence through the French language during the conquest of England in the XI century by the Normans. During this period, Latin words such as court (court), religion (religion), saint (saint) and many others appeared in the English language, which exist and are used to this day.

The Greek language, in turn, never directly influenced English; its influence was mainly due to the value attributed to Greek culture in the Middle Ages. Many words of Greek origin were borrowed by English from French, which borrowed it from Latin, which borrowed it from Greek. For example, such commonly used words as angel (angel), drama (drama), music (music), problem (problem), zoo (zoo) and so on have Greek origin.

Borrowed words are not only firmly entrenched in the English language, but have also become a source of affixes that are involved in the process of word formation of the English language at the present time.

So, for example, the affix of un- Latin origin, meaning «one», served to form words that have already become firmly established in the English language, such as, for example, unary (unary), unicorn (unicorn), union (union) and others. However, this affix rarely participates in the formation of neologisms, unlike, for example, the prefix ‘super-‘.

References:

1. Ахманова О. С. Словарь лингвистических терминов. М., // Сов. «Энциклопедия», 1996. 608 с.
2. Градалева Е. А. Способы разграничения сложных слов и словосочетаний английского языка // Вестник ТГПУ. 2015. № 10 (163). С. 15–20.
3. Хидекель С. С. Система словообразования в современном английском языке. М.: Высшая школа, 1974. 352 с.
4. Ethnologue [Электронный ресурс]. Режим доступа: https://www.ethnologue.com/language/eng (дата обращения: 08.10.2022).
5. Merriam Webster Dictionary [Электронный ресурс]. Режим доступа: https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/super-spreader (дата обращения: 08.10.2022).
6. Neologisms and Portmanteau Words [Электронный ресурс]. Режим доступа: https://www.gpb.eu/2022/02/neologisms-new-words.html (дата обращения: 08.10.2022).
7. The Sun [Электронный ресурс]. Режим доступа: https://online.fliphtml5.com/mweeh/yqmt/#p=12 (дата обращения: 08.10.2022).