Give a brief account of the main characteristics of the word

1.
The
object of Lexicology. General, special, historical, descriptive;
sociolinguistics.

Lexicology
– is the branch of linguistic dealing with vocabulary of the
language and the properties of words or main units of the language.
General
lexicology
studies linguistic phenomena and properties common to all languages,
general studying of words and voc. irrespective of specific features
of any part of language.
Special
linguistic –
devotes its attention to the description of the characteristic
peculiarities in the given language. Historical
linguistic
— studies the evolution of any vocabulary as well as single elements,
discusses the origin of words. Descriptive
linguistic
– deals with the vocabulary of a given language at a given stage of
its development, studies the function of words and their specific
features as characteristic inherent in the system. Socio-
linguistics
– a branch of ling. dealing with casual relations between the way
the language develops and the fact of social life. Every new
phenomenon in human society finds reflection in a vocabulary.

Phonetics.
On acoustic level words consist of phonemes and these phonemes
participate in the significations. They have no meaning but their
function is to build up morphemes, which served to distinguish
between meanings.
Stylistics
studies many problems treated in lexicology: these are the problem of
meaning, synonyms, differentiation of vocabulary according to the
sphere of communication. Grammar.
It attends to establish rules for the correct use of the language in
society. Every word alongside with the lex. meaning has some
grammatical meaning.

3. The Structural Aspects of the word.

The word
is
a unit of speech, which serves the purposes of human communication
materially representing the group of sounds possessing a meaning
susceptible to grammatical employment and characterized by formal and
semantic unity. So it can be defined as: a unity of communication; it
can be perceived as the total of sounds; structurally it possess some
functions.

There is
external
(morphological) and internal
(the meaning — semantic) structure of the word.

4. A brief Account of the main characteristics of a word.

1. The
   distinguishing between external
   (morphological) and internal
   (the meaning — semantic) structure of the word.

2. Unity.
   The
   word has external and internal unity. Formal
   unity is sometimes inaccurately interpreted as indivisibility
   of
   the word. But we can divide it into morphemes but their components
   are linked together. We can compare words to groups whose components
   have a certain structural freedom. (E.g.: bluebell
   (type
   of flower)
   – blue bell (colour
   and object))
   If it is word we can change the whole of it, phrase – all
   components.

3. Susceptibility
   to
   grammatical employment. Words can be used in different grammatical
   forms and thus they realize the interrelations.

5. The main problems of Lexicology

Word
building. It’s
connected with word structure
and
process of coining new words.
Semantics. It’s
the study of meaning.
2
approach of studying this problem: syntagmatic
(the
word is studied in its liner relationships with neighboring
words.), paradigmatics
(word
is studied in its relationships with other words in voc. system;
with the synonymy, antonymy and different stylistic
characteristics.). E.g.: girl
– bird, chick, colee, damsel .

Phraseology.
The
branch of lex. specializing in word groups which are characterized by
stability of structure and transferred meaning. E.g.: To
be at a loss.

The
study of voc. as a system.

2
approaches: synchronically
(at
a given stage of development), diachronically
(in
the contents
of
the process
through
it grew, developed, acquired in modern form.).

1. Formal and Informal style.

The style
can be divided into 2: formal and informal, depending on the
situations. The situations can be formal
(professional
communication, reception, lecture, talk to a teacher or manager),
informal
(talk to friends, relatives, an intimate letter).

Informal
vocabulary
is used in two-way everyday conversation, when you are at home, or
feeling like home. The choice of words in each particular situation
is determined not only by formal or informal situation but also by
the speaker education, cultural background, age group, his occupation
and regional characteristics. That’s why the inf. Words are
subdivided into 3 subgroups: colloquialisms, slang, and dialect
words.

Formal
words.
They are divided into 3 groups: learned words, professional words,
obsolete and archaic words.

1. Colloquial
   speech. The main features and characteristics.

1. They
   are
   the least exclusive (90% of people use them every day). Their sphere
   of communication is wide.

2. They are
   subdivided: literary
   coll.
   (used by educated people, printer pages: pall,
   chum – friend; bite, snake – meal),
   familiar
   (used by the young and semi-educated, it is more emotional and free:
   ta-ta
   – good bye; doc – doctor),
   low
   (“speech
   of persons who may only be described as uncultivated” –
   G.P.Kropp. These are words of illiterate language.).

1. Definition
   of slang. Main features.

It
is informal non-standard voc., usually intelligible only to people
from a particular region or social group such as doctors, sailors.

The
main features:

1. It
   is a lang. of coll. style considered as below the level of standard
   educational speech and consisting either of new words or of current
   wards employed in some special sense.

2. Slang
   is metaphor.

3. Each
   slang metaphor is ruted in a joke with cinical colouring.

4. The
   circle of users is narrower than that of coll. words It’s mainly
   used by the young and uneducated.

5. Slang
   is subject to rapid change. So it is short-lived.

1. Dialect
   and variant. The main features of dialect words.

Dialect
– is a variety of language, which prevails in a districts with
local peculiarities of voc., pronunciation, phrase.

Variant –
is
original variety possessing a literary form.

In
G.B there are 2 variants: Scottish, Irish. There are 5 dialects:
Northern, Midland, Eastern, Western and Southern. Every group has 4
or 5dialects.

Cockney
– Southern dialect (London). It exists in 2 levels: as spoken by
educated and uneducated people. Features of Cockney dialect

1. Interchange
   between [W] and [V]: [vel]
   – [wel] – well

2. The
   voiceless and voiced dental spirants: [O] – [f] fing
   – thing; [
   ] – [v] faver
   – father.

3. Interchange
   of the aspirated and non-aspirated initial sounds: heart
   – ‘eart.

4. Substitution
   of diphthongs: day-
   [dai], way – [wai].

Features:
1.
Dialect
peculiarities especially those of voc are constantly being
incorporated into coll. speech. From these levels they can come into
common stock. E.g.: car,
tram ,trolley – used
to be dialect words.

1. Using
   dialect words is the bright, expressive means.

1. Learned
   words.

1. They
   are associated with printed pages.

2. Sphere
   of usage; they are used by educated and highly educated people.

3. They
   are subdivided into:

• Scientific
  prose – identified
  by their dry flavour: comprise,
  compile, homogeneous.

• Officialese
  –
  words
  of the official, bueurocratic language. They should be avoided in
  speech: to
  assist – to help, to proceed – to go, approximately – about.

• Literary
  words –
  described
  as refined, they are used in descriptive passages of fiction. They
  are represented by the words of Roman languages and though fully
  adopted to English phonetic system still sound foreign: solitude,
  sentiment, fascination, cordial, allusive.

• Modes
  of poetic diction –
  they
  are lofty, high-flown, archaic, coloured, used only in poetry:
  alas,
  constancy – верность,
  duth – do.

1. Archaisms,
   obsolete words and historisms, their general characteristics.

Obsolete
words
– are no longer in use, especially out of use for at least a
century. Archaic
words
– are current in earlier times, but rare in present usage.
Historisms
– are
words denoting objects and phenomena, which are thing of the past and
no longer exist.

Features:

1. They
   stand close to the learned words (modes of poetic dictions)

2. Archaisms
   are associated with printed pages.

3. They
   are moribund, are out of circulation, rejected by living lang. and
   are not used in conversational situations.

4. They
   are met in historical novels and poetry. They are used to create a
   particular period of time.

5. Sometimes
   archaic words may undergo a sudden reveal: kin
   used
   to be archaic word.

E.g.: thou
– you, thy – your, nay –no, aye- yes.

1. Professional
   terminology. Features of term. Problems in terminology.

Terminology
is
the set of technical words used in a particular subject such as
physics, art, lang. study. Terminological system embraces many of
specialized fields such as scientific, professional or treat areas.
Every field of modern activity has its specialized vocabulary.

Term is
a word or word group, which is specially used by a particular brunch
of science, technology, trade, arts to convey a concept, which is
specific to this particular activity.

Features
of term:

1. Terms
   are deprived of emotional colouring.

2. They
   are not for general use, they are used by narrow circle of people.

3. Sometimes
   they may obtain more generalized meaning (electricity)

4. Terms
   can be polysemantic and can have synonyms.

5. Terms can
   be simple containing word or complex: electromotive
   force.

6. The origin
   of number of terms is Latin: index,
   metaphor, Present Indefinite.

7. They
   are built up according to the rules of word building.

8. Terms
   are borrowed from other languages.

Problems
of terminology.

1. Whether
   term loses its terminological status when it comes into common usage
   or not. Most scholars think that it’s quite natural that a great
   number of terms pass into general usage. E.g.: measles,
   electricity.

2. Synonymy
   and polisemy in terminology. Some scholars consider the term to have
   no synonyms and to be monosemantic. It sounds reasonable but in
   reality terms do possess synonyms and many terms are polysemantic.
   E.g.: to
   dress-перевязывать
   рану
   (medical), готовить
   землю
   к
   посеву
   (agricultural), выстраивать
   в
   шеренгу
   (military).

1. Basic
   vocabulary words, their main features.

Basic
voc. – a
central group, a basic core of the language. It doesn’t include all
words but only that part which comprises lexical foundation of the
language.

Main
features:

1. B.V is
   the central group of the vocabulary, its living core. They show a
   great stability, undergo changes but slowly. They denote objects and
   phenomena of everyday importance.

2. Stylistically
   these words are neutral, that is they are used in all kinds of
   situations both formal and informal. They are used by everybody
   every day.

3. These
   are words without which no human communication would be possible.

4. Basic
   vocabulary words have no connotations. Their meaning is board and
   directly conveys the concept without supplying any additional
   information.

1. LECTURE 2 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WORD AS THE BASIC UNIT OF THE LANGUAGE www.philology.bsu.by/кафедры/кафедра английского языкознания/учебные материалы/кафедра английского языкозн

LEXICOLOGY COURSE
LECTURE 2
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
WORD AS THE BASIC UNIT OF
THE LANGUAGE
www.philology.bsu.by/кафедры/кафедра английского
языкознания/учебные материалы/кафедра английского
языкознания/папки преподавателей/Толстоухова В.Ф.

2. The questions under consideration

A word as a fundamental unit of language.
2. Motivation of words.
3. Functional style.
4. Informal style.
5. Colloquial words.
6. Slang.
7. Dialect words.
8. Learned words.
9. Archaic and obsolete words.
10. Professional terminology.
11. Basic vocabulary.
1.

3. TEST 2

1. Give definitions to the following:
lexical system, syntagmatic relations,
paradigmatic relations, a word,
motivation, phonetic motivation,
morphological motivation, semantic
motivation, folk etymology, colloquial
words, slang, dialect words, archaic and
obsolete words, professional
terminology, basic vocabulary.

4. Complete the following sentences using words and expressions given in the list below:

A. The smallest meaningful units of the
language are called … .
B. The biggest units of morphology and the
smallest units of syntax are … .
С. A set of elements associated and functioning
together according to certain laws is termed …
.
D. Contrastive relations of a lexical unit with all
other units that can occur in the same context
and be contrasted to it are known as … .

5. 2.Complete the following sentences using words and expressions given in the list below:

E. When there is a certain similarity between the
sounds that make up words and their meaning, the
motivation is … .
P. Morphological motivation, when both the lexical
meaning of the component morphemes and the
meaning of the pattern are perfectly transparent, is
called … .
G. Motivation based on the co-existence of direct and
figurative meaning of the same word within the same
synchronous system is termed … .
1) lexical system; 2) semantic; 3) paradigmaticс
relations; 4) complete; 5) words; 6) phonetical; 7)
morphemeв.

6. 3. Answer these questions

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
What determines the choice of stylistically
marked words in each particular situation?
In what situations are informal words used?
What are the main kinds of informal words?
Give a brief description of each group.
What is the difference between
colloquialisms and slang? What are their
common features? Illustrate your answer
with examples.
What are the main features of dialect words?
Where are formal words used?

7. 3. Answer these questions

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Are learned words used only in books? Which type of
learned words, do you think, is especially suitable for
verbal communication? Which is least suitable and
even undesirable?
What are the principal characteristics of archaic
words?
What are the controversial problems connected with
professional terminology?
Do you think that students of English should learn
terms? If so, for which branch or branches of
knowledge?
What is understood by the basic vocabulary?
Which classes of stylistically marked words should
be included in the students’ functional vocabulary?

8. 1.A word as a fundamental unit of language.

The term system (definition)

9. The term system

denotes a set of elements associated and
functioning together according to certain
laws.

10. The lexical system of every epoch

contains
productive
elements typical of
this particular period
others that are
archaic and are
dropping out of
usage
some new
phenomena,
neologisms

11. The elements of lexical system

are characterized
by their
combinatorial and
contrastive
properties
determining their
syntagmatic and
paradigmatic
relationships.

12. EXAMPLE

compare the meaning of the verb «to get»
in the sentences
He got a letter.
He got tired
He got to London.
He could not get the piano through the
door.

13. On the syntagmatic level,

the semantic structure of the word is
analysed in its linear relationships with
neighbouring words in connected
speech. In other words, the semantic
characteristics of the word are observed,
described and studied on the basis of its
typical contexts.

14. Paradigmatic contrastive relations

Where do they exist ?
Example:
to go a mile
to run a mile
to walk a mile
To stroll a mile

15. Paradigmatic contrastive relations

exist between words belonging to one
subgroup of vocabulary items (e.g.,
verbs of motion, of sense perception,
sets of synonyms, etc.) that can occur in
the same context and be contrasted to
one another. Paradigmatic relations are
observed in the system of language.

16. On the paradigmatic level

the word is studied in its relationships
with other words in the vocabulary
system.
So, a word may be studied in comparison
with other words of similar meaning.

17. work n – labour n.

Work работа, труд; 1 the job
that a person does especially
in order to earn money. This
word has many meanings (in
Oxford Dictionary – 14), many
synonyms and idioms
[`idiemz]: creative work
творческая деятельность;
public work общественные
работы; his life`s work дело
его жизни; dirty work
(difficult, unpleasant) 1
чёрная работа; 2 грязное
дело, подлость. Nice work!
Отлично! Здорово! Saying
(поговорка): All work and no
play makes Jack a dull boy
labour – 1 work, especially
physical work: manual labour,
a labour camp –
исправительно-трудовой
лагерь; 2 people who work: a
shortage of labour; cheap
labour; skilled labour –
квалифицированные
рабочие, Labour Party; labour
relations; a labour of Sisyphus;
Sisyphean labour [,sisi‘fi:en]
сизифов труд; тяжёлый и
бесплодный труд – of a task
impossible to complete

18. On the paradigmatic level

words of similar
meaning
e.g. to refuse v – to
reject v
of opposite meaning
(e.g. busy adj – idle
adj;
to accept v – to reject
v)

19. On the paradigmatic level

of different stylistic characteristics
(e.g. man n – chap n – bloke n – guy n).
Man – chap (coll.) – парень, малый; a good chap –
славный малый; old chap – старина; chap – BrE,
informal, becoming old-fashioned – used to talk about
a man in a friendly way: He isn`t such a bad chap really.
Bloke (coll.) тип, парень: He seemed like a nice bloke.
Guy – coll. US – малый; tough guy железный малый;
wise guy умник; guys (informal, especially US) a group
of people of either sex: Come on, you guys!

20. The main problems of paradigmatic studies

are synonymy,
antonymy,
functional styles.

21. Words vs Morphemes

the central elements of
language system
the biggest units of
morphology
the smallest units of
syntax
can be separated in an
utterance
can be used in isolation
as a complete utterance
is composed of one or
more morphemes
are also meaningful
units
can not be used
independently
are always parts of
words
cannot be divided into
smaller meaningful
words

22. Why is the definition of a word the most difficult?

The simplest word has many different
aspects:
• a sound form and morphological
structure;
• may occur in different word-forms,
different syntactic functions
• signal various meanings

23. Why is the definition of a word the most difficult?

the word is a sort of focus for the
problems of
phonology,
lexicology,
syntax,
morphology
sciences that have to deal with language
and speech, such as philosophy and
psychology

24. The definition of a word

The word has been defined semantically,
syntactically, phonologically and by
combining various approaches.

25. The definition of a word

Many eminent scholars such as V.V.
Vinogradov, A.I. Smirnitsky, O.S.
Akhmanova, M.D. Stepanova, A.A.
Ufimtseva contributed to creating a word
theory. It is based upon the
understanding of the relationship
between word and thought, on the one
hand, and language and society, on the
other.

26. The definition of a word

A word is the smallest unit of a given
language capable of functioning alone
and characterised by positional mobility
within a sentence, morphological
uninterruptability and semantic
integritу.

27. The definition of a word

«a word is defined by the association of a
particular meaning with a particular
group of sounds capable of a particular
grammatical employment.» (A. Meillet.
Linguistique historique et linguistique
generate. Paris, 1926. V. 1. P. 30.)

28. 2. Motivation of words.

The term mоtivation is used to denote
the relationship existing between the
phonemic or morphemic composition
and structural pattern of the word, on the
one hand, and its meaning, on the other.

29. Three types of motivation

phonetical motivation,
morphological motivation
semantic motivation

30. What motivation is it?

e.g., bump,
buzz,
chatter,
clatter,
giggle,
hiss,
whistle, etc.

31. The phonetical motivation is

when there is a certain similarity
between the sound that make up words
and their meaning.

32. morphological motivation

The main criterion in morphological
motivation is the relationship between,
morphemes.
e.g., «endless” is completely motivated
as both the lexical meaning of the
component morphemes and the
meaning of the pattern are perfectly
transparent.

33. morphological motivation

«cranberry» is only partially motivated
because of; the absence of the lexical
meaning in the morpheme «cran-«.
The words «matter», «repeat» are nonmotivated because the connection
between the structure of the lexical unit
and its meaning is completely
conventional.

34. Semantiс motivation

is based on the co-existence of direct and
figurative meaning of the same word
within the same synchronous system.
E.g., «mouth» denotes a part of a human
face and can be metaphorically applied to
any opening: the mouth of a river, the
mouth of a furnace, mouth of pipe.

35. Semantiс motivation

Semantic motivation is clear in popular
names of flowers, plants and birds
violet,
bluebell,
bluebottle,
blackcap,
blackbird,
nightingale,
hummingbird, etc.

36. Semantiс motivation

As to compounds their motivation is
morphological if the meaning of the
whole is based on the direct meaning of
the components (e.g., headache — pain in
the head), and semantic if the
combination of components is used
figuratively (headache — anything or
anyone very annoying).

37. fоlk etуmоlogy (popular etymology, false etymology)

E.g. «mushroom” from French
«moucheron» has nothing in common
with «room» (a borrowed word)

38. 3. Functional style (definition)

”a system of expressive means peculiar to
a specific sphere of communication”.
(I.V. Arnold )
The suitability or unsuitability of a word for
each particular situation depends on its
stylistic characteristics or, in other words,
on the functional style it represents.

39. Functional style (definition)

A system of expressive means peculiar to a
specific sphere of communication.
By the sphere of communication scholars
mean the circumstances attending the
process of speech in each particular case:
professional communication, a lecture,
an informal talk, a formal letter, an
intimate letter, a speech in court, etc.

40. Subdivisions of spheres of communications

formal (a lecture, a speech in court, an
official letter, professional
communication)
informal (an informal talk, an intimate
letter).

41. 4. Informal style (where?)

Informal vocabulary is used in one’s
immediate circle: family, relatives, or
friends. One uses informal words when at
home or feeling at home.

42. Informal style (characteristics)

relaxed,
free-and-easy
familiar

43. the informal talk differs

well-educated
people
adults (the choice of
words)
people living in cities
the illiterate or the
semi-educated
teenagers
people living in the
provinces
(regional words and
expressions)

44. The choice of words

is determined not
only by informal and
formal situations
but by
speaker’s
educational
background
speaker’s cultural
background
age group
occupational and
regional
characteristics

45. three types of informal words

colloquial
slang
dialect words and word-groups

46. 5. Colloquial words (Where? By whom?)

in everyday conversational speech both
by cultivated and uneducated people of
all age groups.

47. literary colloquial words

appear in dialogues in which they
realistically reflect the speech of modern
people
appear in descriptive passages as well
(in modern fiction)

48. examples of literary colloquial words

Pal (кореш, друг) and chum (приятель,
дружок) are colloquial equivalents of
friend; girl, when used colloquially,
denotes a woman of any age;
bite and snack (quick meal – перекусить)
stand for meal;
hi, hello are informal greetings, and so
long a form of parting;
start, go on, finish and be through
(покончить)

49. examples of literary colloquial words

A considerable number of shortenings
are found among words of this type.
E.g. pram, exam, fridge, flu, zip, movie.
Verbs with post-positional adverbs are
also numerous among colloquialisms:
E.g. put up, put over, make up, make out,
turn up,

50. literary colloquial words (are to be distinguished from)

familiar colloquial words (by the young
and the semi-educated )E.g. doc (for
doctor), ta-ta (for good-bye), to kid
smb.(for tease, banter – подшутить), to
pick up smb. (for make a quick and easy
acquaintance), shut up (for keep silent).
Low colloquial (просторечие)
(uncultivated people).

51. 6.Slang

The Oxford English Dictionary defines
slang as “language of a highly colloquial
style, considered as below the level of
standard educated speech, and
consisting either of new words or of
current words employed in some special
sense.”

52. Slang

All or most slang words are current words
whose meanings have been
metaphorically shifted. Each slang
metaphor is rooted in a joke, but not in a
kind or amusing joke. This is the criterion
for distinguishing slang from
colloquialisms: most slang words are
metaphors and jocular, often with a
coarse, mocking, cynical colouring.

53. Slang (the main reasons to use?)

To be picturesque,
To be arresting,
To be striking
To be different from others.
To demonstrate one’s spiritual
independence and daring.
To sound “modern” and “up-to-date”.

54. Slang (who are users?)

The circle of users of slang is more narrow
than that of colloquialisms.
It is mainly used by the young and
uneducated.

55. 7.Dialect words

dialects are regional forms of English
Dialect is a variety of a language which
prevails in a district, with local
peculiarities of vocabulary, pronunciation
and phrase.
(e.g. the Lancashire, Dorsetshire, Norfolk
dialects).

56. Dialect words are constantly being incorporated into

everyday colloquial speech or slang
into the common stock (words which are
not stylistically marked)
a few of them even into formal speech
into the literary language
e.g.Car, trolley, tram began as dialect
words.

57. Dialect words (examples)

tha (thee) – the objective case of thou;
brass – money;
nivver – never;
nowt – nothing.

58. 8. Learned words (two main groups):

words associated with professional
communication
associated with the printed page. It is
in this vocabulary stratum that poetry
and fiction find their main resources.

59. Learned words (further subdivision)

We find here numerous words that are
used in scientific prose and can be
identified by their dry, matter-of-fact
flavour (e.g. comprise, experimental,
heterogeneous, homogeneous, conclusive,
divergent, etc).

60. Learned words

‘officialese’ (канцеляризмы). These are
the words of the official, bureaucratic
language. They should be avoided in
speech and in print, e.g. assist (for help),
endeavour (for try), proceed (for go),
approximately (for about), sufficient (for
enough), inquire (for ask).

61. Learned words (further subdivision)

the words found in descriptive passages
of fiction. These words, which may be
called ‘literary’, also have a particular
flavour of their own, usually described as
‘refined’. They are mostly polysyllabic
words drawn from the Romance
language and, though fully adapted to
the English phonetic system, some of
them continue to sound singularly
foreign.

62. Learned words

Here are some examples:
solitude=loneless, lonely place
(уединение, одиночество),
sentiment=feeling (чувство),
fascination=strong attraction
(очарование, обаяние), delusion
(заблуждение), meditation
(размышление), cordial=friendly
(сердечный, радушный).

63. Learned words (further subdivision)

There is one further subdivision of
learned words: modes of poetic diction.,
Poetic words have a further characteristic
– a lofty, sometimes archaic, colouring:

64. Examples of poetic words

“Alas! (увы) they had been friends in youth;
But wispering tongues can poison truth
And constancy (постоянство) lives in
realms (царства) above;
And life is thorny; and youth is vain…

65. Learned words (not only in printed page)

Though learned words are mainly
associated with the printed page, this is
not exclusively so. Any educated Englishspeaking individual is sure to use many
learned words not only in his formal
letters and professional communication
but also in his everyday speech. Educated
people in both modern fiction and real
life use learned words quite naturally and
their speech is richer for it.

66. Learned words

But on the other hand, utterances
overloaded with such words are absurd
and ridiculous.

67. Learned words and Writers

Writers use this phenomenon for stylistic
purposes. When a character in a book or
in a play uses too many learned words,
the obvious inappropriateness of his
speech in an informal situation produces
a comic effect.

68. Learned words

However any suggestion that learned
words are suitable only for comic
purposes, would be quite wrong. It is in
this vocabulary stratum that writers and
poets find their most vivid paints and
colours, and not only their humorous
effects.

69. Learned words

It is also true that some of these words
should be carefully selected and
“activized” to become part of the
students’ functional vocabulary.
Without knowing some learned words, it
is even impossible to read fiction (not to
mention scientific articles) or to listen to
lectures in the foreign language.

70. 9.Archaic and obsolete words

Archaic – are old and no longer used
words;
obsolete – no longer used because
something new was invented. Obsolete
words have completely gone out of use.

71. Archaic words

are restricted to the printed page. These
words are already partly or fully out of
circulation. They are used in historical
novels and in poetry which is rather
conservative in its choice of words.
Thou [θаu] – (ты) and thy [ðai] – (твой),
aye [ai] – (‘yes’) and nay [nei] – (‘no’) are
certainly archaic and long since rejected
by common usage, yet poets use them
even today.

72. Archaic words

Numerous archaisms can be found in
Shakespeare, but it should be taken in
consideration that what appear to us
today as archaisms in the works of
Shakespeare, are in fact examples of
everyday language of Shakespeare`s
time.
Further examples of archaisms are: morn
(for morning), eve (for evening), errant
(for wandering, e.g. errant knights), etc.

73. Archaic words

Sometimes an archaic word may undergo
a sudden revival. So, the formerly archaic
kin (for relatives; one`s family) is now
current in American usage.

74. 10.Professional terminology

Every field of modern activity has its
specialized vocabulary, and similarly
special terminologies for psychology,
music, management, finance, economics,
jurisprudence, linguistics and many
others.

75. Professional terminology

Term, as traditionally understood, is a
word or a word-group which is
specifically employed by a particular
branch of science, technology, trade or
the arts to convey a concept peculiar to
his particular activity.

76. Professional terminology

So, share, bank, balance sheet are finance
terms;
court, lawyer, civil law are legal terms;
and top manager, creative team,
motivation are used in management.
Bilingual, interdental, labialization,
palatalization, glottal stop, descending
scale are terms of theoretical phonetics.

77. controversial problems in the field of terminology.

a term loses its terminological status
It is quite natural that under
circumstances numerous terms pass into
general usage without losing connection
with their specific fields.

78. Professional terminology

There are linguists in whose opinion terms are
only those words which have retained their
exclusiveness and are not known or recognized
outside their specific sphere. From this point of
view, words associated with the medical
sphere, such as unit (доза лекарственного
препарата), theatre (операционная), contact
(носитель инфекции) are no longer medical
terms as they are in more or less common
usage.

79. Professional terminology

There is yet another point of view,
according to which any terminological
system is supposed to include all the
words and word-groups conveying
concept peculiar to a particular branch of
knowledge, regardless of their
exclusiveness. It would be wrong to
regard a term as something “special” and
standing apart.

80. polysemy and synonymy

According to some linguists, an “ideal”
term should be monosemantic (i.e. it
should have only one meaning).
Polysemantic terms may lead to
misunderstanding, and that is a serious
shortcoming in professional
communication. This requirement seems
quite reasonable, yet facts of the
language do not meet it. There are
numerous polysemantic terms.

81. synonymy

The same is true about synonymy in
terminological systems. There are
scholars who insist that terms should not
have synonyms because, consequently,
scientists and other specialists would
name the same objects and phenomena
in their field by different terms and would
not be able to come to any agreement.
This may be true. But, in fact, terms do
possess synonyms.

82. 10.Basic vocabulary

are stylistically neutral,
used them in all kinds of situations, both
formal and informal, in verbal and written
communication
are used every day, everywhere and by
everybody, regardless of profession,
occupation, educational level, age group
or geographical location.

83. Basic vocabulary

without them no human communication
would be possible as they denote objects
and phenomena of everyday importance
(e.g. house, bread, summer, child, mother,
difficult, to go, etc.).
is the central group of the vocabulary, its
historical foundation and living core.

84. Basic vocabulary

Basic vocabulary words can be
recognized not only by their stylistic
neutrality but, also, by lack of other
connotations (i.e. attendant meanings).
Their meanings are broad, general and
directly convey the concept, without
supplying any additional information.

85. Basic vocabulary

For instance, the verb to walk means merely ‘to
move from place to place on foot’ whereas in
the meanings of its synonyms to stride
(шагать), to stroll (прогуливаться), to trot
(семенить, бежать вприпрыжку), to stagger
– to sway while walking (идти шатаясь) and
others, some additional information is encoded
as they each describe a different manner of
walking, a different gait, tempo, purpose or
lack of purpose.

86. Basic vocabulary

Basic vocabulary 1.begin, 2.continue
3.end 4.child, baby
Informal 1.start, get started 2.go on, get
on 3.finish, be through, be over 4.kid,
brat, bairn (dial.),
Formal 1.commence 2.proceed 3.
terminate 4.infant, babe

Question

List the 5 characteristics of words. Which one was new to you?  Which one do you think is most important? Why? Define “connotative” and “denotative” meanings. What are the steps for performing a word study? How important are word studies in understanding Scripture? Why is it important to do word studies in the original languages instead of in English alone?

Response

Words have several characteristics. William Klein, Craig Blomberg, and Robert Hubbard provide five characteristics of words, and the first characteristic is that words are arbitrary signs that combine sounds and letters to create meaning.[1] Second, words have a range of meaning or semantic range, which simply means that the same exact word can have several different meanings, and third, words reside within a semantic field, which means that many words have similar meanings.[2] Klein, Blomberg, and Hubbard continue by explaining that the fourth characteristic of words is that their meaning changes over time, thus “new meanings develop through usage, and old ones become obsolete.”[3] Finally, the meaning of words extends beyond the denotative or dictionary definition into a connotative meaning, which is the figurative meaning that many words possess.[4]

The newest characteristic of words to me was the distinction between the denotative and connotative meaning. Within an individual’s native language, the difference between denotative and connotative meaning is second nature and often can be overlooked as an exploration of other languages commence. It appears the most important word characteristic may be a word’s semantic range, because without an understanding of the possible Greek or Hebrew meanings within the context of the original audience, it may be impossible to discover the meaning of a word.

Performing a word study requires a minimum of three steps. Scott Duvall and Daniel Hays suggest that the first step is to carefully choose which words to study, and then secondly, determine the semantic range of the word or words selected.[5] The final step is to determine the meaning of the word within its original context.[6] Word studies are extraordinarily important due to word’s flexibility and nuance that can significantly impact the meaning of a particular phrase or verse.

It is difficult to overestimate the importance of word studies in the original languages. In fact, historically, seminaries required Greek and Hebrew for students obtaining a Master of Divinity. A few of the many reasons why word studies in the original languages are important follow. First, concordance work using the English word is of little value because the underlying Greek and Hebrew words are translated into a variety of English words. Accordingly, when looking for other uses of the word, it is a must that the Greek or Hebrew lemma is searched. Second, identifying the grammatical nuances of a verb or noun is difficult and often impossible using the English language. For example, if the interpreter wants to find all the uses of a particular Greek genitive noun or a specific imperfect Hebrew verb, then the word in the original language needs parsed and only then can the researcher search for similar usages. Third, textual criticism is very difficult, if not impossible, without an understanding of the original languages. Fourth, often subtleties of the original language occur that are not identifiable in English. For example, no indefinite article exists in Hebrew or Greek, and the definite article in Greek may or may not connote definiteness, which can effect meaning.[7] A classic example of the importance of articular versus anarthrous nouns is highlighted, according to evangelicals, by the incorrect interpretation of John 1:1 by Jehovah Witnesses, which undermines the deity of Christ.[8] Although the previous reasons are certainly not comprehensive, it is fair to say that doing word studies in the original languages is extraordinarily important to the modern interpreter.

Bibliography

Duvall, J. Scott, and J. Daniel Hays. Grasping God’s Word: A Hands-On Approach to Reading, Interpreting, and Applying the Bible. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012.

Klein, William W., Craig L. Blomberg, and Robert L. Hubbard. Introduction to Biblical Interpretation. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2004.

Wallace, Daniel B. The Basics of New Testament Syntax: An Intermediate Greek Grammar. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000.

References

[1] William W. Klein, Craig L. Blomberg, and Robert L. Hubbard, Introduction to Biblical Interpretation (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2004), 241.

[2] Ibid., 242–43.

[3] Ibid., 244.

[4] Ibid., 246.

[5] J. Scott Duvall and J. Daniel Hays, Grasping God’s Word: A Hands-On Approach to Reading, Interpreting, and Applying the Bible (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012), 167–77.

[6] Ibid., 177–79.

[7] Daniel B. Wallace, The Basics of New Testament Syntax: An Intermediate Greek Grammar (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000), 94–128.

[8] Ibid., 119–20.