Grammatical definition of word

1. The
   notion of ‘grammatical meaning’.

The word
combines in its semantic structure two meanings – lexical and
grammatical. Lexical meaning
is the individual meaning of the word (e.g. table).
Grammatical meaning
is the meaning of the whole class or a subclass. For example, the
class of nouns has the grammatical meaning of thingness.
If we take a noun (table)
we may say that it possesses its individual lexical meaning (it
corresponds to a definite piece of furniture) and the grammatical
meaning of thingness
(this is the meaning of the whole class). Besides, the noun ‘table’
has the grammatical meaning of a subclass – countableness.
Any verb combines its individual lexical meaning with the grammatical
meaning of verbiality – the ability to denote actions or states. An
adjective combines its individual lexical meaning with the
grammatical meaning of the whole class of adjectives –
qualitativeness – the ability to denote qualities. Adverbs possess
the grammatical meaning of adverbiality – the ability to denote
quality of qualities.

There are some classes of
words that are devoid of any lexical meaning and possess the
grammatical meaning only. This can be explained by the fact that they
have no referents in the objective reality. All function words belong
to this group – articles, particles, prepositions, etc.

1. Types
   of grammatical meaning.

The
grammatical meaning may be explicit and implicit. The implicit
grammatical meaning is not expressed
formally (e.g. the word table does
not contain any hints in its form as to it being inanimate). The
explicit grammatical
meaning is always marked morphologically – it has its marker. In
the word cats the
grammatical meaning of plurality is shown in the form of the noun;
cat’s –
here the grammatical meaning of possessiveness is shown by the form
‘s; is
asked – shows the explicit
grammatical meaning of passiveness.

The
implicit grammatical meaning may be of two types – general and
dependent. The general
grammatical meaning is the meaning of the whole word-class, of a part
of speech (e.g. nouns – the general grammatical meaning of
thingness). The dependent
grammatical meaning is the meaning of a subclass within the same part
of speech. For instance, any verb possesses the dependent grammatical
meaning of transitivity/intransitivity,
terminativeness/non-terminativeness, stativeness/non-stativeness;
nouns have the dependent grammatical meaning of
contableness/uncountableness and animateness/inanimateness. The most
important thing about the dependent grammatical meaning is that it
influences the realization of grammatical categories restricting them
to a subclass. Thus the dependent grammatical meaning of
countableness/uncountableness influences the realization of the
grammatical category of number as the number category is realized
only within the subclass of countable nouns, the grammatical meaning
of animateness/inanimateness influences the realization of the
grammatical category of case, teminativeness/non-terminativeness —
the category of tense, transitivity/intransitivity – the category
of voice.

GRAMMATICAL
MEANING

EXPLICIT
IMPLICIT

GENERAL
DEPENDENT

1. Grammatical
   categories.

Grammatical categories are
made up by the unity of identical grammatical meanings that have the
same form (e.g. singular::plural). Due to dialectal unity of language
and thought, grammatical categories correlate, on the one hand, with
the conceptual categories and, on the other hand, with the objective
reality. It may be shown with the help of a triangle model:

Conceptual
reality Conceptual category

Objective
reality Lingual reality Objective category Grammatical
category

It
follows that we may define grammatical categories as references of
the corresponding objective categories. For example, the objective
category of time
finds its representation in the grammatical category of tense,
the objective category of quantity finds
its representation in the grammatical category of number.
Those grammatical categories that have references in the objective
reality are called referential
grammatical categories. However, not
all of the grammatical categories have references in the objective
reality, just a few of them do not correspond to anything in the
objective reality. Such categories correlate only with conceptual
matters:

Conceptual
correlate

Lingual
correlate

They
are called significational categories.
To this type belong the categories of mood
and degree.
Speaking about the grammatical category of mood we can say that it
has modality
as its conceptual correlate. It can be explained by the fact that it
does not refer to anything in the objective reality – it expresses
the speaker’s attitude to what he says.

1. The
   notion of opposition.

Any
grammatical category must be represented by at least two grammatical
forms (e.g. the grammatical category of number – singular and
plural forms). The relation between two grammatical forms differing
in meaning and external signs is called opposition
– book::books
(unmarked member/marked member). All grammatical categories find
their realization through oppositions, e.g. the grammatical category
of number is realized through the opposition singular::plural.

Taking
all the above mentioned into consideration, we may define the
grammatical category as the opposition between two mutually exclusive
form-classes (a form-class is a set of words with the same explicit
grammatical meaning).

Means
of realization of grammatical
categories may be synthetic (near –
nearer) and analytic (beautiful
– more beautiful).

1. Transposition
   and neutralization of morphological forms.

In the process of
communication grammatical categories may undergo the processes of
transposition and neutralization.

Transposition
is the use of a linguistic unit in an
unusual environment or in the function that is not characteristic of
it (He is a lion).
In the sentence He is coming tomorrow
the paradigmatic meaning of the
continuous form is reduced and a new meaning appears – that of a
future action. Transposition always results in the neutralization of
a paradigmatic meaning. Neutralization
is the reduction of the opposition to one of its members : custom ::
customs – x :: customs; x :: spectacles.

LECTURE 4: THE PARTS OF
SPEECH PROBLEM. WORD CLASSES

The parts of speech are
classes of words, all the members of these classes having certain
characteristics in common which distinguish them from the members of
other classes. The problem of word classification into parts of
speech still remains one of the most controversial problems in modern
linguistics. The attitude of grammarians with regard to parts of
speech and the basis of their classification varied a good deal at
different times. Only in English grammarians have been vacillating
between 3 and 13 parts of speech. There are four approaches to the
problem:

1. Classical
   (logical-inflectional)

2. Functional

3. Distributional

4. Complex

The
classical
parts of speech theory goes back to ancient times. It is based on
Latin grammar. According to the Latin classification of the parts of
speech all words were divided dichotomically into declinable
and indeclinable
parts of speech. This system was
reproduced in the earliest English grammars. The first of these
groups, declinable words, included nouns, pronouns, verbs and
participles, the second – indeclinable words – adverbs,
prepositions, conjunctions and interjections. The
logical-inflectional classification is quite successful for Latin or
other languages with developed morphology and synthetic paradigms but
it cannot be applied to the English language because the principle of
declinability/indeclinability is not relevant for analytical
languages.

A
new approach to the problem was introduced in the XIX century by
Henry Sweet. He took into account the peculiarities of the English
language. This approach may be defined as functional.
He resorted to the functional features of words and singled out
nominative units and particles. To nominative
parts of speech belonged noun-words
(noun, noun-pronoun, noun-numeral, infinitive, gerund),
adjective-words
(adjective, adjective-pronoun, adjective-numeral, participles), verb
(finite verb, verbals – gerund, infinitive, participles), while
adverb, preposition,
conjunction
and interjection
belonged to the group of particles.
However, though the criterion for classification was functional,
Henry Sweet failed to break the tradition and classified words into
those having morphological forms and lacking morphological forms, in
other words, declinable and indeclinable.

A
distributional approach
to the parts to the parts of speech
classification can be illustrated by the classification introduced by
Charles Fries. He wanted to avoid the traditional terminology and
establish a classification of words based on distributive analysis,
that is, the ability of words to combine with other words of
different types. At the same time, the lexical meaning of words was
not taken into account. According to Charles Fries, the words in
such sentences as 1. Woggles ugged diggles; 2. Uggs woggled diggs;
and 3. Woggs diggled uggles are quite evident structural signals,
their position and combinability are enough to classify them into
three word-classes. In this way, he introduced four major classes
of words and 15 form-classes.
Let us see how it worked. Three test frames
formed the basis for his analysis:

Frame
A — The concert was good (always);

Frame
B — The clerk remembered the tax (suddenly);

Frame
C – The team went there.

It
turned out that his four classes of words were practically the same
as traditional nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. What is really
valuable in Charles Fries’ classification is his investigation of
15 groups of function words (form-classes) because he was the first
linguist to pay attention to some of their peculiarities.

All
the classifications mentioned above appear to be one-sided because
parts of speech are discriminated on the basis of only one aspect of
the word: either its meaning or its form, or its function.

In
modern linguistics, parts of speech are discriminated according to
three criteria: semantic, formal and functional. This approach may be
defined as complex.
The semantic
criterion presupposes the grammatical meaning of the whole class of
words (general grammatical meaning). The formal
criterion reveals paradigmatic
properties: relevant grammatical categories, the form of the words,
their specific inflectional and derivational features. The functional
criterion concerns the syntactic
function of words in the sentence and their combinability. Thus, when
characterizing any part of speech we are to describe: a) its
semantics; b) its morphological features; c) its syntactic
peculiarities.

The
linguistic evidence drawn from our grammatical study makes it
possible to divide all the words of the language into:

1. those
   denoting things, objects, notions, qualities, etc. – words with
   the corresponding references in the objective reality – notional
   words;

2. those
   having no references of their own in the objective reality; most of
   them are used only as grammatical means to form up and frame
   utterances – function words,
   or grammatical words.

It is
commonly recognized that the notional parts of speech are nouns,
pronouns, numerals, verbs, adjectives, adverbs; the functional parts
of speech are articles, particles, prepositions, conjunctions and
modal words.

The
division of language units into notion and function words reveals the
interrelation of lexical and grammatical types of meaning. In
notional words the lexical meaning is predominant. In function words
the grammatical meaning dominates over the lexical one. However, in
actual speech the border line between notional and function words is
not always clear cut. Some notional words develop the meanings
peculiar to function words — e.g. seminotional words – to
turn, to get, etc.

Notional
words constitute the bulk of the existing word stock while function
words constitute a smaller group of words. Although the number of
function words is limited (there are only about 50 of them in Modern
English), they are the most frequently used units.

Generally
speaking, the problem of words’ classification into parts of speech
is far from being solved. Some words cannot find their proper place.
The most striking example here is the class of adverbs. Some language
analysts call it a ragbag, a dustbin
(Frank Palmer), Russian academician V.V.Vinogradov defined the class
of adverbs in the Russian language as мусорная
куча. It can be explained by the
fact that to the class of adverbs belong those words that cannot find
their place anywhere else. At the same time, there are no grounds for
grouping them together either. Compare: perfectly
(She speaks English perfectly)
and again
(He is here again).
Examples are numerous (all temporals). There are some words that do
not belong anywhere — e.g. after all.
Speaking about after all
it should be mentioned that this unit is quite often used by native
speakers, and practically never by our students. Some more striking
examples: anyway, actually, in fact.
The problem is that if these words belong nowhere, there is no place
for them in the system of words, then how can we use them correctly?
What makes things worse is the fact that these words are devoid of
nominative power, and they have no direct equivalents in the
Ukrainian or Russian languages. Meanwhile, native speakers use these
words subconsciously, without realizing how they work.

LECTURE
5: THE NOUN

1.General
characteristics.

The noun is
the central lexical unit of language. It is the main nominative unit
of speech. As any other part of speech, the noun can be characterised
by three criteria: semantic
(the meaning), morphological
(the form and grammatical catrgories) and syntactical
(functions, distribution).

Semantic
features of the noun. The noun possesses the grammatical meaning of
thingness, substantiality. According to different principles of
classification nouns fall into several subclasses:

1. According
   to the type of nomination they may be proper
   and common;

2. According
   to the form of existence they may be animate
   and inanimate.
   Animate nouns in their turn fall into human
   and non-human.

3. According
   to their quantitative structure nouns can be countable
   and uncountable.

This set of
subclasses cannot be put together into one table because of the
different principles of classification.

Morphological
features of the noun. In accordance
with the morphological structure of the stems all nouns can be
classified into: simple,
derived (
stem + affix, affix + stem – thingness);
compound (
stem+ stem – armchair
) and composite
( the Hague ). The noun has morphological categories of number and
case. Some scholars admit the existence of the category of gender.

Syntactic
features of the noun. The noun can be
used un the sentence in all syntactic
functions
but predicate. Speaking about noun combinability,
we can say that it can go into right-hand and left-hand connections
with practically all parts of speech. That is why practically all
parts of speech but the verb can act as noun determiners.
However, the most common noun determiners are considered to be
articles, pronouns, numerals, adjectives and nouns themselves in the
common and genitive case.

2.
The category of number

The grammatical category of
number is the linguistic representation of the objective category of
quantity. The number category is realized through the opposition of
two form-classes: the plural form :: the singular form. The category
of number in English is restricted in its realization because of the
dependent implicit grammatical meaning of
countableness/uncountableness. The number category is realized only
within subclass of countable nouns.

The
grammatical meaning of number may not coincide with the notional
quantity: the noun in the singular does not necessarily denote one
object while the plural form may be used to denote one object
consisting of several parts. The singular form may denote:

1. oneness
   (individual separate object – a cat);

2. generalization
   (the meaning of the whole class – The
   cat is a domestic animal);

3. indiscreteness
   (нерасчлененность or
   uncountableness — money, milk).

The plural
form may denote:

1. the
   existence of several objects (cats);

2. the
   inner discreteness (внутренняя
   расчлененность, pluralia
   tantum, jeans).

To sum it
up, all nouns may be subdivided into three groups:

1. The
   nouns in which the opposition of explicit
   discreteness/indiscreteness is expressed : cat::cats;

2. The
   nouns in which this opposition is not expressed explicitly but is
   revealed by syntactical and lexical correlation in the context.
   There are two groups here:

1. Singularia
   tantum. It covers different groups of nouns: proper names, abstract
   nouns, material nouns, collective nouns;

2. Pluralia
   tantum. It covers the names of objects consisting of several parts
   (jeans), names of sciences (mathematics), names of diseases, games,
   etc.

1. The
   nouns with homogenous number forms. The number opposition here is
   not expressed formally but is revealed only lexically and
   syntactically in the context: e.g. Look!
   A sheep is eating grass. Look! The sheep are eating grass.

3. The
category of case.

Case
expresses the relation of a word to another word in the word-group or
sentence (my sister’s coat). The category of case correlates with
the objective category of possession. The case category in English is
realized through the opposition: The Common Case :: The Possessive
Case (sister :: sister’s). However, in modern linguistics the term
“genitive case” is used instead of the “possessive case”
because the meanings rendered by the “`s” sign are not only those
of possession. The scope of meanings rendered by the Genitive Case is
the following :

1. Possessive
   Genitive : Mary’s father – Mary has a father,

2. Subjective
   Genitive: The doctor’s arrival – The doctor has arrived,

3. Objective
   Genitive : The man’s release – The man was released,

4. Adverbial
   Genitive : Two hour’s work – X worked for two hours,

5. Equation
   Genitive : a mile’s distance – the distance is a mile,

6. Genitive
   of destination: children’s books – books for children,

7. Mixed
   Group: yesterday’s paper

Nick’s
school cannot be reduced to one nucleus

John’s
word

To avoid
confusion with the plural, the marker of the genitive case is
represented in written form with an apostrophe. This fact makes
possible disengagement of –`s form from the noun to which it
properly belongs. E.g.: The
man I saw yesterday’s son,
where -`s is appended to the whole group (the so-called group
genitive). It may
even follow a word which normally does not possess such a formant, as
in somebody else’s
book.

There is no
universal point of view as to the case system in English. Different
scholars stick to a different number of cases.

1. There
   are two cases. The Common one and The Genitive;

2. There
   are no cases at all, the form `s is optional because the same
   relations may be expressed by the ‘of-phrase’: the
   doctor’s arrival – the arrival of the doctor;

3. There
   are three cases: the Nominative, the Genitive, the Objective due to
   the existence of objective pronouns me,
   him, whom;

4. Case
   Grammar. Ch.Fillmore introduced syntactic-semantic classification of
   cases. They show relations in the so-called deep structure of the
   sentence. According to him, verbs may stand to different relations
   to nouns. There are 6 cases:

1. Agentive
   Case (A) John
   opened the door;

2. Instrumental
   case (I) The key
   opened the door;
   John used the key to open the door;

3. Dative
   Case (D) John
   believed that he would win (the case of the animate being affected
   by the state of action identified by the verb);

4. Factitive
   Case (F) The key
   was damaged ( the result of the action or state identified by the
   verb);

5. Locative
   Case (L) Chicago is
   windy;

6. Objective
   case (O) John stole
   the book.

4. The
Problem of Gender in English

Gender
plays a relatively minor part in the grammar of English by comparison
with its role in many other languages. There is no gender concord,
and the reference of the pronouns he,
she, it is very
largely determined by what is sometimes referred to as ‘natural’
gender for English, it depends upon the classification of persons and
objects as male, female or inanimate. Thus, the recognition of gender
as a grammatical category is logically independent of any particular
semantic association.

According
to some language analysts (B.Ilyish, F.Palmer, and E.Morokhovskaya),
nouns have no category of gender in Modern English. Prof.Ilyish
states that not a single word in Modern English shows any
peculiarities in its morphology due to its denoting male or female
being. Thus, the words husband
and wife
do not show any
difference in their forms due to peculiarities of their lexical
meaning. The difference between such nouns as actor
and actress
is a purely lexical one. In other words, the category of sex should
not be confused with the category of sex, because sex is an objective
biological category.
It correlates with gender only when sex differences of living beings
are manifested in the language grammatically (e.g. tiger
– tigress).
Still, other scholars (M.Blokh, John Lyons) admit the existence of
the category of gender. Prof.Blokh states that the existence of the
category of gender in Modern English can be proved by the correlation
of nouns with personal pronouns of the third person (he,
she, it).
Accordingly, there are three genders in English: the neuter
(non-person) gender, the masculine gender, the feminine gender.

LECTURE
6: THE VERB.
1.General characteristics

Grammatically
the verb is the most complex part of speech. First of all it performs
the central role in realizing predication —
connection between situation in the utterance and reality. That is
why the verb is of primary informative significance in an utterance.
Besides, the verb possesses quite a lot of grammatical categories.
Furthermore, within the class of verb various subclass divisions
based on different principles of classification can befound.

Semantic
features of the verb. The verb possesses the grammatical meaning of
verbiality — the
ability to denote a process developing in time. This meaning is
inherent not only in the verbs denoting processes, but also in those
denoting states, forms of existence, evaluations, etc.

Morphological
features of the verb. The verb possesses the following grammatical
categories: tense, aspect, voice, mood, person, number, finitude and
phase. The common categories for finite and non-finite forms are
voice, aspect, phase and finitude. The grammatical categories of the
English verb find their expression in synthetical and analytical
forms. The formative elements expressing these categories are
grammatical affixes, inner inflexion and
function words.
Some categories have only synthetical forms (person,
number), others
— only analytical (voice).
There are also categories expressed by both synthetical and
analytical forms (mood, tense, aspect).

Syntactic features. The
most universal syntactic feature of verbs is their ability to be
modified by adverbs. The second important syntactic criterion is the
ability of the verb to perform the syntactic function of the
predicate. However, this criterion is not absolute because only
finite forms can perform this function while non-finite forms can be
used in any function but predicate. And finally, any verb in the form
of the infinitive can be combined with a modal verb.

2.
Classifications of English verbs

According to different
principles of classification, classifications can be morphological,
lexical-morphological, syntactical and functional.

A.
Morphological classifications..

I.
According to their stem-types all verbs fall into: simple (to
go), sound-replacive
(food —
to feed, blood —
to bleed), stress-replacive
(import
— to im port,
transport —
to transport, expanded
(with the help of suffixes and prefixes): cultivate,
justify, overcome, composite
(correspond to composite nouns): to
blackmail), phrasal:
to have a smoke, to give a smile
(they always have an ordinary verb as
an equivalent). 2.According
to the way of forming past tenses and Participle
II verbs can be regular
and irregular.

B.
Lexical-morphological classification is
based on the implicit grammatical meanings of the verb. According to
the implicit grammatical meaning of transitivity/intransitivity verbs
fall into transitive
and intransitive.
According to the implicit grammatical meaning of
stativeness/non-stativeness verbs fall into stative
and dynamic.
According to the implicit grammatical meaning of
terminativeness/non-terminativeness verbs fall into terminative
and durative.
This classification is closely connected with the categories of
Aspect and Phase.

C.
Syntactic
classifications. According to the nature of predication (primary and
secondary) all verbs fall into finite
and non-finite.
According to syntagmatic properties (valency) verbs can be of
obligatory
and optional valency,
and thus they may have some directionality or be devoid of any
directionality. In this way, verbs fall into the verbs of directed
(to see, to take, etc.)
and non-directed
action (to arrive, to drizzle, etc.):

Syntagmatic
classification of English verbs

(according
to prof.G.Pocheptsov)

V
Vobj. She shook her head

Vaddr. He phoned me

V2
– V10 Vobj.-addr. She gave me

her pen

V11
– V15 Vadv. She behaved well

V1
V2 – V24 V16 – V24 Vobj.-adv. He put his hat

on the table

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Описание презентации по отдельным слайдам:

• 

  1 слайд

  GRAMMATICAL MEANING
  OF THE WORD

• 

  2 слайд

  1. The problem of word definition.
  2. The notion of the word-form.
  3. The notion of «grammatical meaning».
  4. Types of grammatical meaning.
  5. The notion of «grammatical category».
  6. The notion of «opposition».

  3

• 

  3 слайд

  1.The Problem of Word Definition

  The word is considered to be the central (though not the only) linguistic unit of language.
  3

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  4 слайд

  The Problem of Word Definition

  In the written language words are clearly identified by spaces between them.

  3

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  5 слайд

  The Problem of Word Definition

  In the spoken language the problem cannot be solved this way.
  ↓
  If we listen to an unfamiliar language, we find it difficult to divide up the speech into single words.

  3

• 

  6 слайд

  The Problem of Word Definition

  Approaches
  to the problem of word definition:
  the word is a semantic unit, a unit of meaning;
  the word is a marked phonological unit;
  the word is an indivisible unit.

  3

• 

  7 слайд

  The Problem of Word Definition

  Semantic definition of the word:
  “…a unit of a particular meaning with a particular complex of sounds capable of a particular grammatical employment».
  ↓
  The word is a linguistic unit that has a single meaning.

  3

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  8 слайд

  The Problem of Word Definition

  BUT:

  heavy smoker ≠ heavy and
  smoker
  criminal lawyer;
  the King of England’s hat.

  3

• 

  9 слайд

  The Problem of Word Definition

  The problem:

  the word is not always a single unit.

  3

• 

  10 слайд

  The Problem of Word Definition

  A phonological criterion

  that stuff that’s tough
  a nice cakean ice cake
  grey day Grade A
  ↓

  3

• 

  11 слайд

  The Problem of Word Definition

  It is hard to distinguish the real meaning without a proper context.
  3

• 

  12 слайд

  The Problem of Word Definition

  The word as an indivisible unit

  “The word is a minimum free form“
  (L. Bloomfield)
  ↓
  The word is the smallest unit of speech that can occur in isolation.

  3

• 

  13 слайд

  The Problem of Word Definition

  BUT:
  a or the

  3

• 

  14 слайд

  The Problem of Word Definition

  Thus,
  the word is a linguistic unit larger than a morpheme but smaller than a phrase.

  3

• 

  15 слайд

  The Problem of Word Definition

  In this case the word can be defined as:

  • An orthographic word (something written with white spaces at both ends but no white space in the middle).

  3

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  16 слайд

  The Problem of Word Definition

  • A phonological word (something pronounced as a single unit).

  3

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  17 слайд

  The Problem of Word Definition

  • A lexical item, or lexeme, (a dictionary word).

  3

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  18 слайд

  The Problem of Word Definition

  • A grammatical word-form (GWF) (or morphosyntactic word) (any one of the several forms which a lexical item may assume for grammatical purposes).

  3

• 

  19 слайд

  The Problem of Word Definition

  The item ice cream is:
  two orthographic words,
  but
  — a single phonological word (it is pronounced as a unit),
  — a single lexical item (it has its own entry in a dictionary),
  — a single GWF (indeed, it hardly has another form unless you think the plural ice cream is good English).

  3

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  20 слайд

  The Problem of Word Definition

  The singular dog and the plural dogs:
  — a single orthographic word,
  — a single phonological word,
  a single GWF,
  but they both
  — represent the same lexical item (only one entry in the dictionary).

  3

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  21 слайд

  The Problem of Word Definition

  ???
  take, takes, took, taken, is taking:

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  The Problem of Word Definition

  take, takes, took, taken and is taking:

  — five orthographic words,
  — five phonological words,
  five GWFs (at least),
  but only
  — one lexical item.

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  23 слайд

  The Problem of Word Definition

  ???
  the contraction hasn’t

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  The Problem of Word Definition

  The contraction hasn’t is:

  — a single orthographic word,
  a single phonological word,
  — two lexical items (have and not),
  — two GWFs (has and not).

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  25 слайд

  The Problem of Word Definition

  ???
  The phrasal verb make up (as in She made up her face)

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  The Problem of Word Definition

  The phrasal verb make up (as in She made up her face):
  — two orthographic words,
  — two phonological words,
  — one lexical item (because of its unpredictable meaning, it must be entered separately in the dictionary).
  — has several GWFs (make up, makes up, made up, making up).

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  27 слайд

  The Problem of Word Definition

  ???
  make up
  (She made up a story)

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  The Problem of Word Definition

  make up (She made up a story):
  — a different lexical item from the preceding one (a separate dictionary entry is required),
  but
  — this lexical item exhibits the same orthographic, phonological and grammatical forms as the first.

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  The Problem of Word Definition

  So,
  the word is not a clearly definable linguistic unit.

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  The Problem of Word Definition

  For the sake of linguistic description, we will proceed from the following statements:
  — the word is a meaningful unit differentiating word-groups at the upper level and integrating morphemes at the lower level;

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  The Problem of Word Definition

  — the word is the main expressive unit of human language, which ensures the thought-forming function of language;

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  The Problem of Word Definition

  the word It is also the basic nominative unit of language with the help of which the naming function of language is realized;

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  The Problem of Word Definition

  in the structure of language the word belongs to the upper stage of the morphological level;

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  The Problem of Word Definition

  the word is a unit of the sphere of «language» and it exists only through its speech actualization;

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  The Problem of Word Definition

  one of the most characteristic features of the word is its indivisibility.

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  The Problem of Word Definition

  the word is a bilateral entity

  concept
  WORD = ———————
  sound image

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  2. The Notion of the Word -Form

  The term «word-form“ shows that the word is a carrier of grammatical information.
  E.g.: speaks — the present tense third
  person singular
  speak, spoke, is speaking
  ↓
  Here the relational property of grammatical meaning is revealed.

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  The Notion of the Word -Form

  Grammatical meanings of a word-form are very abstract and general.
  They are peculiar of a whole class of words, unite it so that each word of the class expresses the corresponding grammatical meaning together with its individual, concrete semantics.

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  The Notion of the Word -Form

  E.g.:
  the meaning of the plural is rendered by the regular plural suffix –(e)s, phonemic interchange and a few lexeme-bound suffixes.

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  The Notion of the Word -Form

  Due to the generalized character of the plural, we say that different groups of nouns «take» this form with strictly defined variations in the mode of expression.
  The variations can be of more systemic (phonological conditioning) and less systemic (etymological conditioning) nature.

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  The Notion of the Word -Form

  Cf.: faces, branches, matches, judges;
  books, rockets, boats, chiefs, proofs;
  dogs, beads, films, stones, hens;
  lives, wives, thieves, leaves;
  oxen, children, brethren;
  swine, sheep, deer;
  men, women, feet, teeth, geese, mice, lice;
  formulae, antennae;
  data, errata, strata, addenda, memoranda;
  radii, genii, nuclei;
  crises, bases, analyses, axes;
  phenomena, criteria.

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  The Notion of the Word -Form

  The lexical meaning of the word is irrelevant for the detection of the type of the word-form.

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  The Notion of the Word -Form

  A word-form may be analytical by structure. In this case it is equivalent to one word as it expresses one unified content of a word, both from the point of view of grammatical and lexical meaning.
  E.g.: has spoken

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  44 слайд

  The Notion of the Word -Form

  Words (as well as morphemes) are directly observable units by nature as they are characterized by a definite material structure of their own.

  They can be registered and enumerated in any language.

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  45 слайд

  The Notion of the Word -Form

  The system of morphological units is a closed system. It means that all its items are on the surface and can be embraced in an inventory of forms.

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  46 слайд

  The Notion of the Word -Form

  Every word is a unit of grammar as a part of speech.

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  The Notion of the Word -Form

  Parts of speech are usually considered a lexico-grammatical categories since:
  they show lexical groupings of words;
  these groupings present generalized classes, each with a unified, abstract meaning of its own.

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  48 слайд

  3. The Notion of Grammatical Meaning

  Notional words combine two meanings in their semantic structure:
  lexical;
  grammatical.

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  The Notion of Grammatical Meaning
  Lexical meaning is the individual meaning of the word
  E.g.: table — a definite piece of furniture with a flat top supported by one or more upright legs,
  speak – to express thoughts aloud, using the voice.

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  The Notion of Grammatical Meaning
  Grammatical (morphological) meaning is not individual.
  ↓
  It is the meaning of the whole class or a subclass
  E.g.: table (grammatical meaning of the class of nouns (thingness / substance) and the grammatical meaning of a subclass – countableness).

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  51 слайд

  ?

  What are grammatical meanings of:
  — verbs;
  adjectives;
  adverbs?

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  The Notion of Grammatical Meaning

  There are some classes of words that are devoid of any lexical meaning and possess the grammatical meaning only.

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  The Notion of Grammatical Meaning

  Function words

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  4.Types of Grammatical Meaning

  The grammatical meaning may be:

  explicit;
  implicit.
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  Types of Grammatical Meaning
  The implicit grammatical meaning is not expressed formally

  E.g.: table (the meaning of inanimate object)

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  Types of Grammatical Meaning
  The explicit grammatical meaning is always marked morphologically
  E.g.: -s in cats (the grammatical meaning of plurality);
  ‘s in cat’s (the grammatical meaning of possessiveness);
  is …ed in is asked (the grammatical meaning of passiveness)

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  Types of Grammatical Meaning
  Types of the implicit grammatical meaning:
  general
  dependent

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  Types of Grammatical Meaning
  general (the meaning of the whole word-class, of a part of speech)
  E.g.: thingness of nouns

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  60 слайд

  Types of Grammatical Meaning
  dependent (the meaning of a subclass within the same part of speech)
  E.g.: the verb (transitivity/ intransitivity,
  terminativeness / non-terminativeness,
  stativeness / non-stativeness);
  the noun (countableness / uncountableness,
  animateness / inanimateness)

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  Types of Grammatical Meaning
  The dependent grammatical meaning influences the realization of grammatical categories restricting them to a subclass.
  E.g.: the number category for the subclass of countable nouns;
  the category of case for the subclass of animated nouns;
  the category of voice for transitive verbs, etc.

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  Types of Grammatical Meaning

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  5. The Notion of Grammatical Category

  A grammatical category is a linguistic category which has the effect of modifying the forms of some class of words in a language.

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  The Notion of Grammatical Category
  Its structure displays two or more forms applied to a definite class of words and used in somewhat different grammatical circumstances.
  ↓↓

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  The Notion of Grammatical Category
  Grammatical categories are made up by the unity of identical grammatical meanings that have the same form and meaning
  E.g. singular : plural

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  The Notion of Grammatical Category
  Due to dialectal unity of language and thought, grammatical categories correlate, on the one hand, with the conceptual categories and, on the other hand, with the objective reality:

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  The Notion of Grammatical Category
  Thus,
  grammatical categories are references of the corresponding objective categories.
  E.g.: the objective category of time →
  the grammatical category of tense,
  the objective category of quantity → the grammatical category of number.

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  The Notion of Grammatical Category

  Grammatical categories that have references in the objective reality are referential.
  Objective correlate
  ↓
  Lingual correlate

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  The Notion of Grammatical Category
  Grammatical categories that do not correspond to anything in the objective reality and correlate only with conceptual matters are significational. They are few (e.g. the categories of mood and degree).
  Conceptual correlate
  ↓
  Lingual correlate

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  The Notion of Grammatical Category
  Classifications of Gr. Categories

  According to the referent relation:
  immanent;
  — reflective.
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  The Notion of Grammatical Category
  Immanent gr. categories are:
  1) innate for a given lexemic class, organically connected with its functional nature
  E.g.: the number category of nouns,
  the substantive-pronominal person
  2) closed within a word-class
  E.g.: the tense category of verbs,
  the comparison of adjectives and adverbs

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  The Notion of Grammatical Category

  Reflective gr. categories are of a secondary, derivative semantic value
  E.g.: the number category of verbs,
  the verbal person

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  The Notion of Grammatical Category
  2. According to the changeability of the exposed feature
  — unchangeable / derivational (constant feature categories)
  E.g.: the gender category of nouns represented by the system of the 3rd person pronouns
  — changeable / demutative (variable feature categories)
  E.g.: the number category of nouns,
  the degrees of comparison

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  The Notion of Grammatical Category

  NB:
  1. The notion of grammatical category applies to the plane of content of morphological paradigmatic units;

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  The Notion of Grammatical Category

  2. It refers to grammatical meaning as a general notion;

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  The Notion of Grammatical Category

  3. It does not nominate things but expresses relations, that is why it has to be studied in terms of oppositions;

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  The Notion of Grammatical Category

  4. Grammatical categories of language represent a realization of universal categories produced by human thinking in a set of interrelated forms organized as oppositions;

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  The Notion of Grammatical Category

  5. Grammatical categories are not uniform, they vary in accordance with the part of speech they belong to and the meaning they express;

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  The Notion of Grammatical Category

  6. The expression of grammatical categories in language is based upon close interrelation between their forms and the meaning they convey.

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  6. The Notion of Opposition

  The concept of opposition is that it distinguishes something.

  ↓
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  The Notion of Opposition
  One thing can be distinguished from another only if it can be contrasted with something else or opposed to it.

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  The Notion of Opposition

  Any grammatical category must be represented by at least two grammatical forms
  E.g. the grammatical category of number: singular and plural forms.

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  The Notion of Opposition
  Thus,
  the relation between two grammatical forms that differ in meaning and external signs is called opposition.

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  The Notion of Opposition
  The most widely known opposition is the binary «privative» opposition.

  In it one member of the contrastive pair is characterized by the presence of a certain feature which the other member lacks

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  The Notion of Opposition
  E.g. table::tables
  ↓ ↓
  “unmarked” “marked”
  (weak) member (strong) member
  ↓ ↓
  non-plural plural
  ↓ ↓
  more general and abstract more particular and
  concrete
  (used in a wider range of contexts)

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  The Notion of Opposition
  FYI:
  Some scholars, however, hold the opinion that oppositions can be
  gradual (different degree of a feature)
  E.g.: big — bigger — biggest
  equipollent (different positive features)
  E.g.: am — is — are.

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  The Notion of Opposition

  NB:
  A grammatical category is definable only on the basis of oppositions.

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  The Notion of Opposition

  Means of realization of grammatical categories:
  synthetic (near — nearer);
  analytical (beautiful — more beautiful).

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We intuitively know what a WORD is. In written language words are separated by spaces. In spoken language you can sometimes hear a pause between them, although in most cases there’s nothing noticeable that separates words in spoken language.

We can distinguish the orthographic word, the grammatical word and the lexeme.

An ORTHOGRAPHIC WORD is a word form separated by spaces from other orthographic words in written texts and the corresponding form in spoken language.

In the example:

She wanted to win the game.

there are six orthographic words: she, wanted, to, win, the and game.

A GRAMMATICAL WORD is a word form used for a specific grammatical purpose.

For example in the sentence:

That man over there said that he would like to talk to you.

we have the word THAT used twice. This is one orthographic word, but we’re dealing with two grammatical words here: the first THAT is a demonstrative adjective and the other THAT is a conjunction.

A LEXEME is a group of word forms with the same basic meaning that belong to the same word class.

For example the words AM, WAS, IS belong to one lexeme, as they have the same basic meaning and are all verbs. Also the words COME and CAME belong to the same lexeme.

How do they relate to one another?

In many cases orthographic and grammatical words overlap. For example in the sentence:

They bought the house.

there are four orthographic words and four grammatical words, so there is one-to-one correspondence in this case.

But if we slightly modify the sentence like so:

They didn’t buy the house.

there are now five orthographic words and six grammatical words. This is because the orthographic word DIDN’T represents a sequence of two grammatical words: DID + NOT.

It may also be the other way around. In the sentence:

I kind of like it.

there are five orthographic words, but only four grammatical words, because the two orthographic words KIND OF actually represent a single grammatical word.

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