Functional meaning of the word - Word и Excel - помощь в работе с программами

The
lexical meaning of the affixal morphemes is, as a rule, of a more
generalising character. The suffix -er,
e.g. carries the meaning ‘the agent, the doer of the action’, the
suffix-less
denotes
lack or absence of something. It should also be noted that the
root-morphemes do not “possess the part-of-speech meaning (cf.
manly,
manliness, to
man);
in
derivational morphemes the lexical and the part-of-speech meaning may
be so blended as to be almost inseparable. In the derivational
morphemes -er
and -less
discussed
above the lexical meaning is just as clearly perceived as their
part-of-speech meaning. In some morphemes, however, for instance
-ment
or -ous (as in
movement
or laborious), it
is the part-of-speech meaning that prevails, the lexical meaning is
but vaguely felt.

In
some cases the functional meaning predominates. The morpheme -ice
in
the word justice,
e.g.,
seems to serve principally to transfer the part-of-speech meaning of
the morpheme just
— into
another class and namely that of noun. It follows that some morphemes
possess only the functional meaning, i.e. they are the carriers of
part-of-speech meaning.

§ 15. Differential Meaning

Besides
the types of meaning proper both to words and morphemes the latter
may possess specific meanings of their own, namely the differential
and the distributional meanings. Differential
meaning
is the semantic component that serves to distinguish one word from
all others containing identical morphemes. In words consisting of two
or more morphemes, one of the constituent morphemes always has
differential meaning. In such words as, e. g., bookshelf,
the
morpheme -shelf
serves
to distinguish the word from other words containing the morpheme
book-,
e.g.
from bookcase,
book-counter and
so on. In other compound words, e.g. notebook,
the
morpheme note-
will
be seen to possess the differential meaning which distinguishes
notebook
from
exercisebook,
copybook, etc.
It should be clearly understood that denotational and differential
meanings are not mutually exclusive. Naturally the morpheme -shelf
in
bookshelf
possesses
denotational meaning which is the dominant component of meaning.
There are cases, however, when it is difficult or even impossible to
assign any denotational meaning to the morpheme, e.g. cran-
in
cranberry,
yet
it clearly bears a relationship to the meaning of the word as a whole
through the differential component (cf. cranberry
and
blackberry,
gooseberry) which
in this particular case comes to the fore. One of the disputable
points of morphological analysis is whether such words as deceive,
receive, perceive consist
of two component morphemes.¹
If we assume, however, that the morpheme -ceive
may
be singled out it follows that the meaning of the morphemes re-,
per,
de- is
exclusively differential, as, at least synchronically, there is no
denotational meaning proper to them.

¹
See ‘Word-Structure’, §
2, p.
90.
24

§ 16. Distributional Meaning

Distributional
meaning is the meaning of
the
order and arrangement of morphemes making up the word. It is found in
all words containing more than one morpheme. The word singer,
e.g.,
is composed of two morphemes sing-
and
-er
both
of which possess the denotational meaning and namely ‘to make
musical sounds’ (sing-)
and
‘the doer of the action’ (-er).
There is one more element of meaning, however, that enables us to
understand the word and that is the pattern of arrangement of the
component morphemes. A different arrangement of the same morphemes,
e.g. *ersing,
would
make the word meaningless. Compare also boyishness
and
*nessishboy
in
which a different pattern of arrangement of the three morphemes
boy-ish-ness
turns
it into a meaningless string of sounds.¹

WORD-MEANING AND MOTIVATION

From
what was said about the distributional meaning in morphemes it
follows that there are cases when we can observe a direct connection
between the structural pattern of the word and its meaning. This
relationship between morphemic structure and meaning is termed
morphological motivation.

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WORD-MEANING Referential and functional approaches to meaning

SEMASIOLOGY – is the branch of lexicology which studies the semantic of linguistic unit (word meaning) THE WORD — is the smallest and basic linguistic unit. SEMANTIC — is the meaning of words, expressions or grammatical forms.

Word-meaning is one of the controversial terms in linguistics; there had been many attempts to give the most complete definition of word-meaning; In modern linguistics there are 2 main approach to meaning : a) the referential approach b) the functional approach

2 main approaches to lexical meaning REFERENTIAL APPROACH FUNCTIONAL APPROACH

The referential approach distinguishes the three components: 1. The sound-form (Sign) of the word: [bз: d]. 2. The referent (Denotatum) – the object which the word names: the actual bird. 3. The concept (Designatum) – The essential properties of this object which are reflected in human mind: “a feathered animal with wings“.

“basic (semantic) triangle” ( referential model of meaning) ]]

Meaning is closely connected with all parts of the semantic triangle but cannot be equated with any of them.

The functional approach Studied relations between words; The meaning of a linguistic unit may be studied only through its relations to other linguistic units (distribution of a word), through the context. If the distribution of 2 words is different, then their meanings are different. E. g. He looked at me. (hardly to collect all meanings). Semantic investigation is confined to the analysis of the difference or sameness of meaning. Complementary to the referential approach.

If the distribution of 2 words is different, then their meanings are different: Look at me — You look tired move and movement is different because they function in speech differently; different positions in relation to other words: move the chair, we move – movement of smth, slow movement

Semantic investigation is confined to the analysis of the difference or sameness of meaning

2 main approaches to lexical meaning REFERENTIAL APPROACH studies the connection between words and things or concepts they denote. FUNCTIONAL APPROACH studied relations between words

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1 слайд

Word Meaning
Lecture # 6
Grigoryeva M.
2 слайд

Word Meaning

Approaches to word meaning

Meaning and Notion (понятие)

Types of word meaning

Types of morpheme meaning

Motivation
3 слайд

Each word has two aspects:

the outer aspect
( its sound form)
cat

the inner aspect
(its meaning)
long-legged, fury animal with sharp teeth
and claws
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Sound and meaning do not always constitute a constant unit even in the same language

EX a temple

a part of a human head
a large church
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Semantics (Semasiology)
Is a branch of lexicology which studies the
meaning of words and word equivalents
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Approaches to Word Meaning
The Referential (analytical) approach

The Functional (contextual) approach

Operational (information-oriented) approach
7 слайд

The Referential (analytical) approach
formulates the essence of meaning by establishing the interdependence between words and things or concepts they denote

distinguishes between three components closely connected with meaning:
the sound-form of the linguistic sign,
the concept
the actual referent
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Basic Triangle
concept (thought, reference) – the thought of the object that singles out its essential features
referent – object denoted by the word, part of reality
sound-form (symbol, sign) – linguistic sign
concept – flower

sound-form referent
[rәuz]
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In what way does meaning correlate with
each element of the triangle ?

In what relation does meaning stand to
each of them?
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Meaning and Sound-form
are not identical
different
EX. dove — [dΛv] English sound-forms
[golub’] Russian BUT
[taube] German
the same meaning
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Meaning and Sound-form
nearly identical sound-forms have different meanings in different languages
EX. [kot] Russian – a male cat
[kot] English – a small bed for a child

identical sound-forms have different meanings (‘homonyms)
EX. knight [nait]
night [nait]
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Meaning and Sound-form
even considerable changes in sound-form do not affect the meaning

EX Old English lufian [luvian] – love [l Λ v]
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Meaning and Concept
concept is a category of human cognition

concept is abstract and reflects the most common and typical features of different objects and phenomena in the world

meanings of words are different in different languages
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Meaning and Concept
identical concepts may have different semantic structures in different languages

EX. concept “a building for human habitation” –
English Russian
HOUSE ДОМ

+ in Russian ДОМ
“fixed residence of family or household”
In English HOME
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Meaning and Referent

one and the same object (referent) may be denoted by more than one word of a different meaning
cat
pussy
animal
tiger
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Meaning
is not identical with any of the three points of the triangle –
the sound form,
the concept
the referent

BUT
is closely connected with them.
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Functional Approach
studies the functions of a word in speech
meaning of a word is studied through relations of it with other linguistic units
EX. to move (we move, move a chair)
movement (movement of smth, slow movement)

The distriution ( the position of the word in relation to
others) of the verb to move and a noun movement is
different as they belong to different classes of words and
their meanings are different
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Operational approach
is centered on defining meaning through its role in
the process of communication

EX John came at 6
Beside the direct meaning the sentence may imply that:
He was late
He failed to keep his promise
He was punctual as usual
He came but he didn’t want to

The implication depends on the concrete situation
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Lexical Meaning and Notion
Notion denotes the reflection in the mind of real objects

Notion is a unit of thinking
Lexical meaning is the realization of a notion by means of a definite language system
Word is a language unit
20 слайд

Lexical Meaning and Notion
Notions are international especially with the nations of the same cultural level

Meanings are nationally limited

EX GO (E) —- ИДТИ(R)
“To move”
BUT !!!
To GO by bus (E)
ЕХАТЬ (R)

EX Man -мужчина, человек
Она – хороший человек (R)
She is a good person (E)
21 слайд

Types of Meaning
Types of meaning

grammatical
meaning

lexico-grammatical
meaning
lexical meaning
denotational
connotational
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Grammatical Meaning
component of meaning recurrent in identical sets of individual forms of different words

EX. girls, winters, toys, tables –
grammatical meaning of plurality

asked, thought, walked –
meaning of past tense
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Lexico-grammatical meaning
(part –of- speech meaning)
is revealed in the classification of lexical items into:
major word classes (N, V, Adj, Adv)
minor ones (artc, prep, conj)

words of one lexico-grammatical class have the same paradigm
24 слайд

Lexical Meaning
is the meaning proper to the given linguistic unit in all its forms and distributions

EX . Go – goes — went
lexical meaning – process of movement
25 слайд

PRACTICE
Group the words into 3 column according to the grammatical, lexical or part-of –speech meaning
Boy’s, nearest, at, beautiful,
think, man, drift, wrote,
tremendous, ship’s, the most beautiful,
table, near, for, went, friend’s,
handsome, thinking, boy,
nearer, thought, boys,
lamp, go, during.
26 слайд

Grammatical
The case of nouns: boy’s, ship’s, friend’s
The degree of comparison of adj: nearest, the most beautiful
The tense of verbs: wrote, went, thought

Lexical
Think, thinking, thought
Went, go
Boy’s, boy, boys
Nearest, near, nearer
At, for, during (“time”)
Beautiful, the most beautiful

Part-of-speech
Nouns—verbs—adj—-prep
27 слайд

Aspects of Lexical meaning
The denotational aspect

The connotational aspect

The pragmatic aspect
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Denotational Meaning
“denote” – to be a sign of, stand as a symbol for”

establishes the correlation between the name and the object
makes communication possible

EX booklet
“a small thin book that gives info about smth”
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PRACTICE
Explain denotational meaning

A lion-hunter
To have a heart like a lion
To feel like a lion
To roar like a lion
To be thrown to the lions
The lion’s share
To put your head in lion’s mouth
30 слайд

PRACTICE

A lion-hunter
A host that seeks out celebrities to impress guests
To have a heart like a lion
To have great courage
To feel like a lion
To be in the best of health
To roar like a lion
To shout very loudly
To be thrown to the lions
To be criticized strongly or treated badly
The lion’s share
Much more than one’s share
To put your head in lion’s mouth
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Connotational Meaning
reflects the attitude of the speaker towards what he speaks about
it is optional – a word either has it or not

Connotation gives additional information and includes:
The emotive charge EX Daddy (for father)
Intensity EX to adore (for to love)
Imagery EX to wade through a book
“ to walk with an effort”
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PRACTICE
Give possible interpretation of the sentences

She failed to buy it and felt a strange pang.
Don’t be afraid of that woman! It’s just barking!
He got up from his chair moving slowly, like an old man.
The girl went to her father and pulled his sleeve.
He was longing to begin to be generous.
She was a woman with shiny red hands and work-swollen finger knuckles.
33 слайд

PRACTICE
Give possible interpretation of the sentences
She failed to buy it and felt a strange pang.
(pain—dissatisfaction that makes her suffer)
Don’t be afraid of that woman! It’s just barking!
(make loud sharp sound—-the behavior that implies that the person is frightened)
He got up from his chair moving slowly, like an old man.
(to go at slow speed—was suffering or was ill)
The girl went to her father and pulled his sleeve.
(to move smth towards oneself— to try to attract smb’s attention)
He was longing to begin to be generous.
(to start doing— hadn’t been generous before)
She was a woman with shiny red hands and work-swollen finger knuckles.
(colour— a labourer involved into physical work ,constant contact with water)
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The pragmatic aspect of lexical meaning

the situation in which the word is uttered,
the social circumstances (formal, informal, etc.),
social relationships between the interlocutors (polite, rough, etc.),
the type and purpose of communication (poetic, official, etc.)

EX horse (neutral)
steed (poetic)
nag (slang)
gee-gee (baby language)
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PRACTICE
State what image underline the meaning

I heard what she said but it didn’t sink into my mind.
You should be ashamed of yourself, crawling to the director like that.
They seized on the idea.
Bill, chasing some skirt again?
I saw him dive into a small pub.
Why are you trying to pin the blame on me?
He only married her for her dough.
36 слайд

PRACTICE
State what image underline the meaning
I heard what she said but it didn’t sink into my mind.
(to understand completely)
You should be ashamed of yourself, crawling to the director like that.
(to behave humbly in order to win favour)
They seized on the idea.
(to be eager to take and use)
Bill, chasing some skirt again?
(a girl)
I saw him dive into a small pub.
(to enter suddenly)
Why are you trying to pin the blame on me?
(to blame smb unfairly)
He only married her for her dough.
(money)
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Types of Morpheme Meaning
lexical
differential
functional
distributional
38 слайд

Lexical Meaning in Morphemes
root-morphemes that are homonymous to words possess lexical meaning
EX. boy – boyhood – boyish

affixes have lexical meaning of a more generalized character
EX. –er “agent, doer of an action”
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Lexical Meaning in Morphemes
has denotational and connotational components
EX. –ly, -like, -ish –
denotational meaning of similiarity
womanly , womanish

connotational component –
-ly (positive evaluation), -ish (deragotary) женственный — женоподобный
40 слайд

Differential Meaning
a semantic component that serves to distinguish one word from all others containing identical morphemes

EX. cranberry, blackberry, gooseberry
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Functional Meaning
found only in derivational affixes
a semantic component which serves to
refer the word to the certain part of speech

EX. just, adj. – justice, n.
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Distributional Meaning
the meaning of the order and the arrangement of morphemes making up the word
found in words containing more than one morpheme
different arrangement of the same morphemes would make the word meaningless
EX. sing- + -er =singer,
-er + sing- = ?
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Motivation
denotes the relationship between the phonetic or morphemic composition and structural pattern of the word on the one hand, and its meaning on the other

can be phonetical
morphological
semantic
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Phonetical Motivation
when there is a certain similarity between the sounds that make up the word and those produced by animals, objects, etc.

EX. sizzle, boom, splash, cuckoo
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Morphological Motivation
when there is a direct connection between the structure of a word and its meaning
EX. finger-ring – ring-finger,

A direct connection between the lexical meaning of the component morphemes
EX think –rethink “thinking again”
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Semantic Motivation
based on co-existence of direct and figurative meanings of the same word

EX a watchdog –
”a dog kept for watching property”

a watchdog –
“a watchful human guardian” (semantic motivation)
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Analyze the meaning of the words.
Define the type of motivation
a) morphologically motivated
b) semantically motivated

Driver
Leg
Horse
Wall
Hand-made
Careless
piggish
49 слайд

Analyze the meaning of the words.
Define the type of motivation
a) morphologically motivated
b) semantically motivated
Driver
Someone who drives a vehicle
morphologically motivated
Leg
The part of a piece of furniture such as a table
semantically motivated
Horse
A piece of equipment shaped like a box, used in gymnastics
semantically motivated
50 слайд

Wall
Emotions or behavior preventing people from feeling close
semantically motivated
Hand-made
Made by hand, not machine
morphologically motivated
Careless
Not taking enough care
morphologically motivated
Piggish
Selfish
semantically motivated
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I heard what she said but it didn’t sink in my mind
“do down to the bottom”
‘to be accepted by mind” semantic motivation

Why are you trying to pin the blame on me?
“fasten smth somewhere using a pin” –
”to blame smb” semantic motivation

I was following the man when he dived into a pub.
“jump into deep water” –
”to enter into suddenly” semantic motivation

You should be ashamed of yourself, crawling to the director like that
“to move along on hands and knees close to the ground” –
“to behave very humbly in order to win favor” semantic motivation

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