Features of the word meaning

24
— The fundamental features of word meaning. — ?????

  • relative stability

The mngs don’t change during long periods of time. The concepts
remain more or less the same for a long time, so their mngs remain
more or less the same.

  • relative flexibility

In time there are some changes in people’s way of life, new objects
appear, other objects (& concepts) are used no more. So people
use the existing names for new concepts => new mngs appear.
Usually the old and the new mng have smth in common, some feature
unites them.

Word is connected with other words in
terms of paradigm ~ paradigmatic relations.

A paradigm is a system of relations
between words in a language. It may be in grammar ( to
go-going-gone).

Semantic paradigm:

  1. дерево
    – tree

деревянный стол — a table made
of wood.

b) a human eye can see 7 million colours, but we
can’t name them all, even painters can’t do it. We can
only feel the difference. But still there are different names
for colours in different languages.

  1. рука
    — arm

— hand

d) sibling = братья и сестры

grandparents = бабушка и дедушка

  1. swimming

floating

sail a horizontal movement on the
surface of the water:

drifting


navigating

a man, dog = swim

a ship = pour

a boat = sail

smth dead passive = drift

smth not sinkable (wood) = float

to lay a course (быть штурманом) =
to navigate

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  • Word MeaningLecture # 6Grigoryeva M.

    1 слайд

    Word Meaning
    Lecture # 6
    Grigoryeva M.

  • Word MeaningApproaches to word meaning

Meaning and Notion (понятие)

Types...

    2 слайд

    Word Meaning

    Approaches to word meaning

    Meaning and Notion (понятие)

    Types of word meaning

    Types of morpheme meaning

    Motivation

  • Each word has two aspects:

the outer aspect 
( its sound form) 
cat

the in...

    3 слайд

    Each word has two aspects:

    the outer aspect
    ( its sound form)
    cat

    the inner aspect
    (its meaning)
    long-legged, fury animal with sharp teeth
    and claws

  • Sound and meaning do not always constitute a constant unit even in the sa...

    4 слайд

    Sound and meaning do not always constitute a constant unit even in the same language

    EX a temple

    a part of a human head
    a large church

  • Semantics (Semasiology)Is a branch of lexicology which studies the 
meaning o...

    5 слайд

    Semantics (Semasiology)
    Is a branch of lexicology which studies the
    meaning of words and word equivalents

  • Approaches to Word MeaningThe Referential (analytical) approach

The Function...

    6 слайд

    Approaches to Word Meaning
    The Referential (analytical) approach

    The Functional (contextual) approach

    Operational (information-oriented) approach

  • The Referential (analytical) approachformulates the essence of meaning by es...

    7 слайд

    The Referential (analytical) approach
    formulates the essence of meaning by establishing the interdependence between words and things or concepts they denote

    distinguishes between three components closely connected with meaning:
    the sound-form of the linguistic sign,
    the concept
    the actual referent

  • Basic Triangleconcept (thought, reference) – the thought of the object that s...

    8 слайд

    Basic Triangle
    concept (thought, reference) – the thought of the object that singles out its essential features
    referent – object denoted by the word, part of reality
    sound-form (symbol, sign) – linguistic sign
    concept – flower

    sound-form referent
    [rәuz]

  • In what way does meaning correlate with 
each element of the triangle ?

In...

    9 слайд

    In what way does meaning correlate with
    each element of the triangle ?

    In what relation does meaning stand to
    each of them?

  • Meaning and Sound-formare not identical	
							  different
EX. dove - [dΛv]...

    10 слайд

    Meaning and Sound-form
    are not identical
    different
    EX. dove — [dΛv] English sound-forms
    [golub’] Russian BUT
    [taube] German
    the same meaning

  • Meaning and Sound-formnearly identical sound-forms have different meanings in...

    11 слайд

    Meaning and Sound-form
    nearly identical sound-forms have different meanings in different languages
    EX. [kot] Russian – a male cat
    [kot] English – a small bed for a child

    identical sound-forms have different meanings (‘homonyms)
    EX. knight [nait]
    night [nait]

  • Meaning and Sound-formeven considerable changes in sound-form do not affect t...

    12 слайд

    Meaning and Sound-form
    even considerable changes in sound-form do not affect the meaning

    EX Old English lufian [luvian] – love [l Λ v]

  • Meaning and Conceptconcept is a category of human cognition

concept is abstr...

    13 слайд

    Meaning and Concept
    concept is a category of human cognition

    concept is abstract and reflects the most common and typical features of different objects and phenomena in the world

    meanings of words are different in different languages

  • Meaning and Conceptidentical concepts may have different semantic structures...

    14 слайд

    Meaning and Concept
    identical concepts may have different semantic structures in different languages

    EX. concept “a building for human habitation” –
    English Russian
    HOUSE ДОМ

    + in Russian ДОМ
    “fixed residence of family or household”
    In English HOME

  • Meaning and Referent
one and the same object (referent) may be denoted by mor...

    15 слайд

    Meaning and Referent

    one and the same object (referent) may be denoted by more than one word of a different meaning
    cat
    pussy
    animal
    tiger

  • Meaningis not identical with any of the three points of the triangle –
the so...

    16 слайд

    Meaning
    is not identical with any of the three points of the triangle –
    the sound form,
    the concept
    the referent

    BUT
    is closely connected with them.

  • Functional Approachstudies the functions of a word in speech 
meaning of a wo...

    17 слайд

    Functional Approach
    studies the functions of a word in speech
    meaning of a word is studied through relations of it with other linguistic units
    EX. to move (we move, move a chair)
    movement (movement of smth, slow movement)

    The distriution ( the position of the word in relation to
    others) of the verb to move and a noun movement is
    different as they belong to different classes of words and
    their meanings are different

  • Operational approachis centered on defining meaning through its role in 
the...

    18 слайд

    Operational approach
    is centered on defining meaning through its role in
    the process of communication

    EX John came at 6
    Beside the direct meaning the sentence may imply that:
    He was late
    He failed to keep his promise
    He was punctual as usual
    He came but he didn’t want to

    The implication depends on the concrete situation

  • Lexical Meaning and NotionNotion denotes the reflection in the mind of real o...

    19 слайд

    Lexical Meaning and Notion
    Notion denotes the reflection in the mind of real objects

    Notion is a unit of thinking
    Lexical meaning is the realization of a notion by means of a definite language system
    Word is a language unit

  • Lexical Meaning and NotionNotions are international especially with the natio...

    20 слайд

    Lexical Meaning and Notion
    Notions are international especially with the nations of the same cultural level

    Meanings are nationally limited

    EX GO (E) —- ИДТИ(R)
    “To move”
    BUT !!!
    To GO by bus (E)
    ЕХАТЬ (R)

    EX Man -мужчина, человек
    Она – хороший человек (R)
    She is a good person (E)

  • Types of MeaningTypes     of    meaning
grammatical 
meaning

lexico-grammati...

    21 слайд

    Types of Meaning
    Types of meaning

    grammatical
    meaning

    lexico-grammatical
    meaning
    lexical meaning
    denotational
    connotational

  • Grammatical Meaningcomponent of meaning recurrent in identical sets of indivi...

    22 слайд

    Grammatical Meaning
    component of meaning recurrent in identical sets of individual forms of different words

    EX. girls, winters, toys, tables –
    grammatical meaning of plurality

    asked, thought, walked –
    meaning of past tense

  • Lexico-grammatical meaning(part –of- speech meaning) is revealed in the cla...

    23 слайд

    Lexico-grammatical meaning
    (part –of- speech meaning)
    is revealed in the classification of lexical items into:
    major word classes (N, V, Adj, Adv)
    minor ones (artc, prep, conj)

    words of one lexico-grammatical class have the same paradigm

  • Lexical Meaning is the meaning proper to the given linguistic unit in all its...

    24 слайд

    Lexical Meaning
    is the meaning proper to the given linguistic unit in all its forms and distributions

    EX . Go – goes — went
    lexical meaning – process of movement

  • PRACTICEGroup the words into 3 column according to the grammatical, lexical...

    25 слайд

    PRACTICE
    Group the words into 3 column according to the grammatical, lexical or part-of –speech meaning
    Boy’s, nearest, at, beautiful,
    think, man, drift, wrote,
    tremendous, ship’s, the most beautiful,
    table, near, for, went, friend’s,
    handsome, thinking, boy,
    nearer, thought, boys,
    lamp, go, during.

  • Grammatical
The case of nouns: boy’s, ship’s, friend’s
The degree of compari...

    26 слайд

    Grammatical
    The case of nouns: boy’s, ship’s, friend’s
    The degree of comparison of adj: nearest, the most beautiful
    The tense of verbs: wrote, went, thought

    Lexical
    Think, thinking, thought
    Went, go
    Boy’s, boy, boys
    Nearest, near, nearer
    At, for, during (“time”)
    Beautiful, the most beautiful

    Part-of-speech
    Nouns—verbs—adj—-prep

  • Aspects of Lexical meaningThe denotational aspect

The connotational aspect...

    27 слайд

    Aspects of Lexical meaning
    The denotational aspect

    The connotational aspect

    The pragmatic aspect

  • Denotational Meaning“denote” – to be a sign of, stand as a symbol for”

 esta...

    28 слайд

    Denotational Meaning
    “denote” – to be a sign of, stand as a symbol for”

    establishes the correlation between the name and the object
    makes communication possible

    EX booklet
    “a small thin book that gives info about smth”

  • PRACTICEExplain denotational meaning 
A lion-hunter
To have a heart like a...

    29 слайд

    PRACTICE
    Explain denotational meaning

    A lion-hunter
    To have a heart like a lion
    To feel like a lion
    To roar like a lion
    To be thrown to the lions
    The lion’s share
    To put your head in lion’s mouth

  • PRACTICE A lion-hunter  
A host that seeks out celebrities to impress guests...

    30 слайд

    PRACTICE

    A lion-hunter
    A host that seeks out celebrities to impress guests
    To have a heart like a lion
    To have great courage
    To feel like a lion
    To be in the best of health
    To roar like a lion
    To shout very loudly
    To be thrown to the lions
    To be criticized strongly or treated badly
    The lion’s share
    Much more than one’s share
    To put your head in lion’s mouth

  • Connotational Meaning reflects the attitude of the speaker towards what he sp...

    31 слайд

    Connotational Meaning
    reflects the attitude of the speaker towards what he speaks about
    it is optional – a word either has it or not

    Connotation gives additional information and includes:
    The emotive charge EX Daddy (for father)
    Intensity EX to adore (for to love)
    Imagery EX to wade through a book
    “ to walk with an effort”

  • PRACTICEGive possible interpretation of the sentences
She failed to buy it a...

    32 слайд

    PRACTICE
    Give possible interpretation of the sentences

    She failed to buy it and felt a strange pang.
    Don’t be afraid of that woman! It’s just barking!
    He got up from his chair moving slowly, like an old man.
    The girl went to her father and pulled his sleeve.
    He was longing to begin to be generous.
    She was a woman with shiny red hands and work-swollen finger knuckles.

  • PRACTICEGive possible interpretation of the sentencesShe failed to buy it an...

    33 слайд

    PRACTICE
    Give possible interpretation of the sentences
    She failed to buy it and felt a strange pang.
    (pain—dissatisfaction that makes her suffer)
    Don’t be afraid of that woman! It’s just barking!
    (make loud sharp sound—-the behavior that implies that the person is frightened)
    He got up from his chair moving slowly, like an old man.
    (to go at slow speed—was suffering or was ill)
    The girl went to her father and pulled his sleeve.
    (to move smth towards oneself— to try to attract smb’s attention)
    He was longing to begin to be generous.
    (to start doing— hadn’t been generous before)
    She was a woman with shiny red hands and work-swollen finger knuckles.
    (colour— a labourer involved into physical work ,constant contact with water)

  • The pragmatic aspect of lexical  meaning
the situation in which the word is...

    34 слайд

    The pragmatic aspect of lexical meaning

    the situation in which the word is uttered,
    the social circumstances (formal, informal, etc.),
    social relationships between the interlocutors (polite, rough, etc.),
    the type and purpose of communication (poetic, official, etc.)

    EX horse (neutral)
    steed (poetic)
    nag (slang)
    gee-gee (baby language)

  • PRACTICE State what image underline the meaning 

I heard what she said but...

    35 слайд

    PRACTICE
    State what image underline the meaning

    I heard what she said but it didn’t sink into my mind.
    You should be ashamed of yourself, crawling to the director like that.
    They seized on the idea.
    Bill, chasing some skirt again?
    I saw him dive into a small pub.
    Why are you trying to pin the blame on me?
    He only married her for her dough.

  • PRACTICE State what image underline the meaning I heard what she said but it...

    36 слайд

    PRACTICE
    State what image underline the meaning
    I heard what she said but it didn’t sink into my mind.
    (to understand completely)
    You should be ashamed of yourself, crawling to the director like that.
    (to behave humbly in order to win favour)
    They seized on the idea.
    (to be eager to take and use)
    Bill, chasing some skirt again?
    (a girl)
    I saw him dive into a small pub.
    (to enter suddenly)
    Why are you trying to pin the blame on me?
    (to blame smb unfairly)
    He only married her for her dough.
    (money)

  • Types of Morpheme Meaninglexical
differential
functional
distributional

    37 слайд

    Types of Morpheme Meaning
    lexical
    differential
    functional
    distributional

  • Lexical Meaning in Morphemesroot-morphemes that are homonymous to words posse...

    38 слайд

    Lexical Meaning in Morphemes
    root-morphemes that are homonymous to words possess lexical meaning
    EX. boy – boyhood – boyish

    affixes have lexical meaning of a more generalized character
    EX. –er “agent, doer of an action”

  • Lexical Meaning in Morphemeshas denotational and connotational components
EX....

    39 слайд

    Lexical Meaning in Morphemes
    has denotational and connotational components
    EX. –ly, -like, -ish –
    denotational meaning of similiarity
    womanly , womanish

    connotational component –
    -ly (positive evaluation), -ish (deragotary) женственный — женоподобный

  • Differential Meaninga semantic component that serves to distinguish one word...

    40 слайд

    Differential Meaning
    a semantic component that serves to distinguish one word from all others containing identical morphemes

    EX. cranberry, blackberry, gooseberry

  • Functional Meaningfound only in derivational affixes
a semantic component whi...

    41 слайд

    Functional Meaning
    found only in derivational affixes
    a semantic component which serves to
    refer the word to the certain part of speech

    EX. just, adj. – justice, n.

  • Distributional Meaningthe meaning of the order and the arrangement of morphem...

    42 слайд

    Distributional Meaning
    the meaning of the order and the arrangement of morphemes making up the word
    found in words containing more than one morpheme
    different arrangement of the same morphemes would make the word meaningless
    EX. sing- + -er =singer,
    -er + sing- = ?

  • Motivation denotes the relationship between the phonetic or morphemic composi...

    43 слайд

    Motivation
    denotes the relationship between the phonetic or morphemic composition and structural pattern of the word on the one hand, and its meaning on the other

    can be phonetical
    morphological
    semantic

  • Phonetical Motivationwhen there is a certain similarity between the sounds th...

    44 слайд

    Phonetical Motivation
    when there is a certain similarity between the sounds that make up the word and those produced by animals, objects, etc.

    EX. sizzle, boom, splash, cuckoo

  • Morphological Motivationwhen there is a direct connection between the structu...

    45 слайд

    Morphological Motivation
    when there is a direct connection between the structure of a word and its meaning
    EX. finger-ring – ring-finger,

    A direct connection between the lexical meaning of the component morphemes
    EX think –rethink “thinking again”

  • Semantic Motivationbased on co-existence of direct and figurative meanings of...

    46 слайд

    Semantic Motivation
    based on co-existence of direct and figurative meanings of the same word

    EX a watchdog –
    ”a dog kept for watching property”

    a watchdog –
    “a watchful human guardian” (semantic motivation)

  •  PRACTICE

  • Analyze the meaning of the words. Define the type of motivation a) morpholo...

    48 слайд

    Analyze the meaning of the words.
    Define the type of motivation
    a) morphologically motivated
    b) semantically motivated

    Driver
    Leg
    Horse
    Wall
    Hand-made
    Careless
    piggish

  • Analyze the meaning of the words. Define the type of motivation a) morpholo...

    49 слайд

    Analyze the meaning of the words.
    Define the type of motivation
    a) morphologically motivated
    b) semantically motivated
    Driver
    Someone who drives a vehicle
    morphologically motivated
    Leg
    The part of a piece of furniture such as a table
    semantically motivated
    Horse
    A piece of equipment shaped like a box, used in gymnastics
    semantically motivated

  • Wall
Emotions or behavior  preventing people from feeling close
semantically...

    50 слайд

    Wall
    Emotions or behavior preventing people from feeling close
    semantically motivated
    Hand-made
    Made by hand, not machine
    morphologically motivated
    Careless
    Not taking enough care
    morphologically motivated
    Piggish
    Selfish
    semantically motivated

  • I heard what she said but it didn’t sink in my mind
“do down to the bottom”...

    51 слайд

    I heard what she said but it didn’t sink in my mind
    “do down to the bottom”
    ‘to be accepted by mind” semantic motivation

    Why are you trying to pin the blame on me?
    “fasten smth somewhere using a pin” –
    ”to blame smb” semantic motivation

    I was following the man when he dived into a pub.
    “jump into deep water” –
    ”to enter into suddenly” semantic motivation

    You should be ashamed of yourself, crawling to the director like that
    “to move along on hands and knees close to the ground” –
    “to behave very humbly in order to win favor” semantic motivation

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Lecture 2. Word meaning is studied by the branch of lexicology called semasiology.  Usually meaningLecture 2. Word meaning is studied by the branch of lexicology called semasiology. Usually meaning is defined as the realization of a notion (or concept, in other terms) by means of a definite language system.

The word:  basic unit of lexicology The most important characteristics of the word : The word: basic unit of lexicology The most important characteristics of the word : 1. The word is a unit of speech which serves the purposes of human communication. So the word can be defined as a unit of communication. 2. The word is the total of the sounds which compose it. 3. The word possesses both external and internal characteristics.

The word  is a unit used for purposes of human communication, materially representing a groupThe word is a unit used for purposes of human communication, materially representing a group of sounds, possessing a meaning, characterised by formal and semantic unity and a capacity for grammatical employment. The word may be described as the basic unit of language. Uniting meaning and form, it is composed of one or more morphemes, each consisting of one or more spoken sounds or their written representation.

Types of meaning grammatical meaning (unites words into parts of speech) Ex. :  goes, stops,Types of meaning grammatical meaning (unites words into parts of speech) Ex. : goes, stops, works lexical meaning (individual for every word) Ex. : went, kissed, looked

Denotational and connotational meaning  Denotational component expresses the notional content of the word, shows whatDenotational and connotational meaning Denotational component expresses the notional content of the word, shows what the word refers to. Connotational component expresses additional meanings of the word which may be of different types: stylistic, evaluative (rational and emotional) and emotional, etc.

Types of connotational meaning Evaluative (rational and emotional) Ex. : brain  Ex. : brock (“aTypes of connotational meaning Evaluative (rational and emotional) Ex. : brain Ex. : brock (“a scoundrel”) Cf. also: notorious – celebrated Emotional, or emotive connotation of the word is its capacity to evoke and express emotion ( duckling, darling (diminutive emotive value). Stylistic connotation shows the stylistic status of a word: neutral, bookish, colloquial, slang, etc.

Componential Analysis  consists in decomposition of the word meaning into semes – minimal components ofComponential Analysis consists in decomposition of the word meaning into semes – minimal components of meaning, or elementary units of sense. archisemes differential semes Ex. : girl, woman, spinster

Motivation morhological (Ex. : leader, cranberry) phonetical (Ex. : splash, boom, chung,  ching) semantic (Ex.Motivation morhological (Ex. : leader, cranberry) phonetical (Ex. : splash, boom, chung, ching) semantic (Ex. : chain store, chain hotel, chain smoker) folk etymology asparagus sparrow grass полуклиника , спинжак→

Polysemy Ex. : do, go, see, etc.  lexico-semantical variants of the word (LSVs) Primary andPolysemy Ex. : do, go, see, etc. lexico-semantical variants of the word (LSVs) Primary and secondary meanings in the semantic structure of the word Table “a piece of furniture” “ a supply of food”, “an act of assembling to eat”, “a group of people assembled at a table”, etc. Meanings can also be direct and figurative, concrete and abstract, central and peripheral, general and special

Semantic changes.  Causes:  historical, or extralinguistic, and linguistic.  villain ( « деревенский жительSemantic changes. Causes: historical, or extralinguistic, and linguistic. villain ( « деревенский житель » → « негодяй » Tory « ирландский разбойник » → « член партии Тори » lord « хранитель хлеба » → « господин , владелец , etc. » Borrowing Ex. : “any animal”: Deer, beast (Fr. ), animal (Lat. ) Ellipsis Ex. : daily newspaper→daily Analogy catch “understand”, grasp ”understand”

The nature of semantic change Association Transference:  1) based on similarity  linguistic metaphor: neckThe nature of semantic change Association Transference: 1) based on similarity linguistic metaphor: neck (of a human being) → neck (of a bottle). 2) based on contiguity (real connection between the two objects). linguistic metonymy: hands (“limbs of a human body”) → hands (“a worker”).

Metaphors Based on similarity between two physical objects (concrete to concrete metaphores): teeth of a saw,Metaphors Based on similarity between two physical objects (concrete to concrete metaphores): teeth of a saw, leg of a table, a goose (of a silly woman). Zoosemy. concrete to abstract metaphors: a ray of hope, a shade of doubt. different types of similarity: similarity of shape (tongue of a bell), function (leg of a table), position (foot of a page), character of motion (snail (of a sluggish person)), dimensions (dumpling (of a short, chabby creature)), value (dirt cheap). proper names → common names: Appolo, Don Juan, Othello. Structural metaphors: Time is money. Argument is war

Metonymy 1) instrument → agent: pen (“writer”);  2) consequence → cause: grey hair (“old age”);Metonymy 1) instrument → agent: pen (“writer”); 2) consequence → cause: grey hair (“old age”); 3) symbol →the thing symbolized (crown “monarchy”) 4) material → the thing made from it (silver “money”) 5) container → the thing contained (to drink a cup); 6) name of a place → institution (Whitehall); 7) action → the object of action (my love); 8) quality →the person possessing the quality (He is a talent).

Synechdoche  is a variety of metonymy which consists in using the name of a partSynechdoche is a variety of metonymy which consists in using the name of a part to denote the whole or vice versa: Hands are wanted; OE mete “food” →Mn. E meat “kind of food”.

Semantic change may result in the change of the range of meaning.  narrowing (specialization) ofSemantic change may result in the change of the range of meaning. narrowing (specialization) of meaning. OE fugol (“any bird”) → domestic bird (fowl) widening (generalization) of meaning. girl “a child of either sex → “a female child”.

The change of the connotational structure Degradation (pejoration) of meaning: the process when the object toThe change of the connotational structure Degradation (pejoration) of meaning: the process when the object to which the word refers acquires negative characteristics, and the meaning develops a negative evaluative connotation. OE word cnafa (Mn. E knave) “a boy” → a “boy servant” → “a swindler, a scoundrel”. Elevation (amelioration): the development of a positive evaluative connotation. OE cwen (Mn. E queen) “woman” cniht (Mn. E knight) – “a young servant”

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