Functional types of the word

Notional parts of speech are open classes — new
items can be added to them, they are indefinitely extendable.
Functional parts of speech are closed systems, including a limited
number of members. They cannot be extended by creating new items.

The main notional parts of speech are nouns,
verbs, adjectives and adverbs. Members of these four classes are
often connected by derivational relations: strength — strengthen.

Functional parts of speech are prepositions,
conjunctions, articles, particles. The distinctive features of
functional parts of speech are: 1) very general and weak lexical
meaning; 2) obligatory combinability; 3) the function of linking and
specifying words.

Pronouns constitute a class of words which takes
an intermediary position between notional and functional words. On
the one hand, they can substitute for nouns and adjectives, on the
other hand, pronouns are used as connectives and specifiers. There
may be also groups of closed-system items within an open class
(notional, functional and auxiliary verbs).

A word in English is very often not marked
morphologically and it is easy for words to pass from one class to
another (round as a noun, adjective, verb, preposition). Such words
are treated either as lexico grammatical homonyms or as words
belonging to one class.

8. The category of number of the Engliss noun.

The category of number is proper to count nouns
only. Usually words which lack a certain category, have only one
form, that of the weak member of the opposition. Non-counts may be
singular or plural. So subclasses of non-count nouns constitute a
lexico-grammatical opposition “singular only — plural only”:
snow, joy, news — contents, tongs, police.

The general meaning revealed through the
grammatical opposition a book — books is number, or quantity, or
“oneness — more than-oneness”. The general meaning revealed
througli the lexico-grammatical opposition is “discreteness —
non-discreteness”. The opposition “discreteness —
non-discreteness” is semantically broader than the opposition
“oneness — more-than-oneness”. It embraces both countable and
uncountable nouns. Singular presents the noun-referent as a single
indiscrete entity. Plural presents the referent as a multiplicity of
discrete entities (separate objects — houses; objects consisting of
separate parts — scissors; various types — wines, etc.).

9. The category of case of the English noun.

boy – boy’s boys – boys’

Approaches to the category of case in English:

English has 2 cases (the limited case theory).

The number of cases in English is more than 2 (the
theory of positional cases, the theory of prepositional cases).

There are no cases at all with English nouns.

These approaches are possible due to a difference
in the interpretation of case as a grammatical category.

It is based on explicit oppositional approach to
the recognition of grammatical categories. H.Sweet, O.Jespersen,
Prof. Smirnitski, Prof. Ilyish: Case is a category of a noun
expressing relations between the thing denoted by the noun and other
things and properties, or actions, and manifested by some formal sign
in the noun itself (an inflexion or a zero sign). Case can’t be
expressed by the phrase preposition+noun or by word order.

Prof.Blokh: Case is an immanent morphological
category of the noun manifested in the forms of noun declension and
showing the relations of the nounal referent to other objects and
phenomena. It is a morphological-declensional form. So, this is the
traditional grammar approach.

The theory of positional cases
(Nesfield, Deutschbein, Bryant): the unchangeable forms of the noun
are differentiated as different cases due to the functional positions
occupied by the noun in the sentence.

e.g. Мать(Им.)
видит дочь(Вин.). Дочь (Им.) видит мать(Вин.).

e.g. The mother bought her boy a coat: mother –
the Nominative case, boy – Dative, coat – Accusative.

e.g. The mother bought a/the coat for her boy: boy
– Dative.

Thus, the English noun would distinguish, besides
the inflexional Genitive case, also purely positional cases:
Nominative, Vocative, Dative and Accusative. The number of cases can
be reduced to 3 (M.Bryant): Nominative, Genitive and Objective in
accordance with pronouns I – me.

J.Lyons:

1) Nominative — Bill died.

2) Accusative – John killed Bill.

3) Dative – John gave the book to Tom.

4) Genitive – It was Harry’s pencil.

5) Instrumental – John killed Bill with a knife.

6) Agentive – John was killed by Bill with a
knife.

7) Comitative – John went to town with Mary.

The weak point
lies in the fact that they substitute the functional characteristics
for the morphological features of the word class.

The strong point:
it rightly illustrates the fact that the functional meanings can be
expressed in language by other grammatical means, in particular, by
word-order (rose garden – garden rose).

The theory of prepositional cases (analytical
theory or the theory of analytical forms): combinations of nouns with
prepositions in certain object and attributive collocations should be
understood as morphological case forms. Prepositions — according to
Curme – are grammatical elements equivalent to case forms. There
can be as many cases as there are prepositions. e.g. of Peter, with
Peter, to Peter – of, with, to are lexically empty words like has
done.

Weak points:

1. There can be no oppositions, they are synonyms.

2. A paradigm is limited and there are too many
prepositions.

3. Prepositions are not empty words; they are
relational words (they show relations).

4. Each prepositional phrase would bear then
another, additional name of ‘prepositional case’ and the total
number will expand greatly.

The theory of possessive postposition:
the case category has been destroyed. The –‘s is a syntactical
element which is similar to prepositions. But a preposition begins
the construction while the element –‘s closes it. So it can be
called post-position.

Strong points:

1. This postpositional element may not be applied
to all the nouns, but mostly to nouns denoting living beings. The use
of –‘s is optional.

2. One and the same element is used both with
nouns in the Singular and in the Plural (man-man’s, men-men’s/
boy-boy’s, boys-boys’). This morpheme is not dependent on the
meaning of plurality. Number and case are expressed separately. 3.
The post-positional element can be applied not only to nouns:
yesterday’s lecture, somebody else’s book, Mary and Peter’s
parents (Mary’s and Peter’s parents).

4. There are instances of Absolute Genitive:
chemist — chemist’s

Weak points: -‘s
can be added to phrases, but these are occasional examples. 94%
comprise instances where –‘s is added to single nouns. The
function of these nouns is always definite – an attribute.

A compromising view: splitting into 2 (Helen’s
book and somebody else’s book are 2 different instances). In some
examples –‘s is not a case-forming morpheme. We can’t deny
that.

What to choose: the theory of limited cases,
positional, analytical theories or to deny the existence of the
category of case in modern English?

The theory of limited cases may be more seriously
justified: Case is a morphological category, revealing relations of
the noun in the sentence. These relations must be rendered through
the form of the noun itself. All other means (word order or
prepositions) are not morphological means. That’s why they can’t
be treated as case forms.

If we recognize the existence of cases in English,
there is one more problem: terminology. The term Possessive can’t
be applied to all the cases, the meaning of the case is broader than
pure possession:

e.g. children’s book — destination

Peter’s kindness — a bearer of some quality

Peter’s friend- social relations

a mile’s walk, an hour’s delay – measure,
quantity

a chemist’s – locative meaning

Peter’s voice – partitive relations

Peter’s insistence – Subjective Genitive

the Titanic’s tragedy – Objective Genitive

an officer’s cap — qualification

evening’s newspapers, Moscow’s talks, winter’s
rest – adverbial relations.

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В английском языке существуют правила, которые встречаются крайне редко. И даже если иногда кажется, что все темы уже давно пройдены, спешим вас обрадовать, — у нас еще есть, чем удивить. В данной статье мы рассмотрим один из таких примеров, а именно разницу между content (самостоятельные) и function (служебные) words.

Кроме того, что все английские слова делятся на 8 частей речи, они также относятся к одной из перечисленных групп: content или function. Прежде чем детально рассмотреть каждую из них, предлагаем сперва разобраться, что же они значат.

Content Words = информация или значение

Function Words = слова, необходимые для грамматического построения предложений

Иными словами, content words дают нам важную пояснительную информацию о словах в предложении, а function — связывают эти слова в предложении между собой.

Виды знаменательных слов или content word types

Самостоятельные слова чаще всего выступают в роли существительного, глагола, прилагательного или наречия. Самостоятельное слово в качестве существительного указывает на объект, а глагола — на происходящее действие или состояние.  Прилагательные же дают нам информацию о предмете, в то время как наречия говорят о том, как, где и когда было совершено действие. При этом, все перечисленные части речи в качестве самостоятельных слов предоставляют необходимые для понимания ситуации данные.

Имя существительное = человек, предмет или место

Глагол = действие или состояние

Имя прилагательное = описание предмета, человека, места или объекта

Наречие = описание предмета, человека, места или объекта

Например:

Building — здание (имя существительное, указывает на объект).

Phoebe — Фиби (имя собственное, указывает на человека).

River — река (имя существительное, указывает на объект).

Science — наука (имя существительное, указывает на объект).

Box — коробка (имя существительное, указывает на предмет).

Smile — улыбаться (глагол, указывает на действие).

Buy — покупать (глагол, указывает на действие).

Learn — учить (глагол, указывает на действие).

Take care about — заботиться (глагол, указывает на действие).

Trust — доверять (глагол, указывает на состояние).

Light — светлый (имя прилагательное, описывает предмет).

Difficult — сложный (имя прилагательное, описывает действие/ситуацию).

Kind — добрый (имя прилагательное, описывает человека).

Chip — светлый (имя прилагательное, описывает предмет).

Tender — мягкий (имя прилагательное, описывает предмет).

Slow — медленный (имя прилагательное, описывает действие/ситуацию).

Quickly — быстро (наречие; описывает действие).

Carefully — осторожно (наречие; описывает действие).

Often — часто (наречие; описывает действие).

Slowly — медленно (наречие; описывает действие).

Кроме всех перечисленных выше частей речи, самостоятельные слова также могут выступать в роли:

• Отрицательных частиц/слов: no, not и never.
• Указательных местоимений: this, that, these и those.
• Вопросительных слов: what, where, when, how and why.

Виды функциональных слов или function word types

Функциональные слова соединяют слова в предложении. Функциональными словами могут быть вспомогательные глаголы, предлоги, артикли, союзы и местоимения. Вспомогательные глаголы указывают на время (например: Present Simple, Past Perfect и т. д.), предлоги — на пространственно-временные отношения слов в предложении. Артикли говорят о числе и конкретике, а местоимения указываю на существительное (объект, человека).

К вспомогательным глаголам относятся все формы do, have, be.

Артикли: a/an, the.

Например:

In — в (предлог, указывает на пространственно-временные отношения).

At — в/на (предлог, указывает на пространственно-временные отношения).

Between — между (предлог, указывает на пространственно-временные отношения).

Under — под (предлог, указывает на пространственно-временные отношения).

And — и (союз).

But — но (союз).

So — так (союз).

As — как, согласно (союз).

Since — с тех пор, как (союз).

Ours — наш (местоимение).

I — я (местоимение).

We — мы (местоимение).

Him — его (местоимение).

Знать о существовании самостоятельных и функциональных слов важно не только для общего развития, но и потому что первые всегда выделяются во время разговора (ударение). Функциональные же слова не выделяются интонационно. Таким образом, изучив эту статью вы значительно улучшите свои коммуникационные навыки и станете еще ближе к чистой британской речи.

In English grammar, a function word is a word that expresses a grammatical or structural relationship with other words in a sentence.

In contrast to a content word, a function word has little or no meaningful content. Nonetheless, as Ammon Shea points out, «the fact that a word does not have a readily identifiable meaning does not mean that it serves no purpose.»

Function words are also known as:

• structure words
• grammatical words
• grammatical functors
• grammatical morphemes
• function morphemes
• form words
• empty words

According to James Pennebaker, «function words account for less than one-tenth of 1 percent of your vocabulary but make up almost 60 percent of the words you use.»

Content Words vs. Function Words

Function words include determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, pronouns, auxiliary verbs, modals, qualifiers, and question words. Content words are words with specific meanings, such as nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and main verbs (those without helping verbs.) In the sentence, «The sly brown fox jumped gracefully over the lazy dog and cat,» the content words are:

• fox, dog, and cat (nouns)
• sly, brown, and lazy (adjectives)
• gracefully (adverb)
• jumped (main verb)

Function words include:

• the (determiner)
• over (preposition)
• and (conjunction)

Even though the function words don’t have concrete meanings, sentences would make a lot less sense without them.

Determiners

Determiners are words such as articles (the, a), possessive pronouns (their, your), quantifiers (much), demonstratives (that, those), and numbers. They function as adjectives to modify nouns and go in front of a noun to show the reader whether the noun is specific or general, such as in «that coat» (specific) vs. «a coat» (general). 

• Articles: a, an, the
• Demonstratives: that, this, those, these
• Possessive pronouns: my, your, their, our, ours, whose, his, hers, its, which 
• Quantifiers: some, both, most, many, a few, a lot of, any, much, a little, enough, several, none, all

Conjunctions

Conjunctions connect parts of a sentence, such as items in a list, two separate sentences, or clauses and phrases to a sentence. In the previous sentence, the conjunctions are or and and.

• Conjunctions: and, but, for, yet, neither, or, so, when, although, however, as, because, before 

Prepositions

Prepositions begin prepositional phrases, which contain nouns and other modifiers. Prepositions function to give more information about nouns. In the phrase «the river that flows through the woods.» The prepositional phrase is «through the woods,» and the preposition is «through.»

• Prepositions: in, of, between, on, with, by, at, without, through, over, across, around, into, within

Pronouns

Pronouns are words that stand in for nouns. Their antecedent needs to be clear, or your reader will be confused. Take «It’s so difficult» as an example. Without context, the reader has no idea what «it» refers to. In context, «Oh my gosh, this grammar lesson,» he said. «It’s so difficult,» the reader easily knows that it refers to the lesson, which is its noun antecedent.

• Pronouns: she, they, he, it, him, her, you, me, anybody, somebody, someone, anyone

Auxiliary Verbs

Auxiliary verbs are also called helping verbs. They pair with a main verb to change tense, such as when you want to express something in present continuous tense (I am walking), past perfect tense (I had walked), or future tense (I am going to walk there). 

• Auxiliary verbs: be, is, am, are, have, has, do, does, did, get, got, was, were

Modals

Modal verbs express condition or possibility. It’s not certain that something is going to happen, but it might. For example, in «If I could have gone with you, I would have,» modal verbs include could and would.

• Modals: may, might, can, could, will, would, shall, should

Qualifiers

Qualifiers function like adverbs and show the degree of an adjective or verb, but they have no real meaning themselves. In the sample sentence, «I thought that somewhat new dish was pretty darn delicious,» the qualifiers are somewhat and pretty.

• Qualifiers: very, really, quite, somewhat, rather, too, pretty (much)

Question Words

It’s easy to guess what function that question words have in English. Besides forming questions, they can also appear in statements, such as in «I don’t know how in the world that happened,» where the question word is how.

• Question words: how, where, what, when, why, who

Sources

• Shea, Ammon Shea. «Bad English.» TarcherPerigee, 2014, New York.
• Pennebaker, James. «The Secret Life of Pronouns.» Bloomsbury Press, 2011, New York.

Every word in English refers to one of eight parts of speech . Each word is also either meaningful or functional. Let’s think about what these two types mean: Here we will explain the Content and function semantic unit of a text. In other words with examples.

• Content = information, meaning
• Function = necessary words for grammar

In other words, meaningful words give us the most important information, and control words are used to combine these words.

Content word types

Content words are usually nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. A noun tells us which object, a verb tells us about an action or state that is taking place. Adjectives give us detailed information about objects and people, and adverbs tell us how, when and where something is done. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs give us important information we need to understand.

• Noun = person, place, or thing
• Verb = action, state
• Adjective = describes an object, person, place, or thing
• Adverb = tells us how, where and when something happens

Examples:
Nouns	Verbs
house	enjoy
a computer	purchase
student	visit
lake	understand
Peter	believe
the science	look forward

Examples:
Adjectives	Adverbs
heavy	slow
hard	attentively
careful	sometimes
expensive	thoughtfully
soft	often

Other words of content

While nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are the most important words in the content, there are several other words that are also key to understanding. These include negatives such as “no,” “no,” and “never”; demonstrative pronouns, including this, that, and those; and question words such as what, where, when, how, and why.

Types of function words

Functional words help us connect important information. Functional words are important to understand, but they add no meaning other than defining the relationship between two words.

Functional words include

1.  auxiliary verbs,
2. prepositions,
3. articles,
4. conjunctions,
5. and pronouns. 

Auxiliary verbs are used to indicate time, prepositions show relationships in time and space, articles show us something specific or one of many, and pronouns refer to other nouns.

1. Auxiliary verbs = to do, to be, to have (helps with tense conjugation )
2. Prepositions = show relationships in time and space
3. Determiners/Articles = are used to refer to specific or non-specific nouns
4. Conjunctions = words that connect
5. Pronouns = refer to other nouns

Examples

1. Prepositions:
   of, at, in, without, between
2. Pronouns:
   he, they, anybody, it, one
3. Determiners/Articles:
   the, a, that, my, more, much, either,
   neither
4. Conjunctions:
   and, that, when, while, although, or
5. Auxiliary verbs :
   verbs be (is, am, are), have, got, do

We hope that you have understood the Content and function words.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In linguistics, function words (also called functors)^[1] are words that have little lexical meaning or have ambiguous meaning and express grammatical relationships among other words within a sentence, or specify the attitude or mood of the speaker. They signal the structural relationships that words have to one another and are the glue that holds sentences together. Thus they form important elements in the structures of sentences.^[2]

Words that are not function words are called content words (or open class words, lexical words, or autosemantic words) and include nouns, most verbs, adjectives, and most adverbs although some adverbs are function words (like then and why). Dictionaries define the specific meanings of content words but can describe only the general usages of function words. By contrast, grammars describe the use of function words in detail but treat lexical words only in general terms.

Since it was first proposed in 1952 by C. C. Fries, the distinguishing of function/structure words from content/lexical words has been highly influential in the grammar used in second-language acquisition and English-language teaching.^[3]

Overview[edit]

Function words might be prepositions, pronouns, auxiliary verbs, conjunctions, grammatical articles or particles, all of which belong to the group of closed-class words. Interjections are sometimes considered function words but they belong to the group of open-class words. Function words might or might not be inflected or might have affixes.

Function words belong to the closed class of words in grammar because it is very uncommon to have new function words created in the course of speech. In the open class of words, i.e., nouns, verbs, adjectives, or adverbs, new words may be added readily, such as slang words, technical terms, and adoptions and adaptations of foreign words.

Each function word either: gives grammatical information about other words in a sentence or clause, and cannot be isolated from other words; or gives information about the speaker’s mental model as to what is being said.

Grammatical words, as a class, can have distinct phonological properties from content words. Grammatical words sometimes do not make full use of all the sounds in a language. For example, in some of the Khoisan languages, most content words begin with clicks, but very few function words do.^[4] In English, very few words other than function words begin with the voiced th [ð]^{[citation needed]}. English function words may have fewer than three letters; e.g., ‘I’, ‘an’, ‘in’, while non-function words usually have three or more (e.g., ‘eye’, ‘Ann’, ‘inn’).

The following is a list of the kind of words considered to be function words with English examples. They are all uninflected in English unless marked otherwise:

• articles — the and a. In some inflected languages, the articles may take on the case of the declension of the following noun.
• pronouns — he :: him, she :: her, etc. — inflected in English
• adpositions — in, under, towards, before, of, for, etc.
• conjunctions — and and but
• subordinating conjunctions — if, then, well, however, thus, etc.
• auxiliary verbs — would, could, should, etc. — inflected in English
• particles — up, on, down
• interjections — oh, ah, eh, sometimes called «filled pauses»
• expletives — take the place of sentences, among other functions.
• pro-sentences — yes, no, okay, etc.

See also[edit]

• Content word, words that name objects of reality and their qualities
• Grammaticalization, process by which words representing objects and actions transform to become grammatical markers

References[edit]

Further reading[edit]

• Kordić, Snježana (2001). Wörter im Grenzbereich von Lexikon und Grammatik im Serbokroatischen [Serbo-Croatian Words on the Border Between Lexicon and Grammar]. Studies in Slavic Linguistics ; 18 (in German). Munich: Lincom Europa. p. 280. ISBN 3-89586-954-6. LCCN 2005530313. OCLC 47905097. OL 2863539W. CROSBI 426497. Summary.

External links[edit]

• Short list of 225 English function words