Form words from a given word

Task1. Note the meanings of the 9 prefixes given below. Make new words with given prefixes. Decide on the part of speech for each of the words. Then work out the approximate meaning or the words that follow before checking their meanings in a good dictionary:

over=too much co=together en=make

under= too little il, in, im, ir, un=not.

dose-___________________________

shadow__________________________

privileged___________________________

habit______________________________

large________________________________

literate________________________________

measurable_____________________________

compromising_______________________________

Can you think of three more beginning with each of the prefixes listed in the exercise?

.Task2.Note the meanings of the 5 prefixes given in the box bellow. Make new words with given prefixes.Dicide on the part of speech for each of the words. Then work out the approximate meaning of the words that follow before checking their meanings in a good dictionary:

action_____________________________

planery_____________________________

historic______________________________

going_________________________________

humorous_______________________________

consider___________________________________

colonise__________________________________

Can you think three more words beginning with each of prefixes listed in the exercise?

Task 3 . Note the meanings of the 5 prefixes given in the box below. Make new words with given prefixes .decide on the part of speech for each of the words. Then work out the approximate meaning of the words that follow before checking their meanings in good dictionary:

trans= across, to the other side dis= causes the action to be reversed anti

counter= against, in opposition to mis= in the wrong manner

continental_____________________________

clockwise________________________________

balance__________________________________

count____________________________________

reputable___________________________________

handle______________________________________

understanding___________________________________

Can you think of three more words beginning with each of the prefixes listed in the exercise?

Task 4

In each sentence one word needs the addition of a prefix to give meaning to the sentence.

Identify the words which need prefixes and them.

1. Known as Saint Nicholas in Germany, Santa Claus was usually accompanied by Black peter, an elf, who punished____________ obedient children.

2. Unemployment and costs have to ______________ acceptable levels.

3. If he has his opinions on a subject, he is ____________ moveable.

4. She headed back home and left her mission______________ accomplished.

5. She is rather _______________ trustful person to strangers.

6. It was an ___________ mistakable step of his: he had own.

7. It was ________________ rational to react in that manner.

8. It is ________________ legal to drive while intoxicated.

9. It was _____________ modest of them to say that.

10. He had made progress that was previously____________ achievable.

11. It would be ____________ accurate to say that she has been dismissed.

12. He left a growing ______________ satisfaction with himself and his position.

13. It is a _____________ alcoholic drink.

14. You were ___________ attentive at the lecture, that’s why you didn’t understand anything.

15. The great Himalayan region is one of the few remaining isolated and ____________ accessible areas in the world today.

Task 5 In each sentence one word needs the addition of a prefix to give meaning to the sentence. Identify the words which need prefixes and them.

1. He never phones his friends or goes out any more: he’s becoming really social.________________

2. With 600 billion people, the country faces population.__________________________

3. Don’t you think it was very responsible to leave a six-year-old alone in the house?________________

4. There are too many mistakes in this essay: I’m afraid you’ll have to write it.________________-

5. He added a script to his letter to say that he received her check.___________________________

6. I think I have done the steaks: they’re very tough._________________________________

7. Drugs are legal in almost every country on earth.___________________________________

Task 6 in each sentence the word in capital letters needs the additions of prefix to give meaning.

I have decided to write my 1 _________________ -Biography! Now, you may think at 25 that I am too2_______________- MATURE to embark upon such an ambitious project but I think age is completely 3__________________ RELEVANT. Anyway, I’m sure that my literary abilities will allow me to 4____________ COME that hurdle only too easy. It will be written in a form of a 5______________ LOGUE in which I tell the world about some of the 6 ______________ BELIEVABLY interesting events in my life so far. I also intend to clear up some very common and totally 7 _______________ LOGICAL 8_____________ CONSEPTIONS about the 9____________NATURAL and finally convince people that all those pseudo-intellectuals at universities have got it all wrong. Being my friend, I hope you will buy a copy or it would be extremely 10_______________ LOYAL not to do so, after all.

Task 7 Complete this chart using the prefixes in the box to make the opposites of the adjectives and verbs given.

In- im- un- mis- dis-

Adjective/ Verb	Opposite
active	1____________________
secure	2
capable	3
experienced	4
possible	5
fortunate	6
conscious	7
healthy	8
understand	9
calculate	10
approve	11
obey	12

Task 8 Form nouns from the given words with the help of the prefixes with the opposite meaning.

Example: employment- unemployment

honesty-____________________

difference-______________________

fortune-________________________

understanding-_______________________

dependence-_________________________

importance-__________________________

security-___________________________

expensive-_________________________

obedience-__________________________

population-__________________________

alcoholic-__________

___________________

Task 9 Supply the right adjectival forms.

Example: I suspect he isn’t honest. In fact he’s quite dishonest

1. This arrangement isn’t strictly legal. Some people would regard it is _________________

2. Sometimes she doesn’t behave in a responsible manner. She’s quite___________________

3. Such a situation is barely imaginable. It is quite_____________________________________

4. Bob’s not very capable. He’s ____________________ of making sound decisions.

5. This fish hasn’t been cooked enough. It’s _________________________________________

6. This scheme isn’t very practical. In fact, it’s quite_____________________________________

7. This dates from before the war. It’s_______________________________________________

Task 10. Form adjectives from the given ones with the help of the prefixes and point out the changes in meaning.

Example: practical- impractical

possible__________________

urban______________________

appointing_____________________

conscious _______________________

informed__________________________

accurate___________________________

believable___________________________

acceptable_____________________________

legal_________________________________

able_________________________________

complete______________________________

married________________________________

bearable_______________________________

successful______________________________

calculation_____________________________

approval________________________________

measurable______________________________

expensive________________________________

modest___________________________________

Keys.

Task 1. Possible answers: overdose, overshadow, underprivileged, cohabit, illiterate, immeasurable, uncompromising

Task2. Possible answers: interaction, interplanetary, prehistoric, foregoing, posthumous, reconsider, recolonise

Task3. Possible answers: transcontinental, anticlockwise, counterbalance, discount, disreputable, mishandle, misunderstanding

Task4. Possible answers: 1. disobedient, 2. unacceptable, 3 immovable, 4 unaccomplished, 5distruthful, 6. Unmistaken, 7. Irrational, 8. Illegal, 9. Immodest, 10.u,nachievable 11.unaccurate, 12.dissatisfaction

13 non-alcoholic,14 inattentive, 15 inaccessible

Task 5. 1 anti-social, 2. over-population, 3. irresponsible, 4. rewrite, 5. postscript, 6. overdone, 7 illegal

Task6 1. AUTOBIOGRAPHY, 2. IMMATURE, 3. IRRELEVANT, 4 OVERCOME, 5. MONOLOGUE/DIALOGUE

6. UNBELIEVABLY, 7 ILLOGICAL, 8. MISCONSEPTIONS, 9. SUPERNATURAL, 10. DISLOYAL

Task7 .1 inactive, 2 insecure, 3 incapable, 4 inexperienced, 5 Impossible, 6 unfortunate, 7 unconscious, 8 unhealthy, 9 misunderstand, 10 miscalculate, 11 disapprove, 12 disobey

Task8 dishonesty, indifference, misfortune, misunderstanding, independence, unimportance, insecurity, inexpensive, disobedience, overpopulation, non-alcoholic

Task9 illegal, irresponsible, unimaginable, incapable, uncooked, impractical, pre-war

Task10 impossible, interurban, disappointing, unconscious, unavailable, misinformed, inaccurate, unbelievable, unacceptable, illegal, unable, incomplete, unmarried, unbearable, unsuccessful, miscalculation, disapproval, immeasurable, inexpensive

Given a dictionary find out if given word can be made by two words in the dictionary. 
Note: Words in the dictionary must be unique and the word to be formed should not be a repetition of same words that are present in the Trie.

Examples: 

Input : dictionary[] = {"news", "abcd", "tree", 
                              "geeks", "paper"}   
        word = "newspaper"
Output : Yes
We can form "newspaper" using "news" and "paper"

Input : dictionary[] = {"geeks", "code", "xyz", 
                           "forgeeks", "paper"}   
        word = "geeksforgeeks"
Output : Yes

Input : dictionary[] = {"geek", "code", "xyz", 
                           "forgeeks", "paper"}   
        word = "geeksforgeeks"
Output : No

The idea is store all words of dictionary in a Trie. We do prefix search for given word. Once we find a prefix, we search for rest of the word.

Algorithm :  

1- Store all the words of the dictionary in a Trie.
2- Start searching for the given word in Trie.
   If it partially matched then split it into two
   parts and then search for the second part in
   the Trie.
3- If both found, then return true.
4- Otherwise return false.

Below is the implementation of above idea. 

Output: 

Yes

Exercise : 
A generalized version of the problem is to check if a given word can be formed using concatenation of 1 or more dictionary words. Write code for the generalized version.

Time Complexity: The time complexity of the given program is O(MN), where M is the length of the given word and N is the number of words in the dictionary. This is because the program needs to traverse the given word and perform a prefix search in the trie for each substring of the word, which takes O(M) time. Additionally, the program needs to insert all the words in the dictionary into the trie, which takes O(NM) time.

Auxiliary Space: The space complexity of the program is O(NM), where N is the number of words in the dictionary and M is the maximum length of a word in the dictionary. This is because the program needs to store the trie data structure, which requires O(NM) space.

Another Approach

The above approach is implementing the Trie data structure to efficiently store and search the dictionary words. However, we can optimize the code by using the unordered_set data structure instead of Trie. The unordered_set is a hash-based data structure that has an average constant time complexity O(1) for insertion and search operations. Therefore, it can be used to efficiently search for words in the dictionary.

Approach:

1. Check if the given word exists in the dictionary. If it does, return true.
2. If the given word is not found in the dictionary, then check if it can be formed by concatenating two or more words from the dictionary recursively.
3. To check if a word can be formed by concatenating two or more words from the dictionary, the code splits the word into a prefix and a suffix at every possible position and then checks if the prefix exists in the dictionary.
4. If the prefix exists in the dictionary, then the suffix is checked recursively to see if it can be formed by concatenating two or more words from the dictionary. This is done by calling the “isPossible” function recursively with the suffix and the dictionary as input.
5. If the suffix can be formed by concatenating two or more words from the dictionary, then the entire word can be formed by concatenating the prefix and suffix. In this case, the function returns true.
6. If none of the prefixes can be found in the dictionary, or if none of the suffixes can be formed by concatenating two or more words from the dictionary, then the function returns false.

Algorithm:

This code uses recursion to check whether a given word can be formed by concatenating two words from a given dictionary.

• The function “isPossible” takes two parameters: an unordered_set “dict” containing the dictionary of words and a string word to be checked.
• If the word is found in the dictionary, the function returns true. Otherwise, it recursively checks all possible prefixes and suffixes of the word to see if they can be formed by concatenating two words from the “dict”.
• The recursion stops when either the prefix is not found in the dictionary, or the suffix cannot be formed by concatenating two words from the “dict”.
• If the word can be formed by concatenating two words from the “dict”, the function returns true. Otherwise, it returns false.
• The “main” function creates an “unordered_set” of strings containing the dictionary, and then calls the “isPossible” function to check if the given word can be formed by concatenating two words from the dictionary. Finally, it prints “Yes” if the word can be formed, and “No” otherwise.

Below is the implementation of the above approach:

Output:

Yes

Time Complexity: The time complexity of the “isPossible” function in this code is O(N^3), where N is the length of the input word. This is because, in the worst case, the function will need to check every possible partition of the word into two parts, which is O(N^2), and for each partition, it may need to recursively check both parts, which can take an additional O(N) time.

Auxiliary Space: The space complexity of this function is also O(N^3) in the worst case, due to the recursion stack. Specifically, in the worst case, the recursion depth will be O(N), and at each level of the recursion, the function may need to store a string of length up to N. Therefore, the overall space complexity is O(N^3).

This article is contributed by Sahil Chhabra (akku). If you like GeeksforGeeks and would like to contribute, you can also write an article using write.geeksforgeeks.org or mail your article to review-team@geeksforgeeks.org. See your article appearing on the GeeksforGeeks main page and help other Geeks.
Please write comments if you find anything incorrect, or you want to share more information about the topic discussed above.
 

It’s
a process of creating new words from material available in the
language after a certain structural and semantic formulas and
pattern, forming words by combining root & affix morphemes.

2 Types of word formation:

1)
Compounding (словосложение)

2)
Word – derivation

Within
the types further distinction may be made between the ways of forming
words. The basic way of forming words is word-derivation affixation
and conversion apart from this shortening and a number of minor ways
of formal words such as back-forming, blending, sound imitation are
traditionally referred to formation.

Different types of word
formation:

Affixation
is
the formation of new words by means of suffixes and prefixes to
stemsbasis.

Affixes may be grouped

1) according to their
linguistic origin. We distinguish affixes of Germanic origin (full,
less), of Romanic origin (ion), of Greek origin (ise, izm);

2) according to the parts of
speech. We distinguish noun forming, adj. forming and verb forming
affixes;

3)
according to semantic functions. They may denote persons, quality,
negation. Many suffixes originated from separate words: hood
originated for the noun hood, which meant state or condition; full –
полный
(adj. In O.E) now it is suffix. Suffixes may change the part of
speech: critic (al).

All
suffixes are divided into lexical
and grammatical.

Lexical
suffixes build new word. Productive
affixes. For
ex: read-readable, happy-happiness, act-actor.

Grammatical
suffixes change the grammatical form of a word. Often used to create
neologisms and nonce-words (I
don’t like Sunday evenings: I feel so mondayish).

For ex: finish-finished, say-says, rose-roses.

Some
productive suffixes:

Noun
forming – er,
ing, is, ist, ance

Adj
– forming – y,
ish, ed, able, less

Adv
– forming – ly

Verb – forming — Ize, /ise,
ate

Prefixies
—
Un, die, re

Conversion
(zero derivation) it is one of the major ways of enriching EV &
referrers to the numerous cases of phonetic identity of word forms of
2 words belonging to different part of speech.. The new word has a
meaning which differs from that of original one though it can ><
be associated with it. nurse
(noun) to nurse – to feed

A certain stem is used for the
formation of a categorically different word without a derivative
element being added.

Bag
– to bag, Back – to back , Bottle – to bottle This
specific pattern is very productive in English

The
most popular types are noun →verb or verb→noun To
take off – a take off

Conversion
can be total
or partial.
Partial: the then
president (тогдашний).
An adverb is used as an adjective, only in this particular context.
Total: work
– to work

Conversion
may be the result of shading of English endings. The historical
changes may be briefly outlined as follows: in O.E. a verb and a noun
of the same root were distinguished by their endings. For ex: the
verb ‘to love’ had a form (Old Eng.) ‘lufian’. This verb had
personal conjunctions. The noun ‘love’ had the form ‘lufu’
with different case endings. But in the course of time, the personal
and case endings were lost. There are numerous pairs of words (e. g.
love, n. — to love, v.; work, n. — to work, v.; drink, n. — to
drink, v., etc.) which did, not occur due to conversion but coincided
as a result of certain historical processes (dropping of endings,
simplification of stems) when before that they had different forms
(e. g. O. E. lufu, n. — lufian, v.).

The
two categories of parts of speech especially affected by conversion
are nouns and verbs. Verbs made from nouns are the most numerous
amongst the words produced by conversion: e. g. to
hand, to back, to face, to eye, to mouth, to nose, to dog, to wolf,
to monkey, to can, to coal, to stage, to screen, to room, to floor,
to blackmail, to blacklist, to honeymoon,
and very many others.

Nouns
are frequently made from verbs: do (e. g. This
is the queerest do I»ve ever come across.
Do — event, incident), go (e. g. He
has still plenty of go at his age.
Go — energy), make,
run, find, catch, cut, walk, worry, show, move,
etc. Verbs can also be made from adjectives: to
pale, to yellow, to cool, to grey, to rough
(e. g. We
decided to rough it in the tents as the weather was warm),
etc.

Other
parts of speech are not entirely unsusceptible to conversion as the
following examples show: to
down, to out (as in a newspaper heading Diplomatist Outed from
Budapest), the ups and downs, the ins and outs, like, n, (as in the
like of me and the like of you).

Compounding
& word comparison. Compound
words are made of 2 derivational stems. The types of structure of CW:
neutral,
morphological &syntactic.

In
neutral
compound
the process is released without any linking elements sunflower.
There
are three types of neutral compounds simple compounds went a compound
consist of a simple affixes stems.

Derivate/
derivational compound
— has affixes babysitter.

Contracted
–
has a shorten stems. TV-set

Morphological
C –
few
in number. This type is non productive. Represented by words, where 2
stems are combined by a linking vowel/ consonant Anglo-Saxon,
statesman, craftsmanship.

Syntactic
C
– formed of segments of speech preserving articles, prepositions,
adverbs. Mother-in-law

Reduplication.
New
word are made by stem ether without any phonetic changes Bye-Bye
or variation of a root vowel or consonant ping-pong

Shortening.
There
are 2 ways of producing them:

1.
The word is formed from the syllable of the original word which in
term may loose its beginning –phone,
its ending vac
(vacation) or
both
fridge.

2.
The word is formed from the initial letter of a word group BB,
bf – boyfriend. Acronyms are
shorten words but read as one UNO
[ju:nou]

TYPES OF WF

Sound
imitation – words
are made by imitating different links of sounds that may be produced
by animals, birds…bark
– лаять,
mew – мяукать…some
names of animals, birds & insects are made by SI coo-coo
– кукушка,
crow – ворона.

To
glide, to slip are
supposed to convey the very sound of the smooth easy movement over a
slippery surface.

Back
formation a
verb is produced from a noun by subtraction (вычитание)
bagger
– to bag, babysitter – to babysit

Blending
— Is
blending part of two words to form one word (merging into one word),
combining letters/sounds they have in common as a connecting element.
Smoke
+ fog = smog, Breakfast + lunch = brunch, Smoke + haze = smaze
(дымка)

—
addictive type: they are transformable into a phrase consisting of
two words combined by a conjunction “and” smog
→ smoke & fog

—
blending of restrictive type: transformable into an attributive
phrase, where the first element serves as modifier of a second.
Positron
– positive electron,
Medicare
– medical care

Borrowings.
Contemporary
English is a unique mixture of Germanic & Romanic elements. This
mixing has resulted in the international character of the vocabulary.
In the comparison with other languages English possesses great
richness of vocabulary.

All languages are mixtures to
a greater or lesser extent, but the present day English vocabulary is
unique in this respect.

A brief look on various
historical strata of the English vocabulary:

1) through cultural contacts
with Romans partly already on the continent and all through the
influence of Christianity a very early stratum of Latin-Greek words
entered the language.

Their origin is no longer felt
by the normal speaker today in such word: pound, mint, mustard,
school, dish, chin, cleric, cheese, devil, pepper, street, gospel,
bishop.

The
same can be said about some Scandinavian words (from about the 10^th
century) that today belong to the central core of the vocabulary.

It
means that their frequency is very high. They,
their, them, sky, skin, skill, skirt, ill, dies, take… They
partly supersede the number of OE words OE
heofon – heaven (sky) Niman – take
Steorfan – die

A
more radical change & profound influence on the English
vocabulary occurred on 1066 (Norman Conquest). Until the 15^th
cent., a great number of French words were adopted. They belong to
the areas of court,
church, law, state.

Virtue, religion,
parliament, justice, noble, beauty, preach, honour…

The
influx of the words was the strongest up to the 15^th
cent., but continued up to the 17^th
cent.

Many French borrowings
retained their original pronunciation & stress

Champagne,
ballet, machine, garage…

Separate, attitude,
constitute, introduce…

Adjectives in English –
arrogant, important, patient

Sometimes with their
derivatives:

Demonstrative –
demonstration

Separate – separation

17-18 cc. due to the
establishing of cultural, trade relations many words were borrowed
from Italian, Spanish, Dutch, French.

Italian:
libretto,
violin, opera

Spanish:
hurricane, tomato, tobacco

Dutch:
yacht,
dog, landscape

French:
bouquet,
buffet

From the point of view of
their etymology formal words are normally of classical Romanic
origin, informal – Anglo-Saxon.

Nowadays many Americanisms
become familiar due to the increase of transatlantic travel & the
influence of broadcast media.

Even
in London (Heathrow airport) “baggage”
instead of “luggage”

The present day English
vocabulary is from being homogeneous.

6.
Neologisms new
word expressions are created for new things irrespective of their
scale of importance. They may be all important and concern some
social relationships (new form/ state)
People’s republic. Or
smth threatening the very existence of humanity nuclear
war
or the thing may be short lived. N
is
a newly coined word, phrase/ a new meaning for an existing word / a
word borrowed from another language.

The
development of science and industry technology: black
hole, internet, supermarket.

The
adaptive lexical system isn’t only adding new units but readjust
the ways & means of word formation radio
detection and ranging – RADAR

The
lex. System may adopt itself by combining several word-building
processes face-out
(noun) – the radioactive dust descending through the air after an
anatomic explosion. This
word was coined by composition/ compounding & conversion.

Teach
–in (n) –a student conference/ series of seminars on some burning
issue of the day, meaning some demonstration on protest. This
pattern is very frequent lis–in
, due-in
means protest demonstration when fluking traffic. Bionies
– the
combination of bio & electron.

Back
formation:
air-condion
– air-conditioner – air-conditioning

Semi-affixes
(могут
быть
как
самостоятельные
слова)
chairman
used
to be not numerous and might be treated as exceptions now, evolving
into separate set.

Some
N abscessed with smth and containing the elements mad
& happy: powermad, moneymad, auto-happy.

Conversion, composition,
semantic change are in constant use when coining N

The
change of meaning rather an introduction of a new additional meaning
may be illustrated by the word NETWORK
– stations for simultaneous broadcast of the same program.

Once
accepted N may become a basis for further word formation. ZIP
– to zip – zipper –
zippy.

The
lex. System is unadaptive system, developing for many centuries and
reflecting the changing needs, servicing only in special context.
Archaism
& historisms.

Archaism
–
once common but are now replaced by synonyms. Mostly they are poetic:
morn
– arch, morning – new word, hapless – arch, unlucky – modern.

Historism
– when
the causes of the word’s disappearance are extralinguistic, eg. The
thing named is no longer used. They are very numerous as names for
social relations, institutions, objects of material culture of the
past, eg. many types of sailing craft belong to the past: caravels,
galleons.A
great many of
H
denotes various types of weapons in historical novels: blunderbuss
— мушкетер,
breastplate. Many
of them are in Voc in some figurative meaning: shiel
– щит,
sword. – меч.

7.
Homonymy.
Different
in meaning, but identical in sound or spelling form

Sources:

1.
The result of split of polysemy capital
– столица,
заглавная
буква

Homonymy
differs from polysemy because there is no semantic bond (связь)
between homonyms; it has been lost & doesn’t exist.

2.
as the result of leveling of grammar in flections, when different
parts of speech become identical in their forms. Care
(in OE) — caru(n), care (OE) – carian (v)

3.
By conversion
slim – to slim, water – to water

4.
With the help of the same suffix fro the same stem. Reader
– the person who reads/a book for reading.

5.
Accidentally. Native words can coincide in their form beran
– to bear, bera (animal) – to bear

6.
Shortening of different words. Cab
(cabriolet, cabbage, cabin)

Homonyms can be of 3 kinds:

1.
Homonyms proper (the sound & the spelling are identical)
bat – bat
— flying
animal (летучая
мышь)
— cricket bat (бита,
back — part of body, away from the front, go to back

2.
Homophones (the same sound form but different spelling)
flower – flour, sole – soul, rain – reign, bye-by-buy

3.
Homographs (the same spelling)
tear [iə] – tear [εə, lead [i:] – lead [e]

Homonyms in English are very
numerous. Oxford English Dictionary registers 2540 homonyms, of which
89% are monosyllabic words and 9,1% are two-syllable words.

So,
most homonyms are monosyllabic words. The trend towards
monosyllabism, greatly increased by the loss of inflections and
shortening, must have contributed much toward increasing the number
of homonyms in English.

Among the other ways of
creating homonyms the following processes must be mentioned:

From
the viewpoint of their origin homonyms are sometimes divided into
historical and etymological. Historical
homonyms are those which result from the breaking up of polysemy;
then one polysemantic word will split up into two or more separate
words. Etymo1ogiсal
homonyms are words of different origin which come to be alike in
sound or in spelling (and may be both written and pronounced alike).

Borrowed
and native words can coincide in form, thus producing homonyms (as in
the above given examples). In other cases homonyms are a result of
borrowing when several different words become identical in sound or
spelling. E.g. the Latin vitim — «wrong», «an immoral
habit» has given the English vice — вада
«evil conduct»; the Latin vitis -«spiral» has
given the English »vice» — тиски
«apparatus with strong jaws in which things can be hold
tightly»; the Latin vice — «instead of», «in
place of» will be found in vice — president.

8.
Synonymy.

A
synonym – a word of similar or identical meaning to one or more
words in the same language. All languages contain synonyms but in
English they exist in superabundance. There no two absolutely
identical words because connotations, ways of usage, frequency of an
occurrence are different. Senses of synonyms are identical in respect
of central semantic trades (denotational meaning) but differ in
respect of minor semantic trades (connotational). In each group of S
there’s a word with the most general meaning, with can substitute
any word of the group. TO
LOOK AT — to glance – to stare

Classification:

Weather the different in
denotational/ connotational component

1.
Ideographic
synonyms. They
bear the same idea but not identical in their referential content,
different shades of meaning or degree. BEAUTIFUL
– fine, handsome – pretty,
to
ascent – to mount – to climb.

2.
Stylistic
synonyms. Different
in emotive and stylistic sphere.

child girl happiness	Infant maid bliss	Kid
neutral	elevated	colloquial
To die	To kick the bucket

Eat
— Devour (degradation),
Face
— muzzle
(морда)

Synonymic condensation is
typical of the English language.

It
refers to situations when writers or speakers bring together several
words with one & the same meaning to add more conviction, to
description more vivid. Ex.:
Lord & master, First & foremost, Safe & secure,
Stress & strain, by force & violence

Among
synonyms there’s a special group of words –
euphemism used
to substitute some unpleasant or offensive words. Drunk
– marry

According to interchangability
context S are classified

3.
Total
synonyms
An extremely rare occurrence. Ulman: “a luxury that language
can hardly afford.” M. Breal spoke about a law of distribution in
the language (words should be synonyms, were synonyms in the past
usually acquire different meanings and are no longer
interchangeable). Ex.: fatherland
— motherland

4.
Contextual
synonyms.
Context can emphasize some certain semantic trades & suppress
other semantic trades; words with different meaning can become
synonyms in a certain context. Ex.: tasteless
– dull, Active – curious, Curious – responsive

Synonyms can reflect social
conventions.

Ex.:

clever	bright	brainy	intelligent	Dever-clever
neutral	Only speaking about younger people by older people	Is not used by the higher educated people	Positive connotation	Stylistically remarked

5.
Dialectical
synonyms.
Ex.:
lift – elevator, Queue – line, autumn – fall

6.
Relative
some
authors classify group like:
like – love – adore, famous- celebrated – eminentthey
denote different degree of the same notion or different shades of
meanings and can be substituted only in some context.

Antonymy.
Words
belonging to the same part of speech identical in speech expressing
contrary or contradictory notion.

Комиссаров
В.Н.
classify them into absolute/
root (late/early)they
have different roots
,
derivational (to
please-to
displease) the
same root but different affixes. In most cases “-“ prefixes from
antonyms an,
dis, non.
Sometimes they are formed by suffixes full
& less.
But they do not always substitute each other selfless
– selfish, successful – unsuccessful .the
same with “-“ prefixes
to appoint – to disappoint.

The
difference is not only in structure but in semantic. The DA
express
contradictory notions, one of then excludes the other active
– inactive. The
AA
express
contrary notion: ugly
–
plain – good-looking – pretty –
beautiful

Antonimy
is
distinguished from complementarily
by being based on different logical relationshipd for pairs of
antonyms like
good – bad, big – small.
He
is good (not bad). He is not good (doesn’t imply he is bad).
The negation (отрицание)
of one term doesn’t implies the assertion of the other.

John
Lines suggests proper
hot-warm
– tapped – cold &
complementary antonyms only
2 words negative and assertion not
male — female.

There’s
also one type of semantic opposition conversives
words
denote one reference as viewed from different points of view that of
the subject & that of the object.
Bye
– sell, give — receive

Conversness
is
minor image relations of functions husband
– wife, pupil – teacher, above – below, before — after

9.
Phraseology.
Phrasiological units/ idioms – motivated word group. They are
reproduced as readymade units. Express a singe notion, used in
sentence as one part of it.

Idiomaticy
—
PU when the meaning of the whole
is
not deducible from the sum of the meanings of the parts. Stability
of PU implies that it exist as a readymade linguistic unit, which
doesn’t allow of any variability of its lexical component of gr.
Structure.

In
ling. literature the term
Phraseology is
used for the expressions where the meaning of one element is depended
on the other. Vinogradov: “irrespective of structure and properties
of the units”. Smernitsky: “it denotes only such set expressions
which do not possess expressiveness or emotional coloring”. Arnold:
“it says that only denotes such set expressions that are
imaginative, expressive and emotional”. Ammosova call them fixed
context units – we
can’t substitute an element without changing the meaning of the
whole. Ahmanova insists on the semantic intearity of such phrases:
“prevailing over the structural separates of their element”.
Kuning lays stress on the structural separatness of the elements in
the PU on the change of meaning in the whole as compared with its
elements taken separately with its elements and on a certain minimum
stability.

Phraseology
(Webster’s
dictionary) mode of expression peculiarities of diction. That is
choice and arrangement of words and phrases characteristic of some
author.there are difficult terms. Idioms word equivalents & these
difficult units or terminology reflects certain differences in the
main criteria used to distinguish.

The
features: 1.
lack of semantic motivation 2. Lexical & grammatical stability

Semantic
classification:2
criteria: 1). The degree of semantic isolation 2). The degree of
disinformation

1.
Opaque in meaning (трудный
для
понимания)
the meaning of the individual words can’t be summed together to
produce the meaning of the whole.to
kick the bucket = to die It
contains no clue to the idiomatic meaning of this expression.The
degree of semantic isolation is the highest.

The 3 typesof PU:

1.
Phraseological fusions. The degree of motivation is very low. one
component preserves its direct meaning Ex.:
to pass the buck = to pass responsibility – свалить
ответственность,

2.
Phraseological unities. Clearly motivated. Transparent both
components in their direct meaning but the combination acquires
figurative sense to
see the light = to understand, old salt — морской
волк

3.
Phraseological combinations. There is a component used in its
direct meaning. There are lots of idioms (proverbs, saying). To
be good at smth.:
Curiosity
killed the cat, but satisfaction brought it back
Idioms institutionalized formulas of politeness:How
do you do?Good-bye (God be with you) How about a drink?

Structural classification
of PU

Prof. A.I. Smirnitsky worked
out structural classification of phraseological units, comparing them
with words. He points out one-top units which he compares with
derived words because derived words have only one root morpheme. He
points out two-top units which he compares with compound words
because in compound words we usually have two root morphemes.

Among
one-top units he
points out three structural types;

a)
units of the type «to give up» (verb + postposition type), e.g. to
art up, to back up, to drop out, to nose out, to buy into, to
sandwich in etc.;

b)
units of the type «to be tired» . Some of these units remind the
Passive Voice in their structure but they have different prepositions
with them, while in the Passive Voice we can have only prepositions
«by» or «with», e.g. to
be tired of, to be interested in, to be surprised at etc.
There are also units in this type which remind free word-groups of
the type «to be young», e.g. to be akin to, to be aware of etc.
The difference between them is that the adjective «young» can be
used as an attribute and as a predicative in a sentence, while the
nominal component in such units can act only as a predicative. In
these units the verb is the grammar centre and the second component
is the semantic centre;

c)
Prepositional- nominal phraseological units. These units are
equivalents of unchangeable words: prepositions, conjunctions,
adverbs, that is why they have no grammar centre, their semantic
centre is the nominal part, e.g.
On the doorstep (quite near), on the nose (exactly), in the course
of, on the stroke of, in time, on the point of
etc. In the course of time such units can become words, e.g.
tomorrow,
instead etc.

Among
two-top units
A.I. Smirnitsky points out the following structural types:

a) attributive-nominal such
as: a month of Sundays, grey matter, a millstone round one’s neck
and many others. Units of this type are noun equivalents and can be
partly or perfectly idiomatic. In partly idiomatic units (phrasisms)
sometimes the first component is idiomatic, e.g. high road, in other
cases the second component is idiomatic, e.g. first night. In many
cases both components are idiomatic, e.g. red tape, blind alley, bed
of nail, shot in the arm and many others.

b) verb-nominal phraseological
units, e.g. to read between the lines , to speak BBC, to sweep under
the carpet etc. The grammar centre of such units is the verb, the
semantic centre in many cases is the nominal component, e.g. to fall
in love. In some units the verb is both the grammar and the semantic
centre, e.g. not to know the ropes. These units can be perfectly
idiomatic as well, e.g. to burn one’s boats,to vote with one’s
feet, to take to the cleaners’ etc.

Very close to such units are
word-groups of the type to have a glance, to have a smoke. These
units are not idiomatic and are treated in grammar as a special
syntactical combination, a kind of aspect.

c) phraseological repetitions,
such as : now or never, part and parcel , country and western etc.
Such units can be built on antonyms, e.g. ups and downs , back and
forth; often they are formed by means of alliteration, e.g cakes and
ale, as busy as a bee. Components in repetitions are joined by means
of conjunctions. These units are equivalents of adverbs or adjectives
and have no grammar centre. They can also be partly or perfectly
idiomatic, e.g. cool as a cucumber (partly), bread and butter
(perfectly).

Phraseological units the same
as compound words can have more than two tops (stems in compound
words), e.g. to take a back seat, a peg to hang a thing on, lock,
stock and barrel, to be a shaddow of one’s own self, at one’s own
sweet will.

Syntactical classification
of PU

Phraseological
units can be classified as parts of speech. This classification was
suggested by I.V. Arnold. Here we have the following groups:

a) noun phraseologisms
denoting an object, a person, a living being, e.g. bullet train,
latchkey child, redbrick university, Green Berets,

b) verb phraseologisms
denoting an action, a state, a feeling, e.g. to break the log-jam, to
get on somebody’s coattails, to be on the beam, to nose out , to
make headlines,

c) adjective phraseologisms
denoting a quality, e.g. loose as a goose, dull as lead ,

d) adverb phraseological
units, such as : with a bump, in the soup, like a dream , like a dog
with two tails,

e) preposition phraseological
units, e.g. in the course of, on the stroke of ,

f) interjection phraseological
units, e.g. «Catch me!», «Well, I never!» etc.

In I.V.Arnold’s
classification there are also sentence equivalents, proverbs, sayings
and quatations, e.g. «The sky is the limit», «What makes him
tick», » I am easy». Proverbs are usually metaphorical, e.g. «Too
many cooks spoil the broth», while sayings are as a rule
non-metaphorical, e.g. «Where there is a will there is a way».