1. Differentiate between
free word
combinations
and bound
word combinations.
2. Comment on the approaches
to translating attribute groups.
3. Comment on the approaches
to translating three-member word combinations.
4. Comment on the approaches to translating multinuclear nomial
combinations.
5. What distinction is made
between set-expressions
and phraseological
units (idioms)?
6. Describe the ways of translation idioms.
SEMINAR 4
Grammatical aspects of translation
1. List the ways of translating the Passive into
Russian? Illustrate your answer with the examples.
2. Does the Subjunctive Mood always correspond to
the same mood in Russian? If no, what other ways of rendering such
sentences do you know? (They
can
also be rendered by the Indicative Mood (изъявительное
наклонение) or the Infinitive.)
3. What should the translator do first, when
rendering in Russian sentences containing modal verbs and the
non-finite forms of the verb?
4. List the most widespread syntactical stylistic
devices which are used to express emphasis and prominence in the
English language.
SEMINAR 5
1. What is functional style? Give the
classification of styles.
2. What are the main demands which a good
translator should meet in the process of translation of scientific
literature? State the main ways of translating terms.
3. Explain the peculiarities of translating
newspaper headlines (from English into Russian and vice versa).
4. Describe the structure of a newspaper item.
5. Comment on the translation of clichés used in
newspaper items.
6. What does the problem of stylistic devices
touches upon? How does it correlate with translation?
SEMINAR 6
1. What are the basic
characteristics of a translation
technique?
2. Comment on the cases of employing lexical translation techniques.
3. List the types of
lexico-semantic modifications.
4. What lexico-grammatical
transformations can be employed in the process of translation?
5. Explain
the courses of grammatical transformations.
6. State the main types of grammatical
transformations.
SEMINAR 7
Translation: Working Procedures Part I
Imagine a situation in which
you are working as a freelance translator. You contact a translation
agency inquiring for work and are offered to translate the text from
English into Russian. It is an introduction to the book by Gabriel
A. Almond A
developmental approach to political system. Describe
the algorithm of working on the translation paying especial attention
to the theoretical knowledge you have gained in the course of
studies. Translate the text into Russian and comment on all the
peculiarities of the process of translation.
By GABRIEL A. ALMOND
DURING
the past decade two tendencies have come to dominate the
field of comparative politics. One of these is the concern for
theoretical
explication and methodological rigor, and the second is the emphasis
on field studies of the «emerging,» «new,» and
«non-Western»
nations. The theoretical tendency has largely taken the form of
applications
of «systems» theory to the study of politics, and the chief
criticism
of this approach has been that it is a static theory, not suitable
for the analysis and explanation of political change.
The
great output of empirical studies of contemporary politics in the
new and emerging nations and the relative decline in the volume of
European political studies have similarly been criticized. Here the
argument
is that the relative neglect of Western political studies, and
particularly
of their historical dimension, handicaps us in our efforts to
work out the developmental theories and approaches which we need
for our research on the new and emerging nations.
Both
of these criticisms have great cogency. Systems theory does have
a static, «equilibrium» bias; and the stress on the
politics of the new
and emerging nations gives us an inadequate sampling of man’s
experience
with social and political change. The only answer to this criticism
is that this seems to be the way sciences develop — not by orderly,
systematic progression, but in a dialectical process involving
overemphases and neglects. If we are to come to grips more
effectively with
political change, we shall have to redress this imbalance, adapt
systems
theory in a developmental direction, and utilize historical knowledge
of Western political development (but not only Western history)
in elaborating theories of political systems and political change.
This
article represents a move in this direction, an effort on the part of
one political systems theorist to define what political development
consists
of and to take into account the variables which affect it.
(The source: Comparative Politics Today, 2000)
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free word combination
noun
pl.
free word combinations
Contexts
It would be as if the acronym for Islamic state were S.H.I.D., writes Alice Guthrie, former Arabic translator-in-residence at the Free Word Centre.
Это все равно что использовать для обозначения Исламского государства аббревиатуру «Т. Е. Р. Ь. М. О.» (S. H. I. D.), отмечает переводчик с арабского Элис Гатри (Alice Guthrie), принимавшая участие в одной из программ международной организации Free Word Centre.
If this control is combined with a control that puts ESC in a mode in which it no longer satisfies the test criteria (a » dedicated » ESC Off control), as on a multi-mode switch or button, the multi-mode control shall be labelled with either the words » ESC OFF » or the symbol word combination for » ESC Off «.
Если этот орган управления выполнен в сочетании с каким-либо другим органом, позволяющим переключать ЭКУ в режим работы, который более не удовлетворяет критериям испытания (» специальный » орган управления » ESC Off «), например, многорежимный выключатель или кнопка, то этот многорежимный орган управления должен обозначаться либо с помощью слова » ESC Off «, либо с помощью комбинации символа и слова, указывающего на отключение.
The electronic version of the Repertory includes a full-text search feature, providing the users with the opportunity to search all the studies instantaneously for any word or combination of words in the three languages of the publication, namely English, French and Spanish.
Электронная версия Справочника предусматривает функцию полнотекстового поиска, которая дает пользователям возможность мгновенно находить во всех исследованиях то или иное слово или сочетание слов на трех языках публикации, а именно на английском, французском и испанском языках.
A full-text search feature is available, providing the user with the opportunity to search all the studies instantaneously for any word or combination of words.
Предусмотрена функция полнотекстового поиска, которая дает пользователю возможность мгновенно находить во всех исследованиях то или иное слово или сочетание слов.
A trademark is a word, symbol, or combination that identifies the source of a product and distinguishes it from other products.
Товарные знаки – это слова, символы и их сочетания, указывающие на производителя товара и отличающие его от остальных.
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Word combinations in Modern English Lexicology of the English language
�A Word combination (phrase ) is a non-predicative unit of speech which is, semantically, both global and articulated. 1. Word combination
�In grammar, it is seen as a group of words that functions as a single unit in the syntax of a sentence. It is an intermediate unit between a word and a sentence. �The main function of a word combination is polinomination (it describes an object, phenomenon or action and its attributes and properties at the same time). 2.
� There are two types of word combinations (also known as set-expressions, set-phrases, fixed word-groups, etc): � Free word combinations in which each component may enter different combinations � Set (phraseological) combinations consist of elements which are used only in combination with one another 3.
�Differences between free and set word combinations: SEMANTIC CRITERION �The meaning in phraseological units has partially or fully shifted. The words have a transferred (metaphorical or metonymical) meaning. �cf: a wolf in sheep’s clothing – a man in cheap clothing 4.
STRUCTURAL CRITERION. � Phraseological units are characterized by stability of components: � It is impossible to change the components of a phraseological unit; e. g. to have a bee in the bonnet (hat) � It is impossible to add new components; � It is impossible to change grammatical form of components, even if their form violates grammar rules: e. g. at (the) first sight, from head to foot (feet), to find faults with � However the degree of stability varies: a skeleton/skeletons in the cupboard, a (big) white elephant. � Other features ensuring stability are rhythm, alliteration, contrast, repetition, simile etc. � e. g. on and on, safe and sound, as busy as a bee � Free 5. word combinations allow any changes.
Classifications of phraseological units � According to thematic (etymological) classification, idioms are classified according to their sources of origin. ◦ E. g. Word-groups associated with the sea and the life of seamen are especially numerous in English vocabulary. Thus there may be singled out a group of “marine” phraseological units. � To be all at sea — to be unable to understand; to be in a state of ignorance or bewilderment about something (e. g. How can I be a judge in a situation in which I am all at sea? I’m afraid I’m all at sea in this problem � To sink or swim — to fail or succeed (e. g. It is a case of sink or swim. All depends on his own effort. ) � In deep water — in trouble or danger. � In low water, on the rocks — in strained financial circumstances. 6.
Semantic classification � describes word combinations from the viewpoint of the shift in meaning of words: � Phraseological fusions (idioms) are most idiomatic, the meaning of both words is fully transferred. � e. g. tit for tat, to skate on thin ice � Phraseological unities are motivated semantically, based on imagination. Usually one of the components has retained its meaning. � e. g. to fall ill, to fall in love, small talk � Phraseological combinations are less idiomatic, most motivated � e. g. as dead as mutton 7.
Structural classification takes into consideration the fact that phraseologisms are, in fact, equivalents of words. Phraseological units can perform the same functions as words. So, set expressions are classified according to their function. � Verbal : to run for one’s life, to get the upper hand � Substantive: dog’s life, red tape � Adjectival: high and mighty, safe and sound � Adverbial: high and low � Equivalents of auxiliary parts of speech: by way of, as long as, Good God! � Stereotyped sentences: take your time! 8.
Stylistic classification �Set expressions, as well as words, may be stylistically neutral and stylistically marked. �e. g. it’s raining cats and dogs (bookish) �to do smb. brown (colloquial) 9.
Notions related to set expressions �A simile is a figure of speech that directly compares two different things, usually by employing the words «like» , «as» , or «than» . �Even though both similes and metaphors are forms of comparison, similes indirectly compare the two ideas and allow them to remain distinct in spite of their similarities, whereas metaphors compare two things directly. �e. g. as alike as two peas in a pod (identical or nearly so) �as blind as a bat (completely blind) 10.
�A cliché is a stereotyped expression mechanically reproduced in speech, very often overused to the point of losing its intended force or novelty. �e. g. Love is blind. ◦ Put two and two together. 11.
�A proverb is a simple and concrete saying popularly known and repeated, which expresses a truth, based on common sense or the practical experience of mankind. They are often metaphorical. A proverb that describes a basic rule of conduct may also be known as a maxim. �If a proverb is distinguished by particularly good phrasing, it may be known as an aphorism. 12.
�A collocation is sequence of words or terms which co-occur more often than would be expected by chance. e. g. �time flies �Times passes �the appointed time �Present time �Right time �Wrong time �Opening time �Closing time 13.
�A phrasal verb is a phrase (as take off or look down on) that combines a verb with a preposition or adverb or both and that functions as a verb whose meaning is different from the combined meanings of the individual words. 14.
Translation Tips � Free word combinations and collocations are usually translated by calque (word-for-word). However, translating attributive word groups is challenging, because one and the same attributive word may be translated differently depending on the meaning of the defined head word. � E. g. public opinion – общественное мнение, jamoatchilik fikri � Public debt – государственный долг, davlat qarzlari � Public scandal – публичный скандал, ommaviy janajal � Sometimes more complicated transformations are needed: � E. g. working expectancy – ожидаемая продолжительность трудовой деятельности, ishchini kutilayotgan ishlash muddati 15.
� Phraseological unities are usually translated by one word or equivalent combinations: � e. g. to take a chance – рисковать, imkoniyat berish � To take offence – обидеться, arazlamoq � To put an end to – положить конец, преодолеть, tugatish � To take into account – принимать во внимание, e’tiborga olish � Phraseological fusions (idioms) are translated by their equivalents or analogues or description. e. g. � whip-and-carrot policy – политика кнута и пряника, qamchi va sabzi siyosati (equivalent) � To beat about the bush – ходить вокруг да около, butani o’rab olish (analogue) � Carbon footprint — негативные экологические последствия какой-либо деятельности, faoliyatni salbiy ekologik natijalari (decription) 16.
Origin of set expressions � One of the words becomes archaic: kith and kin of the meanings of a word becomes archaic: to be in two minds � An expression may pass from professional use into common use: to hit below the belt (from boxing) � Part of a proverb may become isolated: the last straw (that was the last straw which broke the camel’s neck) � Literary sources: a Troyan horse; to be or not to be � Translation borrowings: to kill two birds with one stone (calque translation from French) � 17.
� � � � � What do we call word combinations in which the components retain their main meaning, and can freely enter different combinations? What do we call word combinations in which the components typically have shifted meaning and are not freely chosen? What do we call a figure of speech that directly compares two different things, usually by employing the words «like» , «as» , or «than» ? What do we call a trite or overused phrase or expression? What is a simple and concrete saying popularly known and repeated, which expresses a truth, based on common sense or the practical experience of mankind? What do we call a familiar grouping of words that habitually appear together and thereby convey meaning by association? Which of the following underlined word combinations with the word “stand” is free and which one is fixed? a) The British government would not stand in the way of such a proposal. b) She was standing beside my bed staring down at me. 18. CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
� Which of the following word combinations in bold are set phrases? 1) Where do you think you lost your purse? 2) Don’t lose your temper when you talk to her. 3) Have a look at the reverse side of the coat. 4) The reverse side of the medal is that we’ll have to do it ourselves. 5) Keep the butter in the refrigerator. 6) Keep an eye on the child. 19. Case study
� � � 1) lost your purse — it is a free word combination, as it allows any combinations without change of the basic (denotative) meaning of words, e. g. lost you bag, found your purse etc. 2) lose your temper – it is a set (phraseological) word combination, as the meaning of the word ‘lose’ in this combination is not direct but figurative (= to become angry). 3) reverse side of the coat — it is a free word combination, as it allows any combinations without change of the basic (denotative) meaning of words, e. g. reverse side of the dress 4) reverse side of the medal — it is a set (phraseological) word combination, as the meaning of the words in this combination is not direct but figurative (= other side of the matter) 5) Keep the butter — it is a free word combination, as it allows any combinations without change of the basic (denotative) meaning of words, e. g. keep the cheese in the refrigerator etc. 6) Keep an eye — it is a set (phraseological) word combination, as the meaning of the words in this combination is not direct but figurative (= to watch closely or carefully) 20. Key
ONE NINE TWO THREE FOUR(S) FIVE SIX(ES)S EVEN(S) TEN 1) 2) She crawled on all _____ to the window = on her knees, feet and hands. He is at _____ and _____ = He is confused and doesn’t know what to do. 3) He puts _____ and _____ together. = He begins to draw conclusions about something 4) He looks out for number _____ = He only thinks about his interests. 5) «the _____ R’s. » = The basics of education 6) He has a _____ o’clock shadow. = A man hasn’t shaved for a day or two 7) Things that are very cheap and common are _____ a penny. 
This four bedroom home, located in Country Club Estates, is completed and ready to move in. This home has «the whole _____ yards» in convenience. ’ (=all of it) 21. Fill in the blanks with proper numerals to make an idiom with the specified meaning.
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) fours sixes and sevens two and two one three five ten nine 22. Key
Библиографическое описание:
Абдильдаулы, Алем. Phraseological word combinations in the newspaper New York Times / Алем Абдильдаулы, М. М. Имангазинов. — Текст : непосредственный // Молодой ученый. — 2017. — № 39 (173). — С. 121-123. — URL: https://moluch.ru/archive/173/45807/ (дата обращения: 14.04.2023).
Today the English language is widely spoken throughout the world. It is the language of 21st century the language of informative technologies, so while describing the English language; first of all it should be underlined that the English language is the mother tongue of the global media. To understand English clearly one should know not only its standard vocabulary but also its different styles, dialects, proverbs, sayings, phrasal verbs and idioms, as they are used in any sphere: books, films, newspapers, formal speeches. One, looking through some papers, magazines and journals, will discover the same language to sound quite different, because he will find familiar words with unfamiliar meanings. He will face idioms, phrasal verbs etc. An idiom is a figure of speech that does not have the obvious presented meaning. Idioms differ from culture and country, as the phrase uses commonplace objects, people, or animals. Examples and meanings of idioms in American culture include:
‒ Raining cats and dogs means Raining hard
‒ Monkey around means To fool around
‒ Playing with fire means Taking foolish risks
‒ Jog my memory means Help remember something
The actuality of the research. With the aim of basing upon the significance as an important relative form of phraseology, enriching the vocabulary with the help of business and political phraseological word combinations, developing the speech action, formation of relative culture arose the problem in the methods of formation of phraseological word combinations.
The object of the research. The process of using phraseological word combinations in teaching English language in business and political spheres in the newspaper New York Times.
‒ to consider the concept of «idiom»;
‒ investigate the possible types of classifications of phraseology related to business, political and scientific articles;
Methods of the research. In this research work were used translating, analyzing and classification methods of investigation.
The main source. An American daily newspaper “New York Times”. The New York Times is an American daily newspaper founded and continuously published in New York City since 1851. The New York Times has won 106 Pulitzer Prizes, the most of any news organization [8].
The structure of the research. The research work consists of an introduction, two parts, conclusion, list of reference. Parts of the research work are divided according to theoretical and practical points The previous set of information is written in the first part of the report, which is entitled as “THE BASIC USAGE OF PHRASEOLOGOCAL WORD COMBINATIONS”. The first part includes two sub-parts:
1) Linguistic approach of phraseological word combinations
2) Classification of the phraseological word combinations
3) General view to the origin of a newspaper
4) Brief history of the newspaper New York Times
Classification of phraseological word combinations
classification all phraseological units are divided into phraseological fusions, phraseological unities and phraseological combinations Phraseological fusion is a semantically indivisible phraseological unit which meaning is never influenced by the meanings of its components [2].
Once in a blue moon –means very seldom; To cry for the moon –means to demand unreal; Under the rose –means quietly. Phraseological unity is a semantically indivisible phraseological unit the whole meaning of which is mot To come to one’s sense — to change one’s mind;
To come home –to hit the mark ;To fall into a rage –to get angry ivated by the meanings of its components [5]. Phraseological combination (collocation)is a construction or an expression in which every word has absolutely clear independent meaning while one of the components has a bound meaning [4].
To make an attempt –make to try; To make haste –make to hurry; To offer an apology –make to beg pardon.
Analysis of phraseological word combinations in the newspaper “New York Times”
Phraseological word combinations with their explanations from the newspaper “New York Times” are given below:
- “Santorum has done a good job in pointing out that Achilles’ heel in Romneycare,” Ms. Palin said [3].
Achiles’ heel — a weak feature that someone or something has that could cause failure or could be attacked, nominative, substantive phraseological word combination.
- “I’m not willing to light my hair on fire to try to get support,” Mr. Romney said [7].
Hair on fire — if something sets your hair on fire, it excites you or catches your attention urgently., nominative.,
- That inevitably leads him to discuss President Obama and his health care law, a topic that gets Mr. Santorum’s blood boiling, and that of his listeners [6].
To get someone’s blood boiling — to make very angry., nominative-
People used to think blood actually boiled when they became angry or excited. Truth has gone out the window [2]. Out the window — used for saying that you stop doing something., nominative.
- Descriptive translation:бір нәрсені жасауды тоқтату; So 2.8 million jobs are hanging in the balance.
Hang in the balance — if something is in the balance, you do not know whether it will succeed or fail., nominative
- Descriptive Instead, he buries himself in briefing books [5].
Bury oneself in something — to spend all your time doing and thinking about a particular activity., nominative
Descriptive translation: белгілі бір іспен айналысу барсында бар жанымен сол іске араласу translation: equivalent ‒қыл үстінде тұру;
- Cool cucumber — very calm and relaxed in difficult situation., nominative.
Origin: Cool here means imperturbable rather than having a low temperature. Cucumbers are cool to the touch. Descriptive translation: сабырлы, салмақты;
- But even Mr. Romney may have a breaking point
Breaking point — 1) the point at which something break; 2) the point at which nerves or one’s mental state can endure no more., nominative.
Descriptive translation:1) сыну; 2) шыдамның шегі [1];
- “There’s no silver bullet”, the president declared. “Anybody who tells you otherwise isn’t really looking for a solution; they’re trying to ride the political wave of the moment.”
Ride the wave — to become involved with and get advantages from opinions or activities which have become very common or popular, nominative.
Descriptive translation: тізгінді ұстау;
- “They love this guy because he’s a straight arrow, he’s level-headed, and he’s going to do the right thing for our country” [2].
Straight arrow — informal, 1) morally upright person; 2) a person regarded as being extremely conventional., nominative, Descriptive translation:турашыл, тік мінезді адам;
“If worst came to worst,” and the state lost the money, “he had a partner holding the bag with him,” Mr. McDonough said. If (the) worst come to worst ‒Prov. in the worst possible circumstances; if the worst possible thing should happen. Descriptive translation: equivalent ‒алда-жалда;
The aim of the research work was to study the expressive and stylistic phraseology in modern print media. To do this we needed to consider the concept of «idiom» as well as the classification of these revolutions, and particularly their use in the media [3]. The phraseological word combinations serve a main function in newspaper style.
So in the first (theoretical) chapter of our study by examining the term «idiom» we reached the following conclusions:
1) Idioms are used in newspapers according to the following reasons:
‒ In order to make an article more attractive;(in headlines)
‒ In order to make the meaning of the phrase depper.
In the long run the role of idioms takes part important sight in scientific research. In any event using the idioms high and low is not due. But as a matter of facts with the help of idioms people are influenced. As we have said Mass media — is the way of inculcating some information to people’s consciousness. Lay it on the line Mass media conduct people. But not everybody can recognize the meaning of idioms in news articles. Because a lot of people, foreigners and learners even don’t know idioms. This it matter of time when foreigners and learners can fully understand idioms of native language. Reading newspapers or listening to native radio will help learners to find you a large number of idioms. After a while some idioms will become familiar, and learner will learn the places and situations where learner hear them.
References:
- Longman. Pocket Idioms Dictionary. ‒ Edinburg: Pearson, 2007. ‒ 310 p.
- Concise Oxford Dictionary (Eleventh Edition), electronic dictionary.
- Ozhegov’s Electronic Dictionary. (http://ozhegov.info)
- New York Times. Romney Takes Analytic Approach to Campaign Chaos. ‒2012, February 27.
- Кунин A. B. Курс фразеологии современного английского языка. — Дубна: Феникс, 2005. ‒ 484 с.
- Баранов А. Н., Добровольски Д. О. Идиоматичность и идиомы // Вопросы языкознания. — 1996, № 5. — 64с.
- Чепасова А. М. Семантико-грамматические классы русских фразеологизмов. ‒ Челябинск, 1974. ‒ 123 с.
- Internet: New York Times. The Times Wins 5 Pulitzer Prizes. 2009, April 20.
Основные термины (генерируются автоматически): BASIC, COMBINATIONS, PHRASEOLOGOCAL, THE, USAGE, WORD.
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Семинар 6 Combinability. Word Groups
KEY TERMS
Syntagmatics — linear (simultaneous) relationship of words in speech as distinct from associative (non-simultaneous) relationship of words in language (paradigmatics). Syntagmatic relations specify the combination of elements into complex forms and sentences.
Distribution — The set of elements with which an item can cooccur
Combinability — the ability of linguistic elements to combine in speech.
Valency — the potential ability of words to occur with other words
Context — the semantically complete passage of written speech sufficient to establish the meaning of a given word (phrase).
Clichе´ — an overused expression that is considered trite, boring
Word combination — a combination of two or more notional words serving to express one concept. It is produced, not reproduced in speech.
Collocation — such a combination of words which conditions the realization of a certain meaning
TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND EXERCISES
1. Syntagmatic relations and the concept of combinability of words. Define combinability.
Syntagmatic relation defines the relationship between words that co-occur in the same sentence. It focuses on two main parts: how the position and the word order affect the meaning of a sentence.
The syntagmatic relation explains:
• The word position and order.
• The relationship between words gives a particular meaning to the sentence.
The syntagmatic relation can also explain why specific words are often paired together (collocations)
Syntagmatic relations are linear relations between words
The adjective yellow:
1. color: a yellow dress;
2. envious, suspicious: a yellow look;
3. corrupt: the yellow press
TYPES OF SEMANTIC RELATIONS
Because syntagmatic relations have to do with the relationship between words, the syntagms can result in collocations and idioms.
Collocations
Collocations are word combinations that frequently occur together.
Some examples of collocations:
- Verb + noun: do homework, take a risk, catch a cold.
- Noun + noun: office hours, interest group, kitchen cabinet.
- Adjective + adverb: good enough, close together, crystal clear.
- Verb + preposition: protect from, angry at, advantage of.
- Adverb + verb: strongly suggest, deeply sorry, highly successful.
- Adjective + noun: handsome man, quick shower, fast food.
Idioms
Idioms are expressions that have a meaning other than their literal one.
Idioms are distinct from collocations:
- The word combination is not interchangeable (fixed expressions).
- The meaning of each component is not equal to the meaning of the idiom
It is difficult to find the meaning of an idiom based on the definition of the words alone. For example, red herring. If you define the idiom word by word, it means ‘red fish’, not ‘something that misleads’, which is the real meaning.
Because of this, idioms can’t be translated to or from another language because the word definition isn’t equivalent to the idiom interpretation.
Some examples of popular idioms:
- Break a leg.
- Miss the boat.
- Call it a day.
- It’s raining cats and dogs.
- Kill two birds with one stone.
Combinability (occurrence-range) — the ability of linguistic elements to combine in speech.
The combinability of words is as a rule determined by their meanings, not their forms. Therefore not every sequence of words may be regarded as a combination of words.
In the sentence Frankly, father, I have been a fool neither frankly, father nor father, I … are combinations of words since their meanings are detached and do not unite them, which is marked orally by intonation and often graphically by punctuation marks.
On the other hand, some words may be inserted between the components of a word-combination without breaking it.
Compare,
a) read books
b) read many books
c) read very many books.
In case (a) the combination read books is uninterrupted.In cases (b) and (c) it is interrupted, or discontinuous(read… books).
The combinability of words depends on their lexical, grammatical and lexico-grammatical meanings. It is owing to the lexical meanings of the corresponding lexemes that the word wise can be combined with the words man, act, saying and is hardly combinable with the words milk, area, outline.
The lexico-grammatical meanings of -er in singer (a noun) and -ly in beautifully (an adverb) do not go together and prevent these words from forming a combination, whereas beautiful singer and sing beautifully are regular word-combinations.
The combination * students sings is impossible owing to the grammatical meanings of the corresponding grammemes.
Thus one may speak of lexical, grammatical and lexico-grammatical combinability, or the combinability of lexemes, grammemes and parts of speech.
The mechanism of combinability is very complicated. One has to take into consideration not only the combinability of homogeneous units, e. g. the words of one lexeme with those of another lexeme. A lexeme is often not combinable with a whole class of lexemes or with certain grammemes.
For instance, the lexeme few, fewer, fewest is not combinable with a class of nouns called uncountables, such as milk, information, hatred, etc., or with members of ‘singular’ grammemes (i. e. grammemes containing the meaning of ‘singularity’, such as book, table, man, boy, etc.).
The ‘possessive case’ grammemes are rarely combined with verbs, barring the gerund. Some words are regularly combined with sentences, others are not.
It is convenient to distinguish right-hand and left-hand connections. In the combination my hand (when written down) the word my has a right-hand connection with the word hand and the latter has a left-hand connection with the word my.
With analytical forms inside and outside connections are also possible. In the combination has often written the verb has an inside connection with the adverb and the latter has an outside connection with the verb.
It will also be expedient to distinguish unilateral, bilateral and multilateral connections. By way of illustration we may say that the articles in English have unilateral right-hand connections with nouns: a book, the child. Such linking words as prepositions, conjunctions, link-verbs, and modal verbs are characterized by bilateral connections: love of life, John and Mary, this is John, he must come. Most verbs may have zero
(Come!), unilateral (birds fly), bilateral (I saw him) and multilateral (Yesterday I saw him there) connections. In other words, the combinability of verbs is variable.
One should also distinguish direct and indirect connections. In the combination Look at John the connection between look and at, between at and John are direct, whereas the connection between look and John is indirect, through the preposition at.
2. Lexical and grammatical valency. Valency and collocability. Relationships between valency and collocability. Distribution.
The appearance of words in a certain syntagmatic succession with particular logical, semantic, morphological and syntactic relations is called collocability or valency.
Valency is viewed as an aptness or potential of a word to have relations with other words in language. Valency can be grammatical and lexical.
Collocability is an actual use of words in particular word-groups in communication.
The range of the Lexical valency of words is linguistically restricted by the inner structure of the English word-stock. Though the verbs ‘lift’ and ‘raise’ are synonyms, only ‘to raise’ is collocated with the noun ‘question’.
The lexical valency of correlated words in different languages is different, cf. English ‘pot plants’ vs. Russian ‘комнатные цветы’.
The interrelation of lexical valency and polysemy:
• the restrictions of lexical valency of words may manifest themselves in the lexical meanings of the polysemantic members of word-groups, e.g. heavy, adj. in the meaning ‘rich and difficult to digest’ is combined with the words food, meals, supper, etc., but one cannot say *heavy cheese or *heavy sausage;
• different meanings of a word may be described through its lexical valency, e.g. the different meanings of heavy, adj. may be described through the word-groups heavy weight / book / table; heavy snow / storm / rain; heavy drinker / eater; heavy sleep / disappointment / sorrow; heavy industry / tanks, and so on.
From this point of view word-groups may be regarded as the characteristic minimal lexical sets that operate as distinguishing clues for each of the multiple meanings of the word.
Grammatical valency is the aptness of a word to appear in specific grammatical (or rather syntactic) structures. Its range is delimited by the part of speech the word belongs to. This is not to imply that grammatical valency of words belonging to the same part of speech is necessarily identical, e.g.:
• the verbs suggest and propose can be followed by a noun (to propose or suggest a plan / a resolution); however, it is only propose that can be followed by the infinitive of a verb (to propose to do smth.);
• the adjectives clever and intelligent are seen to possess different grammatical valency as clever can be used in word-groups having the pattern: Adj. + Prep. at +Noun(clever at mathematics), whereas intelligent can never be found in exactly the same word-group pattern.
• The individual meanings of a polysemantic word may be described through its grammatical valency, e.g. keen + Nas in keen sight ‘sharp’; keen + on + Nas in keen on sports ‘fond of’; keen + V(inf)as in keen to know ‘eager’.
Lexical context determines lexically bound meaning; collocations with the polysemantic words are of primary importance, e.g. a dramatic change / increase / fall / improvement; dramatic events / scenery; dramatic society; a dramatic gesture.
In grammatical context the grammatical (syntactic) structure of the context serves to determine the meanings of a polysemantic word, e.g. 1) She will make a good teacher. 2) She will make some tea. 3) She will make him obey.
Distribution is understood as the whole complex of contexts in which the given lexical unit(word) can be used. Есть даже словари, по которым можно найти валентные слова для нужного нам слова — так и называются дистрибьюшн дикшенери
3. What is a word combination? Types of word combinations. Classifications of word-groups.
Word combination — a combination of two or more notional words serving to express one concept. It is produced, not reproduced in speech.
Types of word combinations:
- Semantically:
- free word groups (collocations) — a year ago, a girl of beauty, take lessons;
- set expressions (at last, point of view, take part).
- Morphologically (L.S. Barkhudarov):
- noun word combinations, e.g.: nice apples (BBC London Course);
- verb word combinations, e.g.: saw him (E. Blyton);
- adjective word combinations, e.g.: perfectly delightful (O. Wilde);
- adverb word combinations, e.g.: perfectly well (O, Wilde);
- pronoun word combinations, e.g.: something nice (BBC London Course).
- According to the number of the components:
- simple — the head and an adjunct, e.g.: told me (A. Ayckbourn)
- Complex, e.g.: terribly cold weather (O. Jespersen), where the adjunct cold is expanded by means of terribly.
Classifications of word-groups:
- through the order and arrangement of the components:
• a verbal — nominal group (to sew a dress);
• a verbal — prepositional — nominal group (look at something);
- by the criterion of distribution, which is the sum of contexts of the language unit usage:
• endocentric, i.e. having one central member functionally equivalent to the whole word-group (blue sky);
• exocentric, i.e. having no central member (become older, side by side);
- according to the headword:
• nominal (beautiful garden);
• verbal (to fly high);
• adjectival (lucky from birth);
- according to the syntactic pattern:
• predicative (Russian linguists do not consider them to be word-groups);
• non-predicative — according to the type of syntactic relations between the components:
(a) subordinative (modern technology);
(b) coordinative (husband and wife).
4. What is “a free word combination”? To what extent is what we call a free word combination actually free? What are the restrictions imposed on it?
A free word combination is a combination in which any element can be substituted by another.
The general meaning of an ordinary free word combination is derived from the conjoined meanings of its elements
Ex. To come to one’s sense –to change one’s mind;
To fall into a rage – to get angry.
Free word-combinations are word-groups that have a greater semantic and structural independence and freely composed by the speaker in his speech according to his purpose.
A free word combination or a free phrase permits substitution of any of its elements without any semantic change in the other components.
5. Clichе´s (traditional word combinations).
A cliché is an expression that is trite, worn-out, and overused. As a result, clichés have lost their original vitality, freshness, and significance in expressing meaning. A cliché is a phrase or idea that has become a “universal” device to describe abstract concepts such as time (Better Late Than Never), anger (madder than a wet hen), love (love is blind), and even hope (Tomorrow is Another Day). However, such expressions are too commonplace and unoriginal to leave any significant impression.
Of course, any expression that has become a cliché was original and innovative at one time. However, overuse of such an expression results in a loss of novelty, significance, and even original meaning. For example, the proverbial phrase “when it rains it pours” indicates the idea that difficult or inconvenient circumstances closely follow each other or take place all at the same time. This phrase originally referred to a weather pattern in which a dry spell would be followed by heavy, prolonged rain. However, the original meaning is distanced from the overuse of the phrase, making it a cliché.
Some common examples of cliché in everyday speech:
- My dog is dumb as a doorknob. (тупой как пробка)
- The laundry came out as fresh as a daisy.
- If you hide the toy it will be out of sight, out of mind. (с глаз долой, из сердца вон)
Examples of Movie Lines that Have Become Cliché:
- Luke, I am your father. (Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back)
- i am Groot. (Guardians of the Galaxy)
- I’ll be back. (The Terminator)
- Houston, we have a problem. (Apollo 13)
Some famous examples of cliché in creative writing:
- It was a dark and stormy night
- Once upon a time
- There I was
- All’s well that ends well
- They lived happily ever after
6. The sociolinguistic aspect of word combinations.
Lexical valency is the possibility of lexicosemantic connections of a word with other word
Some researchers suggested that the functioning of a word in speech is determined by the environment in which it occurs, by its grammatical peculiarities (part of speech it belongs to, categories, functions in the sentence, etc.), and by the type and character of meaning included into the semantic structure of a word.
Words are used in certain lexical contexts, i.e. in combinations with other words. The words that surround a particular word in a sentence or paragraph are called the verbal context of that word.
7. Norms of lexical valency and collocability in different languages.
The aptness of a word to appear in various combinations is described as its lexical valency or collocability. The lexical valency of correlated words in different languages is not identical. This is only natural since every language has its syntagmatic norms and patterns of lexical valency. Words, habitually collocated, tend to constitute a cliché, e.g. bad mistake, high hopes, heavy sea (rain, snow), etc. The translator is obliged to seek similar cliches, traditional collocations in the target-language: грубая ошибка, большие надежды, бурное море, сильный дождь /снег/.
The key word in such collocations is usually preserved but the collocated one is rendered by a word of a somewhat different referential meaning in accordance with the valency norms of the target-language:
- trains run — поезда ходят;
- a fly stands on the ceiling — на потолке сидит муха;
- It was the worst earthquake on the African continent (D.W.) — Это было самое сильное землетрясение в Африке.
- Labour Party pretest followed sharply on the Tory deal with Spain (M.S.1973) — За сообщением о сделке консервативного правительства с Испанией немедленно последовал протест лейбористской партии.
Different collocability often calls for lexical and grammatical transformations in translation though each component of the collocation may have its equivalent in Russian, e.g. the collocation «the most controversial Prime Minister» cannot be translated as «самый противоречивый премьер-министр».
«Britain will tomorrow be welcoming on an official visit one of the most controversial and youngest Prime Ministers in Europe» (The Times, 1970). «Завтра в Англию прибывает с официальным визитом один из самых молодых премьер-министров Европы, который вызывает самые противоречивые мнения».
«Sweden’s neutral faith ought not to be in doubt» (Ib.) «Верность Швеции нейтралитету не подлежит сомнению».
The collocation «documentary bombshell» is rather uncommon and individual, but evidently it does not violate English collocational patterns, while the corresponding Russian collocation — документальная бомба — impossible. Therefore its translation requires a number of transformations:
«A teacher who leaves a documentary bombshell lying around by negligence is as culpable as the top civil servant who leaves his classified secrets in a taxi» (The Daily Mirror, 1950) «Преподаватель, по небрежности оставивший на столе бумаги, которые могут вызвать большой скандал, не менее виновен, чем ответственный государственный служащий, забывший секретные документы в такси».
8. Using the data of various dictionaries compare the grammatical valency of the words worth and worthy; ensure, insure, assure; observance and observation; go and walk; influence and влияние; hold and держать.
| Worth & Worthy | |
| Worth is used to say that something has a value:
• Something that is worth a certain amount of money has that value; • Something that is worth doing or worth an effort, a visit, etc. is so attractive or rewarding that the effort etc. should be made. Valency:
|
Worthy:
• If someone or something is worthv of something, they deserve it because they have the qualities required; • If you say that a person is worthy of another person you are saying that you approve of them as a partner for that person. Valency:
|
| Ensure, insure, assure | ||
| Ensure means ‘make certain that something happens’.
Valency:
|
Insure — make sure
Valency:
|
Assure:
• to tell someone confidently that something is true, especially so that they do not worry; • to cause something to be certain. Valency:
|
| Observance & Observation | |
| Observance:
• the act of obeying a law or following a religious custom: religious observances such as fasting • a ceremony or action to celebrate a holiday or a religious or other important event: [ C ] Memorial Day observances [ U ] Financial markets will be closed Monday in observance of Labor Day. |
Observation:
• the act of observing something or someone; • the fact that you notice or see something; • a remark about something that you have noticed. Valency:
|
| Go & Walk | |
|
Walk can mean ‘move along on foot’:
• A person can walk an animal, i.e. exercise them by walking. • A person can walk another person somewhere , i.e. take them there, • A person can walk a particular distance or walk the streets. Valency:
|
| Influence & Влияние | |
| Influence:
• A person can have influence (a) over another person or a group, i.e. be able to directly guide the way they behave, (b) with a person, i.e. be able to influence them because they know them well. • Someone or something can have or be an influence on or upon something or someone, i.e. be able to affect their character or behaviour in some way Valency:
|
Влияние — Действие, оказываемое кем-, чем-либо на кого-, что-либо.
Сочетаемость:
|
| Hold & Держать | |
| Hold:
• to take and keep something in your hand or arms; • to support something; • to contain or be able to contain something; • to keep someone in a place so that they cannot leave. Valency:
|
Держать — взять в руки/рот/зубы и т.д. и не давать выпасть
Сочетаемость:
|
- Contrastive Analysis. Give words of the same root in Russian; compare their valency:
| Chance | Шанс |
|
|
| Situation | Ситуация |
|
|
| Partner | Партнёр |
|
|
| Surprise | Сюрприз |
|
|
| Risk | Риск |
|
|
| Instruction | Инструкция |
|
|
| Satisfaction | Сатисфакция |
|
|
| Business | Бизнес |
|
|
| Manager | Менеджер |
|
|
| Challenge | Челлендж |
|
|
10. From the lexemes in brackets choose the correct one to go with each of the synonyms given below:
- acute, keen, sharp (knife, mind, sight):
• acute mind;
• keen sight;
• sharp knife;
- abysmal, deep, profound (ignorance, river, sleep);
• abysmal ignorance;
• deep river;
• profound sleep;
- unconditional, unqualified (success, surrender):
• unconditional surrender;
• unqualified success;
- diminutive, miniature, petite, petty, small, tiny (camera, house, speck, spite, suffix, woman):
• diminutive suffix;
• miniature camera/house;
• petite woman;
• petty spite;
• small speck/camera/house;
• tiny house/camera/speck;
- brisk, nimble, quick, swift (mind, revenge, train, walk):
• brisk walk;
• nimble mind;
• quick train;
• swift revenge.
11. Collocate deletion: One word in each group does not make a strong word partnership with the word on Capitals. Which one is Odd One Out?
1) BRIGHT idea green
smell
child day room
2) CLEAR
attitude
need instruction alternative day conscience
3) LIGHT traffic
work
day entertainment suitcase rain green lunch
4) NEW experience job
food
potatoes baby situation year
5) HIGH season price opinion spirits
house
time priority
6) MAIN point reason effect entrance
speed
road meal course
7) STRONG possibility doubt smell influence
views
coffee language
SERIOUS
advantage
situation relationship illness crime matter
- Write a short definition based on the clues you find in context for the italicized words in the sentence. Check your definitions with the dictionary.
| Sentence | Meaning |
| The method of reasoning from the particular to the general — the inductive method — has played an important role in science since the time of Francis Bacon. | The way of learning or investigating from the particular to the general that played an important role in the time of Francis Bacon |
| Most snakes are meat eaters, or carnivores. | Animals whose main diet is meat |
| A person on a reducing diet is expected to eschew most fatty or greasy foods. | deliberately avoid |
| After a hectic year in the city, he was glad to return to the peace and quiet of the country. | full of incessant or frantic activity. |
| Darius was speaking so quickly and waving his arms around so wildly, it was impossible to comprehend what he was trying to say. | grasp mentally; understand.to perceive |
| The babysitter tried rocking, feeding, chanting, and burping the crying baby, but nothing would appease him. | to calm down someone |
| It behooves young ladies and gentlemen not to use bad language unless they are very, very angry. | necessary |
| The Academy Award is an honor coveted by most Hollywood actors. | The dream about some achievements |
| In the George Orwell book 1984, the people’s lives are ruled by an omnipotent dictator named “Big Brother.” | The person who have a lot of power |
| After a good deal of coaxing, the father finally acceded to his children’s request. | to Agree with some request |
| He is devoid of human feelings. | Someone have the lack of something |
| This year, my garden yielded several baskets full of tomatoes. | produce or provide |
| It is important for a teacher to develop a rapport with his or her students. | good relationship |