Grammatical analysis of the word - Word и Excel - помощь в работе с программами

There
are two basic types of means with the help of which grammatical forms
are built: synthetical and analytical. Synthetical (synthetic)
grammatical forms are built by means of the morphemic composition of
the word. This includes the morphemic means, which were described in
the previous unit: outer inflexion with the help of adding
grammatical suffixes to the stems of the words, e.g.: cat — cats;
inner inflexion, or vowel interchange inside the root, e.g.: goose —
geese; and suppletivity, when different roots are combined within the
same paradigm, e.g.: go – went. Analytical grammatical forms are
built by the combination of the notional word with auxiliary words,
e.g.: come — have come. Analytical forms consist of two words which
together express one grammatical meaning; in other words, they are
grammatically idiomatic: the meaning of the grammatical form is not
immediately dependent on the meanings of its parts. Analytical
grammatical forms are intermediary between words and
word-combinations. Some analytical forms are closer to a word,
because the two parts are inseparable in their grammatical
idiomatism; for example, the forms of the perfect aspect: come — have
come. The components of some other analytical forms are more
independent semantically, and they are less idiomatic grammatically;
for example, the degrees of comparison: beautiful — more beautiful –
most beautiful. Such combinations of an auxiliary component and a
basic component are treated by some linguists as free
word-combinations, but as they are correlative members of grammatical
paradigms and express some specific grammatical meaning, they should
be recognized as analytical grammatical forms too. Some lexical means
regularly involved in the expression of common grammatical meanings
can also be regarded as marginal cases of suppletivity or specific
analytical forms, e.g.: the use of quantifiers with uncountable nouns
or repetition groups – a bit of joy, the last two items of news,
thousands and thousands, etc.

Analytical
grammatical forms are prevalent in English; modern English is an
analytical type of language.

Types
of word-form derivation

These
fall under two main headings:

(a)
those limited to changes in the body of the word, without having

recourse
to auxiliary words (synthetic types),

(b)
those implying the use of auxiliary words (analytical types).

Besides,
there are a few special cases of different forms of a word

being
derived from altogether different stems.

Synthetic
Types

The
number of morphemes used for deriving word-forms in Modern

English
is very small (much smaller than either in German or in Russian,

for
instance.

There
is the ending -s
(-es), with
three variants of pronunciation and

the
endings -en
and
-ren,
in
one or two words each, viz. oxen,
brethren

(poet.),
children.

There
is the ending -‘s,
with the same three variants of pronunciation as

for
the plural ending, used to form what is generally termed the genitive
case of

nouns.

For
adjectives, there are the endings -er
and
-est
for
the degrees of

comparison.

For
verbs, there is the ending -s
(-es) for
the third person singular

present
indicative, with the same three variants of pronunciation noted above

for
nouns, the ending -d
(-ed) for
the past tense of certain verbs (with three

variants
of pronunciation, again), the ending -d
(ed) for
the second participle

of
certain verbs, the ending -n
(-en) for
the second participle of certain other

verbs,
and the ending -ing
for
the first participle and also for the gerund.

Thus
the total number of morphemes used to derive forms of words is

eleven
or twelve, which is much less than the number found in languages

of
a mainly synthetical structure.

It
should also be noted that most of these endings are mono-semantic,

in
the sense that they denote only one grammatical category and not two
or

three
(or more) at a time, as is the case in synthetic languages. For

example,
the plural -s
(or
-es)
denotes
only the category of plural number, and

has
nothing to do with any other grammatical category, such as case.

Sound
Alternations

Sound
alternations are a way of expressing grammatical categories which

consists
in changing a sound inside the root. This method appears in Modern

English,
for example, in nouns, as when the root vowel [au] of mouse
is

changed
into [aı] in mice,
etc.

This
method is much more extensively used in verbs, such as write
—

wrote
—
written,
sing — sang —
sung,
meet — met —
met,
etc.
On the whole,

vowel
alternation does play some part among the means of expressing

grammatical
categories, though its part in Modern English has been much

reduced
as compared to Old English.

Analytical
Types

These
consist in using a word (devoid of any lexical meaning of its

own)
to express some grammatical category of another word.

There
can be no doubt in Modern English about the analytical character of

such
formations as, e. g., has
invited or
is
invited, or
is
inviting, or
does
not

invite.
The
verbs have,
be, and
do
have
no lexical meaning of their own in

these
cases. The lexical meaning of the formation resides in the participle
or

infinitive
following the verb have,
be or
do.
Some
doubt has been expressed

about
the formations shall
invite and
will
invite. There
is a view that shall

and
will
have
a lexical meaning.

While
the existence of analytical forms of the English verb cannot be

disputed,
the existence of such forms in adjectives and adverbs is not

nowadays
universally recognised. The question whether such formations as

more
vivid, the most vivid, or,
again, more
vividly and
most
vividly are
or

are
not analytical forms of degrees of comparison of vivid
and
vividly,
is

controversial.
We can only say here that if these formations are recognised as

analytical
forms of degrees of comparison, the words more
and
most
have
to

be
numbered among the analytical means of morphology.

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Concrete / Abstract
Jargon / Non-Specialist
Hypernym / Hyponym / Synonym
Connotation / Denotation
Semantic Field
Proper Nouns

Every noun is chosen above a large list of synonyms because of its particular flavour – its precise denotations and its numerous connotations (or even because it is a very general word and lacks certain specific connotations).

Katie Price, the celebrity, was seen last night…

What are the connotations of the word “celebrity”?

How many different nouns (or noun phrases) could replace the one used in this sentence? Why would an author chose one of them over the others?

Caution: pointing out the semantic field of a word, or a group of words, may make you look like an idiot. That a restaurant review contains words from the semantic-field of food is not very revealing; however, should such a review contain words from the semantic field of romance, or law or war, well then, that’s telling us an awful lot.

2. Adjectives

Comparative /Superlative
Attributive / Predicative
Descriptive/Evaluative/Emotive
Concrete/Abstract

As with nouns, adjectives have certain denotations as well as connotations; however, attributive adjectives can be left out of the sentence, so as well as answering the question what other adjectives (or adjective phrases) could have been used, we must ask why use an adjective at all? You must specify what type of adjective you are dealing with in each instance.

The big, fat, greedy man didn’t have a clue how to eat the most beautiful meal.

3. Pronouns

Pronouns tell us so much about what an author is “up to”, therefore they should be our first port of call when analysing any text. E.g. an advert using the second person pronoun is clearly trying to draw you – the reader – in, whilst using the first person plural pronoun is either including the reader or presenting a faceless corporation as a harmless group of people just like you.

Here at NatWest, we treasure you, we love you, and we will do anything for you.

Subject to terms and conditions.

4. Modal Verbs

The “could”, “should”, “would”, “must” words should always be pounced upon – modality is all about the author’s attitude to what they are themselves writing.

Texts can have modes of reassurance or modes of possibility or modes of obligation or modes of necessity or modes of prediction or modes of permission or modes of volition or modes of ability or mixed modes, where any of these modes can mix with any other as a text seeks to hide its purpose or has more than one purpose.

The lion might not like killing the gazelle, but they should feel alright about the whole killing side of things, owing to the gazelle having little or no awarness of moral problems, nor consciousness of their impending doom. Though they may fear death, the gazelle could not be aware of their existence as such, and therefore surely would have little to say about that existence coming to an untimely end. The law of the jungle may strike us as appaling, but we must not project our humanistic values onto the plains of the Serengeti. Thinking this way will make a whole lot of difference: we won’t polute the natural world with our humanistic values nor the burden of consciousness, which we bear admirably.

Adverbs of Modality such as “certainly”, “really”, “indeed” “hardly” “perhaps”, “maybe”, “fortunately”, “hopefully”, also give the game away about the ahthor’s attitude to what they are writing about.

5. Adverbs

Adverbs of Time, Place, Manner, Degree (either Intensifying or Diminishing), Reason and Modality… all open up the author’s head to a thorough examination. Because adverbs can modify verbs, adjectives, adverbs themselves as well as whole sentences, they are very versatile words and need to be seen as such – a powerful weapon in the author’s armoury. You must specify what type of adverb you are dealing with in each instance.

Probably, the greatest threat facing our planet is our apathy and refusal to take any interest in it.

The greatest threat facing our planet is probably our apathy and refusal to take any interest in it.

6. Prepositional Phrases / Adverbials

Prepositions (such as at, on, by, past, at, and after) are useful in that they head up adverbials. The easiest phrase to comment on are adverbials because they do the same job as adverbs in a sentence. As with adverbs, (and all other modifiers), they don’t need to be there, so why does the author feel the need for a whole extra phrase in that sentence? The answer will usually be very revealing.

Without doubt, the greatest threat facing our planet is our apathy and our refusal to take any interest in it.

With hatred in both eyes, little Johnny apologised to his grandmother.

7. Imperative Sentences

As with Declarative, Interrogative and Exclamatory sentences, the proportion of sentences with a particular function can be revealing, a text full of imperative sentences can only be trying to do one thing to the reader (even if doing so politely) – tell her what to do. Interrogative sentences could be up to much more.

Pour the flower in carefully.

Get the hell out of my head.

8. Subordinate Clauses

These are so common in every text that it may lead the analyst to ignore them. Every complex sentence has a main clause and a subordinate clause. Subordinate clauses can be identified by the connective which usually heads them; however, sometimes the subordinate clause and its connective can be separated which can make things a little more complicated. Once a subordinate clause is identified, it’s then left to explain its reason for existence. Subordinate clauses can give reasons, locations, times…

…when there wasn’t a hope in hell.

…because I really couldn’t give a damn.

…as with all words, phrases or clauses some are more important that others, and it is this skill that is being tested as much as any other when you analyse a text. Choosing which twenty or se quotations to focus on is a skill that you must refine. Always ask yourself first what a text is trying to do and what strategies it is employing, then use this knowledge to choose the quotations you will focus on as you read through the text a second time – circling the twenty or so most important words, phrases or clauses.

9. Non-finite Clauses

Like prepositional phrases, non-finite clauses are phrases which are added at the beginning, the end or in the middle of a sentence, for a particular purpose. However, instead of modifying the sentence they hang onto it limpet like, they add an extra bit of action for the sentence’s subject, saying what else he or she or it is doing or being. Again, the question to ask of the author is: why bother adding this extra tit-bit?

Running out of time…

Loosing the feeling in his legs…

Looking for meaning in his life…

10. Verb Tense

Whether a text is in the present or the past can be a rather facile observation, but worth a punt in some cases. Where the precise time and the continuation of an action over time is important, you might want to note what the verb’s aspect is, whether it’s perfective – as marked by the auxiliary verb “have” – or the progressive – as marked by the auxiliary verb “be” and the “-ing” suffix.

I had been attending the AA meetings, but that was before I met Lola, who showed me how she had been discovering love in the bottom of a bottle.

11. Simple Sentences Vs Complex Sentences

A rather basic observation – what are complex sentences for but for putting forward complex ideas which cannot be handled by simple (or compound) sentences? And why limit yourself to simple sentences and lose so much expressive power?

I love you.

I love you because you are twelve percent better than Simon and fifteen percent better than Phil.

12. Active &Passive Voice

Nothing strikes fear into the heart of the human more than the active and passive voices. However, they can be easy to spot and can, at times, be very useful in understanding a text. The differences between the following sentences are all too obvious.

The active voice – the normal form: Little Johnny killed the cat.

The passive voice – a choice which should be commented on:

The cat was killed by little Johnny.

The passive voice with the agent dropped: The cat was killed.

The word to look out for is “by” – when the sentence’s subject has been torn from the front of the sentence and twisted into its object to meet the strange needs of the author. Of course, dropping the agent altogether, what should be the sentence’s active subject, is more than suspicious, it’s simply…

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Compilation Principle Study Notes-Lecture 5 Grammatical Analysis-Top-down Analysis

tags: Compilation principle study notes Programming language

Compilation Principle Study Notes-Lecture 5 Grammatical Analysis-Top-down Analysis

1. Basic issues of top-down analysis
- 1.1 Basic concepts of grammatical analysis
- 1.2 Methods of grammatical analysis
- 1.3 Problems faced by top-down analysis
- - 1.3.1 Backtracking problem
  - 1.3.2 Left recursion problem of grammar
2. LL (1) grammar-eliminate left recursion in grammar
- 2.1 Eliminate direct left recursion (left recursion becomes right recursion)
- 2.2 Eliminate indirect left recursion
3. LL (1) Grammar-Eliminate Backtracking
- 3.1 FIRST collection and extraction of common left factors
- 3.2 FOLLOW collection
- 3.3 LL (1) grammatical conditions
4. Construction of FIRST and FOLLOW sets
- 4.1 Construction of FIRST set
- - 4.1.1 α = X， X∈VT∪VN
  - 4.1.2 α = X1X2…Xn， Xi∈VT∪VN
- 4.2 FOLLOW set construction
- 4.3 Example

1. Basic issues of top-down analysis

1.1 Basic concepts of grammatical analysis

The premise of grammatical analysis: describe the grammatical structure of the language
Use formal and finite automata to describe and recognize word symbols in language
Use context-free grammar to describe grammatical rules
A context-free grammar G is a quaternion G=(V_T，V_N, S, P), where:
V_T: Terminal set (not empty)
V_N: Non-terminal symbol set (not empty), and V_T∩V_N=∅
S: The beginning symbol of the grammar, S∈V_N
P: Set of productions (limited), each production has the form: P→α, P∈V_N， α ∈ (V_T∪V_N)*
The start symbol S must appear at least once on the left of a certain production
The task of grammatical analysis:
Analyze the structure of a grammatical sentence
The function of the syntax analyzer:
According to the production of the grammar (the grammatical rules of the language), identify whether the input symbol string is a sentence (well-formed program)
The position of the parser in the compiler

1.2 Methods of grammatical analysis

Top-down: Starting from the beginning symbol of the grammar, using various productions repeatedly to find the derivation of «matching»
Derivation: According to the production rules of the grammar, replace the left part of the production in the string with the right part
Starting from the root of the tree, construct a syntax tree
Recursive descent analysis method, predictive analysis program
Bottom-up: Starting from the input string, gradually reduce until the beginning of the grammar
Reduction: According to the production rules of the grammar, replace the right part of the production appearing in the string with the left part symbol
Starting from the leaf node, construct the syntax tree
Operator precedence analysis method, LR analysis method

1.3 Problems faced by top-down analysis

The basic idea of top-down analysis:
1. Starting from the beginning symbols of the grammar, deducing downwards, and deducing sentences
2. For the input string, try to use all possible methods, starting from the symbol (root node) of the grammar, and build a syntax tree for the input string from top to bottom

1.3.1 Backtracking problem

Therefore, if a non-terminal symbol needs to be extended, but the non-terminal symbol has multiple extensions, how to make the correct choice and avoid unnecessary backtracking is an important problem facing the design of a top-down analysis program.

1.3.2 Left recursion problem of grammar

As a result, the grammar tree grows indefinitely, and word recognition has not progressed, causing the program to enter an endless loop.
We should construct top-down analysis algorithms without backtracking

Eliminate left recursion in grammar
Eliminate backtracking

2. LL (1) grammar-eliminate left recursion in grammar

2.1 Eliminate direct left recursion (left recursion becomes right recursion)

P→Pα | β
After elimination:
P→βP′
P′→αP′ | ε
P→Pα₁ | Pα₂ | … | Pα_m | β₁ | β₂ | … | β_n
After elimination:
P →β₁P′ | β₂P′ | … |β_nP′
P′ → α₁P′ | α₂P′ |… |α_mP′ | ε
Given grammar G(E):
（1）E→E＋T | T
（2）T→T * F | F
（3）F→(E) | i
(1) Elimination: E→TE′, E′→+TE′ | ε
(2) Elimination: T→FT′, T′→*FT′ | ε
(3) No need to eliminate
Get G(E) after elimination:
E→TE′
E′→+TE′ | ε
T→FT′
T′→ *FT′ | ε
F→(E) | i

2.2 Eliminate indirect left recursion

Given grammar G(S):
S→Qc|c
Q→Rb|b
R→Sa|a
There is no direct left recursion, but S, Q, R are all left recursive

In this way, indirect left recursion is broken.

Example: Eliminate left recursion in grammar G(S)
S → Qc | c
Q → Rb | b
R → Sa | a

We process in the order of R, Q, S
For R, the characters in the two candidate formulas are after the R order and do not need to be processed.
For Q, the second candidate is a terminal symbol and does not need to be processed. The first candidate has R, which is located before Q. Replace R with the definition of R: Q → Sab | ab | b
For S, the second candidate is a terminal symbol and does not need to be processed. The first candidate has Q, which is located in front of S. Replace Q with the definition of Q: S → Sabc | abc | bc | c, there is left recursion, which needs to be performed Direct left recursion elimination
Becomes: S → abcS’ | bcS’ | cS’, S’ → abcS’ | ε
At this time, the definitions of Q and R are redundant and can be deleted directly. The final grammar is:
S → abcS’ | bcS’ | cS’，
S’ → abcS’ | ε

Note that due to the different ordering of non-terminal symbols, the resulting grammar may be different in form. But it is not difficult to prove that they are all equivalent.

3. LL (1) Grammar-Eliminate Backtracking

In order to eliminate backtracking, it must be ensured that for any non-terminal symbol in the grammar, when it is required to match the input string, it can accurately assign one of its candidates to perform the task according to the input symbols it faces, and the candidate’s work result should be Certainly.

3.1 FIRST collection and extraction of common left factors

FIRST set: Let G be a grammar without left recursion. For each candidate α of all non-terminal symbols of G, define its terminal header set FIRST(α) as:
Extract the common left factor
Suppose the rule about A is
A → δβ₁ | δβ₂ | … | δβ_n | γ₁ | γ₂ | … | γ_m(Where each γ does not start with δ)
Then, these rules can be rewritten as:
A → δA′ | γ₁ | γ₂ | … | γ_m
A′ → β₁ | β₂ | … | β_n

3.2 FOLLOW collection

3.3 LL (1) grammatical conditions

Construct grammatical conditions for top-down analysis without backtracking

Grammar without left recursion
For each non-terminal symbol A in the grammar, the set of candidate heads of each production is disjoint. That is, if A→α₁ | α₂ | … | α_n
Then FIRST(α_i) ∩ FIRST(α_j)＝φ (i≠j)
For each non-terminal symbol A in the grammar, if it has a candidate set containing ε, then
FIRST(α_i) ∩ FOLLOW(A)=φ，i=1,2,…,n

If a grammar G satisfies the above conditions, then the grammar G is called LL(1) grammar.
The first L, represents left, scan the input string from left to right
The second L, represents the analysis process is the leftmost derivation
(1), which means that every time you analyze, you always find candidates based on the current word, that is, look forward one character
For LL(1) grammar, the input string can be effectively analyzed from top to bottom without backtracking.

4. Construction of FIRST and FOLLOW sets

4.1 Construction of FIRST set

4.1.1 α = X， X∈VT∪VN

If X ∈ V_T, Then FIRST(X)={X}.
If X ∈ V_N, And there is a production X→a…, then a is added to FIRST(X); if X→ε is also a production, then ε is also added to FIRST(X).

If X→Y…is a production and Y∈V_N, Then all non-ε-elements in FIRST(Y) are added to FIRST(X);
If X→Y₁Y₂…Y_i-1Y_i…Y_kIs a production, Y₁，…，Y_i-1All wrong
Terminator,
(1) For any j, 1≤j≤i-1, FIRST(Yj) contains ε (ie Y₁…Y_i-1∗⇒ ε), then all non-ε-elements in FIRST(Yi) are added to FIRST(X)
(2) If all FIRST(Yj) contain ε, j=1, 2,…,k, add ε to FIRST(X).

4.1.2 α = X1X2…Xn， Xi∈VT∪VN

Set FIRST(α)=FIRST(X₁) {ε}；
If for any 1≤j≤i-1, ε∈FIRST(X_j), then put FIRST(X_i) {ε} added to FIRST(α); in particular, if all FIRST(X_j) Contains ε, and 1≤j≤n, then ε is also added to FIRST(α). Obviously, if α=ε then FIRST(α)={ε}.

4.2 FOLLOW set construction

For the start symbol S of the grammar, set # in FOLLOW(S);
If A→αBβ is a production, add FIRST(β) {ε} to FOLLOW(B);
If A→αB is a production, or A→αBβ is a production and β∗⇒ε (ie ε∈FIRST(β)), then add FOLLOW(A) to FOLLOW(B)

4.3 Example

For grammar G(E):
E → TE′
E′ → +TE′ | ε
T → FT′
T′ → *FT′ | ε
F → (E) | i
FIRST(E) ={ (, i }
FIRST(E′)={ +, ε }
FIRST(T) ={ (, i }
FIRST(T′)={ *, ε }
FIRST(F) ={ (, i }
FOLLOW(E) ={ #, ) }
FOLLOW(E′)={ #, ) }
FOLLOW(T) ={ +, #, ) }
FOLLOW(T′)={ +, #, ) }
FOLLOW(F) ={ *,+, #, ) }
The FIRST set is the set of terminal heads of strings that can be derived from non-terminal symbols
The FOLLOW set is the terminal symbol or the ‘#’ relationship that appears immediately after the nonterminal in all sentence patterns
The elements in the FOLLOW collection come from the FIRST collection
And the FIRST set may contain ε, and the FOLLOW of the non-terminal symbol contains #

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Presentation on theme: «Techniques of Grammatical Analysis»— Presentation transcript:

1

Techniques of Grammatical Analysis
Rajat Kumar Mohanty IIT Bombay

2

What is Grammar? A theory of language
A theory of competence of a native speaker An explicit model of competence A finite set of rules

3

What are the requirements?
A model of competence Should be able to generate an infinite set of grammatical sentences of the language Should not generate any ungrammatical ones Should be able to account for ambiguities If two sentences are understood to have same meaning, the grammar should give the same structure for both at some level If two sentences are understood to have different internal relationship, the grammar should assign different structural description

4

Techniques of Grammatical Analysis
Two main devices Breaking up a string Sequential Hierarchical Transformational Labeling the constituents Morphological Categorial Functional A grammar may combine any of these devices for grammatical analysis.

5

Breaking up Labeling Morphological Categorial Functional
Grammatical Analysis Techniques Sequential Hierarchical Transformational Morphological Categorial Functional

6

Breaking up and Labeling
Sequential Breaking up Sequential Breaking up and Morphological labeling Sequential Breaking up and Categorial labeling Sequential Breaking up and Functional labeling Hierarchical Breaking up Hierarchical Breaking up and Categorial Labeling Hierarchical Breaking up and Functional Labeling

7

Sequential Breaking up
This device breaks up a sentence into a sequence of morphemes the + boy + s + kill + ed + the + un + happy + rat + s raam + ne + dande + se + saap + ko + maar + aa If a sentence is understood in two different ways, a grammar should give two corresponding descriptions They + can + fish They are able to fish They put fish in cans

8

Sequential Breaking up and Morphological labeling
After breaking up a sentence, we can give morphological labels to each units the + boy + s + kill + ed + the + un + happy + rat + s word stem affix stem affix word affix stem stem affix raam + ne + dande + se + saap + ko + maar + aa word affix word affix word affix word affix

9

Sequential Breaking up and Categorical Labeling
This boy can solve the problem This boy can solve the problem Det N Aux V Det N S

10

Sequential Breaking up and Categorical Labeling (…continued)
They can fish Pronoun Aux Verb They can fish Pronoun Verb Noun

11

Sequential Breaking up and Categorical Labeling (…continued)
They called her a taxi Pronoun Verb Pronoun Article Noun They said she was a taxi They called a taxi for her

12

Sequential Breaking up and Functional labeling
They called her a taxi Subject Verbal IO DO They called her a taxi Object Complement Subject Verbal DO

13

Sequential Breaking up and Functional labeling (…continued)
Old men and women modifier Head coordinator Head

14

Hierarchical Breaking up
This device breaks up a sentence into its constituents at different hierarchies or levels Old men and women Old men and women men and women Old men and women Old men and women Old men

15

Hierarchical Breaking up and Categorial Labeling
Poor John ran away ADJ N V ADV NP VP

16

Hierarchical Breaking up and Functional Labeling
Immediate Constituent Analysis Construction types in terms of the function of the constituents: Predication (subject + predicate) Modification (modifier + head) Complementation (verbal + complement) Subordination (subordinator + dependent unit) Coordination (independent unit + coordinator + independent unit)

17

In the morning, the sky looked much brighter
Mod Head Mod Head Mod Head Verbal Complement Subject Predicate Sub DU Head Modifier

18

Hierarchical Breaking up and Categorial /Functional Labeling
Hierarchical Breaking up coupled with Categorial /Functional Labeling is a very powerful device But there are ambiguities which demand something more powerful

19

Love of God Love of God Love of God Someone loves God
God loves someone Love of God Love of God Head Modifier Noun Phrase Prepositional Phrase Sub- DU love of God love of God

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Generative Grammar A generative grammar
generates all the grammatical sentences of the language rejects all the ungrammatical ones It is free to choose and combine any of the techniques of breaking up and labeling Depending upon what tools the grammar combines, we have different types of grammar

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Types of Generative Grammar
Finite State Model (sequential) Phrase Structure Model (sequential + hierarchical) Transformational Model (sequential + hierarchical + transformational)

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Phrase Structure Model
Inadequacies Ambiguity Paraphrase Relationship Constructional Homonymy

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Ambiguity If a sentence is understood to have two meanings, a grammar should give two corresponding structural descriptions PS grammar fails to meet this demand The shooting of the hunters The hunter shot someone Someone shot the hunters

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NP PP NP Det N P NP Det N the shooting of the hunters

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Paraphrase Relationship
If two sentences are understood to have the same meaning, a grammar should give the same structural description for the two sentences at some level PS grammar fails to meet this demand Examples The boy slapped the girl The girl was slapped by the boy

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S VP NP Det N V NP Det N The boy slapped the girl

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S VP NP Det N V PP Aux V P NP The girl was slapped by the boy

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Constructional Homonymy
If two sentences are not understood the same way, a grammar should give two structural descriptions PS grammar cannot do this The audience was asked to leave by the side-door The audience was asked to leave by the chairman

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The audience was asked to leave by the S VP NP V Inf. Phr Det N Aux V
PP P NP Det N The audience was asked to leave by the Side-door

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The audience was asked to leave by the S VP NP V Inf. Phr Det N Aux V
PP P NP Det N The audience was asked to leave by the Chairman

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Transformational Model
If a generative grammar makes use of all the three -sequential -hierarchical and -transformational is called a Transformational grammar.

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Transformational model
PS model Makes use of PS rules exclusively PS rules generate surface structure Makes use of PS rules and transformational rules PS rules generate DS DS is converted into the surface structure by transformational rules

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PS grammar Surface Structure PS rules Transformational grammar PS rules Transformation Deep Structure Surface Structure

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Why wasn’t he punished? PS rules: S  NP – VP VP  V — NP – PP
V  Aux – V Aux (Tense)-(Modal)-(Perf)-(Prog) Tense  {pres/past} NP  (PreDet) — (Det) — (Ord) -(Quan) -(AP)-N Lexical substitution

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S VP NP VG NP PP Aux V Tense Someone past punish him for some reason

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Why wasn’t he punished? (…continued)
Transformations Passivization Agent deletion Negation Neg. Contraction Wh- substitution Interrogation Wh- fronting Affix switch

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Passivization S VP NP VG PP PP Aux V P NP N Tense Pass for Some reason He past be en punish by someone

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Agent Deletion S VP NP VG PP Aux V Tense Pass for some reason He past be en punish

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Negation S VP NP VG PP Aux V Tense Pass for some reason He past be not en punish

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Neg. Contraction S VP NP VG PP Aux V Tense Pass for some reason He past be’not en punish

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Wh- Substitution S VP NP VG WH Aux V Tense Pass why He past be’not en punish

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Interrogative S VP Aux NP VG WH V Tense why past be’not he en punish

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Wh-fronting S VP WH Aux NP VG V Tense why past be’not he en punish

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Affix switch S VP WH Aux NP VG Tense V be’not past punish en why was’not he punished

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Suggested Readings Lyons, John. 1977. Chomsky. Fontana, London.
Palmer, Frank. Grammar Crystal, David. Linguistics

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THANK YOU QA

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GRAMMATICAL MEANING
OF THE WORD
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1. The problem of word definition.
2. The notion of the word-form.
3. The notion of «grammatical meaning».
4. Types of grammatical meaning.
5. The notion of «grammatical category».
6. The notion of «opposition».

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1.The Problem of Word Definition

The word is considered to be the central (though not the only) linguistic unit of language.
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The Problem of Word Definition

In the written language words are clearly identified by spaces between them.

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The Problem of Word Definition

In the spoken language the problem cannot be solved this way.
↓
If we listen to an unfamiliar language, we find it difficult to divide up the speech into single words.

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The Problem of Word Definition

Approaches
to the problem of word definition:
the word is a semantic unit, a unit of meaning;
the word is a marked phonological unit;
the word is an indivisible unit.

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The Problem of Word Definition

Semantic definition of the word:
“…a unit of a particular meaning with a particular complex of sounds capable of a particular grammatical employment».
↓
The word is a linguistic unit that has a single meaning.

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The Problem of Word Definition

BUT:

heavy smoker ≠ heavy and
smoker
criminal lawyer;
the King of England’s hat.

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The Problem of Word Definition

The problem:

the word is not always a single unit.

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The Problem of Word Definition

A phonological criterion

that stuff that’s tough
a nice cakean ice cake
grey day Grade A
↓

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The Problem of Word Definition

It is hard to distinguish the real meaning without a proper context.
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The Problem of Word Definition

The word as an indivisible unit

“The word is a minimum free form“
(L. Bloomfield)
↓
The word is the smallest unit of speech that can occur in isolation.

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The Problem of Word Definition

BUT:
a or the

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The Problem of Word Definition

Thus,
the word is a linguistic unit larger than a morpheme but smaller than a phrase.

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The Problem of Word Definition

In this case the word can be defined as:

• An orthographic word (something written with white spaces at both ends but no white space in the middle).

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The Problem of Word Definition

• A phonological word (something pronounced as a single unit).

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The Problem of Word Definition

• A lexical item, or lexeme, (a dictionary word).

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The Problem of Word Definition

• A grammatical word-form (GWF) (or morphosyntactic word) (any one of the several forms which a lexical item may assume for grammatical purposes).

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The Problem of Word Definition

The item ice cream is:
two orthographic words,
but
— a single phonological word (it is pronounced as a unit),
— a single lexical item (it has its own entry in a dictionary),
— a single GWF (indeed, it hardly has another form unless you think the plural ice cream is good English).

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The Problem of Word Definition

The singular dog and the plural dogs:
— a single orthographic word,
— a single phonological word,
a single GWF,
but they both
— represent the same lexical item (only one entry in the dictionary).

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The Problem of Word Definition

???
take, takes, took, taken, is taking:

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The Problem of Word Definition

take, takes, took, taken and is taking:

— five orthographic words,
— five phonological words,
five GWFs (at least),
but only
— one lexical item.

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The Problem of Word Definition

???
the contraction hasn’t

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The Problem of Word Definition

The contraction hasn’t is:

— a single orthographic word,
a single phonological word,
— two lexical items (have and not),
— two GWFs (has and not).

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The Problem of Word Definition

???
The phrasal verb make up (as in She made up her face)

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The Problem of Word Definition

The phrasal verb make up (as in She made up her face):
— two orthographic words,
— two phonological words,
— one lexical item (because of its unpredictable meaning, it must be entered separately in the dictionary).
— has several GWFs (make up, makes up, made up, making up).

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The Problem of Word Definition

???
make up
(She made up a story)

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The Problem of Word Definition

make up (She made up a story):
— a different lexical item from the preceding one (a separate dictionary entry is required),
but
— this lexical item exhibits the same orthographic, phonological and grammatical forms as the first.

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The Problem of Word Definition

So,
the word is not a clearly definable linguistic unit.

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The Problem of Word Definition

For the sake of linguistic description, we will proceed from the following statements:
— the word is a meaningful unit differentiating word-groups at the upper level and integrating morphemes at the lower level;

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The Problem of Word Definition

— the word is the main expressive unit of human language, which ensures the thought-forming function of language;

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The Problem of Word Definition

the word It is also the basic nominative unit of language with the help of which the naming function of language is realized;

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The Problem of Word Definition

in the structure of language the word belongs to the upper stage of the morphological level;

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The Problem of Word Definition

the word is a unit of the sphere of «language» and it exists only through its speech actualization;

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The Problem of Word Definition

one of the most characteristic features of the word is its indivisibility.

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The Problem of Word Definition

the word is a bilateral entity

concept
WORD = ———————
sound image

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2. The Notion of the Word -Form

The term «word-form“ shows that the word is a carrier of grammatical information.
E.g.: speaks — the present tense third
person singular
speak, spoke, is speaking
↓
Here the relational property of grammatical meaning is revealed.

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The Notion of the Word -Form

Grammatical meanings of a word-form are very abstract and general.
They are peculiar of a whole class of words, unite it so that each word of the class expresses the corresponding grammatical meaning together with its individual, concrete semantics.

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The Notion of the Word -Form

E.g.:
the meaning of the plural is rendered by the regular plural suffix –(e)s, phonemic interchange and a few lexeme-bound suffixes.

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The Notion of the Word -Form

Due to the generalized character of the plural, we say that different groups of nouns «take» this form with strictly defined variations in the mode of expression.
The variations can be of more systemic (phonological conditioning) and less systemic (etymological conditioning) nature.

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The Notion of the Word -Form

Cf.: faces, branches, matches, judges;
books, rockets, boats, chiefs, proofs;
dogs, beads, films, stones, hens;
lives, wives, thieves, leaves;
oxen, children, brethren;
swine, sheep, deer;
men, women, feet, teeth, geese, mice, lice;
formulae, antennae;
data, errata, strata, addenda, memoranda;
radii, genii, nuclei;
crises, bases, analyses, axes;
phenomena, criteria.

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The Notion of the Word -Form

The lexical meaning of the word is irrelevant for the detection of the type of the word-form.

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The Notion of the Word -Form

A word-form may be analytical by structure. In this case it is equivalent to one word as it expresses one unified content of a word, both from the point of view of grammatical and lexical meaning.
E.g.: has spoken

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The Notion of the Word -Form

Words (as well as morphemes) are directly observable units by nature as they are characterized by a definite material structure of their own.

They can be registered and enumerated in any language.

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The Notion of the Word -Form

The system of morphological units is a closed system. It means that all its items are on the surface and can be embraced in an inventory of forms.

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The Notion of the Word -Form

Every word is a unit of grammar as a part of speech.

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The Notion of the Word -Form

Parts of speech are usually considered a lexico-grammatical categories since:
they show lexical groupings of words;
these groupings present generalized classes, each with a unified, abstract meaning of its own.

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3. The Notion of Grammatical Meaning

Notional words combine two meanings in their semantic structure:
lexical;
grammatical.

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The Notion of Grammatical Meaning
Lexical meaning is the individual meaning of the word
E.g.: table — a definite piece of furniture with a flat top supported by one or more upright legs,
speak – to express thoughts aloud, using the voice.

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The Notion of Grammatical Meaning
Grammatical (morphological) meaning is not individual.
↓
It is the meaning of the whole class or a subclass
E.g.: table (grammatical meaning of the class of nouns (thingness / substance) and the grammatical meaning of a subclass – countableness).

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?

What are grammatical meanings of:
— verbs;
adjectives;
adverbs?

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The Notion of Grammatical Meaning

There are some classes of words that are devoid of any lexical meaning and possess the grammatical meaning only.

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The Notion of Grammatical Meaning

Function words

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4.Types of Grammatical Meaning

The grammatical meaning may be:

explicit;
implicit.
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Types of Grammatical Meaning
The implicit grammatical meaning is not expressed formally

E.g.: table (the meaning of inanimate object)

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Types of Grammatical Meaning
The explicit grammatical meaning is always marked morphologically
E.g.: -s in cats (the grammatical meaning of plurality);
‘s in cat’s (the grammatical meaning of possessiveness);
is …ed in is asked (the grammatical meaning of passiveness)

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Types of Grammatical Meaning
Types of the implicit grammatical meaning:
general
dependent

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Types of Grammatical Meaning
general (the meaning of the whole word-class, of a part of speech)
E.g.: thingness of nouns

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Types of Grammatical Meaning
dependent (the meaning of a subclass within the same part of speech)
E.g.: the verb (transitivity/ intransitivity,
terminativeness / non-terminativeness,
stativeness / non-stativeness);
the noun (countableness / uncountableness,
animateness / inanimateness)

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Types of Grammatical Meaning
The dependent grammatical meaning influences the realization of grammatical categories restricting them to a subclass.
E.g.: the number category for the subclass of countable nouns;
the category of case for the subclass of animated nouns;
the category of voice for transitive verbs, etc.

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Types of Grammatical Meaning

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5. The Notion of Grammatical Category

A grammatical category is a linguistic category which has the effect of modifying the forms of some class of words in a language.

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The Notion of Grammatical Category
Its structure displays two or more forms applied to a definite class of words and used in somewhat different grammatical circumstances.
↓↓

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The Notion of Grammatical Category
Grammatical categories are made up by the unity of identical grammatical meanings that have the same form and meaning
E.g. singular : plural

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The Notion of Grammatical Category
Due to dialectal unity of language and thought, grammatical categories correlate, on the one hand, with the conceptual categories and, on the other hand, with the objective reality:

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The Notion of Grammatical Category
Thus,
grammatical categories are references of the corresponding objective categories.
E.g.: the objective category of time →
the grammatical category of tense,
the objective category of quantity → the grammatical category of number.

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The Notion of Grammatical Category

Grammatical categories that have references in the objective reality are referential.
Objective correlate
↓
Lingual correlate

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The Notion of Grammatical Category
Grammatical categories that do not correspond to anything in the objective reality and correlate only with conceptual matters are significational. They are few (e.g. the categories of mood and degree).
Conceptual correlate
↓
Lingual correlate

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The Notion of Grammatical Category
Classifications of Gr. Categories

According to the referent relation:
immanent;
— reflective.
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The Notion of Grammatical Category
Immanent gr. categories are:
1) innate for a given lexemic class, organically connected with its functional nature
E.g.: the number category of nouns,
the substantive-pronominal person
2) closed within a word-class
E.g.: the tense category of verbs,
the comparison of adjectives and adverbs

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The Notion of Grammatical Category

Reflective gr. categories are of a secondary, derivative semantic value
E.g.: the number category of verbs,
the verbal person

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The Notion of Grammatical Category
2. According to the changeability of the exposed feature
— unchangeable / derivational (constant feature categories)
E.g.: the gender category of nouns represented by the system of the 3rd person pronouns
— changeable / demutative (variable feature categories)
E.g.: the number category of nouns,
the degrees of comparison

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The Notion of Grammatical Category

NB:
1. The notion of grammatical category applies to the plane of content of morphological paradigmatic units;

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The Notion of Grammatical Category

2. It refers to grammatical meaning as a general notion;

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The Notion of Grammatical Category

3. It does not nominate things but expresses relations, that is why it has to be studied in terms of oppositions;

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The Notion of Grammatical Category

4. Grammatical categories of language represent a realization of universal categories produced by human thinking in a set of interrelated forms organized as oppositions;

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The Notion of Grammatical Category

5. Grammatical categories are not uniform, they vary in accordance with the part of speech they belong to and the meaning they express;

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The Notion of Grammatical Category

6. The expression of grammatical categories in language is based upon close interrelation between their forms and the meaning they convey.

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6. The Notion of Opposition

The concept of opposition is that it distinguishes something.

↓
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The Notion of Opposition
One thing can be distinguished from another only if it can be contrasted with something else or opposed to it.

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The Notion of Opposition

Any grammatical category must be represented by at least two grammatical forms
E.g. the grammatical category of number: singular and plural forms.

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The Notion of Opposition
Thus,
the relation between two grammatical forms that differ in meaning and external signs is called opposition.

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The Notion of Opposition
The most widely known opposition is the binary «privative» opposition.

In it one member of the contrastive pair is characterized by the presence of a certain feature which the other member lacks

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The Notion of Opposition
E.g. table::tables
↓ ↓
“unmarked” “marked”
(weak) member (strong) member
↓ ↓
non-plural plural
↓ ↓
more general and abstract more particular and
concrete
(used in a wider range of contexts)

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The Notion of Opposition
FYI:
Some scholars, however, hold the opinion that oppositions can be
gradual (different degree of a feature)
E.g.: big — bigger — biggest
equipollent (different positive features)
E.g.: am — is — are.

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The Notion of Opposition

NB:
A grammatical category is definable only on the basis of oppositions.

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The Notion of Opposition

Means of realization of grammatical categories:
synthetic (near — nearer);
analytical (beautiful — more beautiful).

3

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Compilation Principle Study Notes-Lecture 5 Grammatical Analysis-Top-down Analysis

Compilation Principle Study Notes-Lecture 5 Grammatical Analysis-Top-down Analysis

1. Basic issues of top-down analysis

1.1 Basic concepts of grammatical analysis

1.2 Methods of grammatical analysis

1.3 Problems faced by top-down analysis

1.3.1 Backtracking problem

1.3.2 Left recursion problem of grammar

2. LL (1) grammar-eliminate left recursion in grammar

2.1 Eliminate direct left recursion (left recursion becomes right recursion)

2.2 Eliminate indirect left recursion

3. LL (1) Grammar-Eliminate Backtracking

3.1 FIRST collection and extraction of common left factors

3.2 FOLLOW collection

3.3 LL (1) grammatical conditions

4. Construction of FIRST and FOLLOW sets

4.1 Construction of FIRST set

4.1.1 α = X， X∈VT∪VN

4.1.2 α = X1X2…Xn， Xi∈VT∪VN

4.2 FOLLOW set construction

4.3 Example

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