Figurative use of a word

Updated on February 12, 2020

Figurative meaning, by definition, is the metaphorical, idiomatic, or ironic sense of a word or expression, in contrast to its literal meaning.

In recent years, a number of researchers (including R.W. Gibbs and K. Barbe, both quoted below) have challenged conventional distinctions between literal meaning and figurative meaning. According to M.L. Murphy and A. Koskela, «Cognitive linguists in particular disagree with the notion that figurative language is derivative or supplementary to literal language and instead argue that figurative language, particularly metaphor and metonymy, reflect the way we conceptualize abstract notions in terms of more concrete ones» ( Key Terms in Semantics, 2010).

Examples and Observations:

• «In France, there is a saying ‘C’est quoi, ce Bronx?’ Literally, it means, ‘What is this, the Bronx?’ Figuratively it means ‘What a dump!'»
  (Brian Sahd, «Community Development Corporations and Social Capital.» Community-Based Organizations, ed. by Robert Mark Silverman. Wayne State University Press, 2004)
• «Eccentric first came into English in 1551 as a technical term in astronomy, meaning ‘a circle in which the earth, the sun, etc. deviates from its center.’ . . .
  «In 1685, the definition slid from the literal to the figurative. Eccentric was defined as ‘deviating from the usual character or practice; unconventional; whimsical; odd,’ as in an eccentric genius, an eccentric millionaire. . . . The astronomical meaning of eccentric has only historical relevance today, while the figurative meaning is the commonly recognized one, as in this comment in a Wall Street Journal editorial: ‘Proper eccentrics are more likely to shrink from the limelight than to slaver at its prospect.'»
  (Sol Steinmetz, Semantic Antics: How and Why Words Change Meaning. Random House, 2008)

Cognitive Processes Used in Understanding Figurative Language (Gricean View)

• «[W]hen a speaker says Criticism is a branding iron, he or she does not literally mean that criticism is a tool to mark livestock. Rather, the speaker intends this utterance to have some figurative meaning along the lines that criticism can psychologically hurt the person who receives it, often with long-lasting consequences. How do listeners comprehend figurative utterances such as Criticism is a branding iron? Listeners presumably determine the conversational inferences (or ‘implicatures’) of nonliteral utterances by first analyzing the literal meaning of the sentence. Second, the listener assesses the appropriateness and/or truthfulness of that literal meaning against the context of the utterance. Third, if the literal meaning is defective or inappropriate for the context, then and only then, will listeners derive an alternative nonliteral meaning that makes the utterance consistent with the cooperative principle.» (Raymond W. Gibbs, Jr., Intentions in the Experience of Meaning. Cambridge University Press, 1999)

«Getting Away With Murder»

• «Interestingly, there are occasions when understanding what someone says automatically leads one to infer a figurative meaning even if the speaker did not necessarily intend that figurative meaning to be communicated. For instance, when someone literally ‘gets away with murder,’ he also figuratively ‘avoids responsibility for his action,’ an inference from something a speaker says to a figurative meaning that takes people longer to process than if they simply understand the phrase ‘gets away with murder’ when used intentionally as having figurative, idiomatic meaning (Gibbs, 1986).» (Albert N. Katz, Cristina Cacciari, Raymond W. Gibbs, Jr., and Mark Turner, Figurative Language and Thought. Oxford University Press, 1998)

Searle on Paraphrasing Metaphors

• «Because in metaphorical utterances what the speaker means differs from what he says (in one sense of ‘say’), in general, we shall need two sentences for our examples of metaphor—first the sentence uttered metaphorically, and second a sentence that expresses literally what the speaker means when he utters the first sentence and means it metaphorically. Thus (3), the metaphor (MET):
  (3) (MET) It’s getting hot in here
  corresponds to (3), the paraphrase (PAR):
  (3) (PAR) The argument that is going on is becoming more vituperative and similarly with the pairs:
  (4) (MET) Sally is a block of ice.
  (4) (PAR) Sally is an extremely unemotional and unresponsive person
  (5) (MET) I have climbed to the top of the greasy pole (Disraeli)
  (5) (PAR) I have after great difficulty become prime minister
  (6) (MET) Richard is a gorilla
  (6) (PAR) Richard is fierce, nasty, and prone to violence Notice that in each case we feel that the paraphrase is somehow inadequate, that something is lost.» (John R. Searle, «Metaphor.» Metaphor and Thought, 2nd ed., ed. by Andrew Ortony. Cambridge University Press, 1993)

False Dichotomies

• «Explanations and descriptions of metaphors, as well as irony, usually evoke the dichotomy ‘literal’ and ‘figurative.’ That is, metaphors, as well as instances of irony, are said to have an immediate, basic, or literal meaning, which is easily accessible, and a remote or figurative meaning, which can be reconstructed. The figurative meaning is only accessible to a limited number of participants, while the literal meaning can be understood by all participants. But neither the ironic nor the literal meaning need any different (longer) processing time for comprehension. Consequently, the notion that the literal/non-ironic meaning is prior or basic and the non-literal/ironic builds upon this basis appears questionable. The pervasiveness of irony in everyday discourse coupled with the questionable way of interpreting irony thus require a rethinking of some basic (and often unquestioned) assumptions in the treatment of irony and other types of so-called figurative language. That is, dichotomies like literal and figurative should be re-evaluated.» (Katharina Barbe, Irony in Context. John Benjamins, 1995)

Figurative Meanings of Conceptual Metaphors

• «When we study similarities and differences in the metaphorical expression of a conceptual metaphor, we need to take into account a number of factors or parameters, including the literal meaning of the expressions used, the figurative meaning to be expressed, and the conceptual metaphor (or, in some cases, metaphors) on the basis of which figurative meanings are expressed. As a fourth parameter, there is also a linguistic form that is used, but this is necessarily (or at least almost always) different in the case of two different languages.» (Zoltán Kövecses, Metaphor in Culture: Universality and Variation. Cambridge University Press, 2005)

Literal and Figurative Meanings of Idioms

• «Experiments carried out by Häcki Buhofer and Burger (1994) have shown that people are often unable to distinguish between the literal and the figurative meaning of an idiom. This means that the literal sense is often mentally present for speakers, even if they use an idiom only in its figurative meaning. Hence the relevant mental image (we call it image component) of a motivated idiom must be regarded as part of its content plane in a broad sense. In certain cases, some relevant traces of the mental image that are fixed in the lexical structure of an idiom must be regarded as part of its actual meaning. As a rule, the image component is involved in the cognitive processing of the idiom in question. What this means for the semantic description of idioms is that relevant elements of the inner form have to be included in the structure of the semantic explication.» (Dmitrij Dobrovolʹskij and Elisabeth Piirainen, Figurative Language: Cross-Cultural and Cross-Linguistic Perspectives. Elsevier, 2005)

Have you ever felt so hungry you could “eat a horse”? Complained that “it’s raining cats and dogs” out there? Or wisely observed that “all that glitters is not gold”? Then you’ve already used figurative language without knowing or noticing it.

Figures of speech pop up everywhere in literature, poetry books, pop culture, motivational quotes, marketing materials and even in our everyday speech. (“Pop up”—that’s figurative language!) But what is figurative language exactly? How do you recognize it? And what are the most common types you can use?

In short, the definition of figurative language is using a word or phrase beyond its literal definition to achieve a more complex meaning or to strengthen its descriptive effect.

Let’s take a closer look at this creative, non-literal use of language that colors everything that we say, read and write.

What is figurative language?

Figurative language uses figures of speech (such as similes, metaphors and clichés) to suggest new pictures or images, or to create stronger effects. It is particularly useful in getting a specific message or feeling across. For instance, let’s say I’m stuck in the desert with a friend because our car broke down. Rather than saying: “It’s hot outside, isn’t it?”, I’d probably say: “It’s a million degrees outside, what are we going to do?!” Of course, it’s not literally a million degrees outside, but by using figurative language I have better expressed the dread and urgency of the situation we are in.

Figurative language has a fundamental impact on readers. By creating new connections between concepts, images or objects that have little to no original link, readers discover new insights and see a more vivid or imaginative picture in their heads. Figurative language is also useful in explaining an abstract concept by comparing it to something else that readers can better relate to. It can transform the seemingly ordinary into something significant.

This is why authors of all genres employ figures of speech so abundantly. In literature and poetry, writers often use them to pinpoint an exact feeling or mood they would otherwise fail to express with more conventional wording. Politicians and debaters use figurative language to argue and persuade. Novelists use it to draw readers into the world they’ve created. It’s all good.

10 common types of figurative language

Similes

A simile is a figure of speech that compares two things of different kinds, and that is often introduced by using a connecting word such as like or as. Here are some examples of similes:

• She was as busy as a bee.

• The three-piece suit fit him like a glove.

• The zombie’s hands were cold as ice.

Metaphors

A metaphor is the same as a simile, but without the connecting word like or as. In a metaphor, one element directly replaces the other one. Some examples of metaphors include:

• She was a busy bee.

• His eyes were a deep ocean.

• The zombie’s hands were ice.

Cliché

A cliché is a phrase, expression, or idea that has become so overused that it has lost its original meaning or effect. Clichés can sometimes be seen as irritating and annoying because of their predictability. Here are some classic examples of clichés:

• All’s fair in love and war.

• Every cloud has a silver lining.

• The zombie fell head over heels in love.

Hyperbole

Remember a few paragraphs ago when I was stuck in the desert and it was “a million degrees outside?” That’s hyperbolic. Hyperboles are intentional and obvious exaggerations in order to emphasize or evoke strong feelings. They aren’t meant to be taken literally, like these hyperbole examples:

• Her smile was a mile wide.

• The student’s backpack weighed a ton.

• Tommy the zombie was nervous: His dad was going to kill him when he got home.

Idiom

An idiom is a group of words that, when used in a certain order, have brand new, unique meaning that has nothing to do with the definition of the words taken individually. Idioms are generally used to reveal a universal truth. While something doesn’t literally cost you “an arm and a leg”, the meaning behind the idiom immediately makes sense—because what ‘costs’ more than your own limbs? Here are some examples of useful idioms:

• The project was a piece of cake.

• He shrugged. “Better late than never.”

• The expensive meal cost the zombie an arm and a leg.

Onomatopoeia

Onomatopoeia is my favorite type of figurative language, and not only because it’s so fun to say. Onomatopoeia has a simple definition: It’s the formation of a word by imitating the sound the thing it refers to makes or evokes. You can find them in most nursery rhymes.

• The cow goes Moo.

• Ding dong. Someone was at the door.

• Rwwarrrr said the zombie.

Personification

Personification is when human characteristics or qualities are attributed to inanimate objects, animals, or abstract concepts. Some examples of personification:

• The wind howled in the night.

• The camera loves her.

• The chair groaned when the zombie sat down.

Oxymoron

An oxymoron associates two seemingly self-contradicting terms to illustrate a point or reveal a paradox. Taken independently, bitter and sweet mean opposite things; however, their association (bittersweet) create a distinct, highly evocative meaning. Here are some other examples of oxymorons:

• The silence was deafening.

• I was busy doing nothing.

• That zombie was part of the walking dead.

Euphemism

A euphemism is when a polite or mild word or expression is used in place of something more unpleasant, distributing, or taboo. In this regard, it functions as the opposite of hyperbole. The most common example of a euphemism is saying someone ‘passed away’ rather than ‘died’. Here are some others:

• The English major was between jobs.

• He asked if she wanted to “Netflix and chill”.

• The zombie’s girlfriend was about to bite the big one.

Allusion

An allusion is a device that makes the reader think of another person, place, event, or thing. Allusions can be both explicit or implied in the narrative. Some of the most common sources of allusions come from the Bible and Greek mythology.

• She picked up the trash like a Good Samaritan.

• He was a regular Einstein.

• The zombie couldn’t stop eating human brains; they were his Achilles’ heel.

Famous examples of figurative language from literature

Example 1: “Parting is such sweet sorrow”—William Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet

If you want to find examples of figurative language, look no further than Shakespeare. Can you guess what literary device he’s using in this famous quote from Romeo and Juliet? If you guessed oxymoron, you’re correct! The words sweet and sorrow evoke opposite ideas of happiness and pain. However, when Shakespeare combines them, it shows how the lovers are sad at having to leave one another, but also excited and joyful at the prospect of anticipating their next reunion.

Example 2: “Hope is a thing with feathers”—Emily Dickinson, “Hope is a thing with feathers”

In this famous poem, Emily Dickinson uses an extended metaphor to articulate a profound human emotion. She describes the abstract concept of hope to the reader by comparing it to something very tangible and visceral: a bird with feathers that perches on branches. As readers, we can better understand the complex once it’s compared to something known.

Example 3: “Beep, beep!”—The Road Runner, Looney Tunes cartoons

Though maybe not quite literary, let’s end on a fun example. Poor Wile E. Coyote knows and fears the “beep beep” or “meep meep” onomatopoeia of his archenemy the Road Runner in the Looney Tunes cartoon series. The “beep beep” is reminiscent of a car horn and signals to the coyote that danger is around the corner. Cartoons and comics traditionally use onomatopoeia to illustrate sounds to readers, whether it’s a loud Ka-Pow! after Superman lands a good punch, or the Klang! of an anvil over Tom Cat’s head. Either way … we feel it.

Using figurative language in your writing

Figurative language makes speech fun. It allows us to go beyond the literal and offers us a range of tools to express, describe, and emote. It’s used in everything from nursery rhymes—with a moo moo here—to Shakespearean soliloquies, to excuses for not going into work (after all, your head is killing you). Understanding the different types of figurative language and when to use them is important, but in the end it’s all about what you want to say. Go ahead. The world is your oyster … Pardon the cliché.

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Marika Hirsch, Knowledge Base Writer at Wix

American expat living in Ireland. Loves creative writing and carbs. Will ask to pet your dog.