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Семинар 6 Combinability. Word Groups
KEY TERMS
Syntagmatics — linear (simultaneous) relationship of words in speech as distinct from associative (non-simultaneous) relationship of words in language (paradigmatics). Syntagmatic relations specify the combination of elements into complex forms and sentences.
Distribution — The set of elements with which an item can cooccur
Combinability — the ability of linguistic elements to combine in speech.
Valency — the potential ability of words to occur with other words
Context — the semantically complete passage of written speech sufficient to establish the meaning of a given word (phrase).
Clichе´ — an overused expression that is considered trite, boring
Word combination — a combination of two or more notional words serving to express one concept. It is produced, not reproduced in speech.
Collocation — such a combination of words which conditions the realization of a certain meaning
TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND EXERCISES
1. Syntagmatic relations and the concept of combinability of words. Define combinability.
Syntagmatic relation defines the relationship between words that co-occur in the same sentence. It focuses on two main parts: how the position and the word order affect the meaning of a sentence.
The syntagmatic relation explains:
• The word position and order.
• The relationship between words gives a particular meaning to the sentence.
The syntagmatic relation can also explain why specific words are often paired together (collocations)
Syntagmatic relations are linear relations between words
The adjective yellow:
1. color: a yellow dress;
2. envious, suspicious: a yellow look;
3. corrupt: the yellow press
TYPES OF SEMANTIC RELATIONS
Because syntagmatic relations have to do with the relationship between words, the syntagms can result in collocations and idioms.
Collocations
Collocations are word combinations that frequently occur together.
Some examples of collocations:
- Verb + noun: do homework, take a risk, catch a cold.
- Noun + noun: office hours, interest group, kitchen cabinet.
- Adjective + adverb: good enough, close together, crystal clear.
- Verb + preposition: protect from, angry at, advantage of.
- Adverb + verb: strongly suggest, deeply sorry, highly successful.
- Adjective + noun: handsome man, quick shower, fast food.
Idioms
Idioms are expressions that have a meaning other than their literal one.
Idioms are distinct from collocations:
- The word combination is not interchangeable (fixed expressions).
- The meaning of each component is not equal to the meaning of the idiom
It is difficult to find the meaning of an idiom based on the definition of the words alone. For example, red herring. If you define the idiom word by word, it means ‘red fish’, not ‘something that misleads’, which is the real meaning.
Because of this, idioms can’t be translated to or from another language because the word definition isn’t equivalent to the idiom interpretation.
Some examples of popular idioms:
- Break a leg.
- Miss the boat.
- Call it a day.
- It’s raining cats and dogs.
- Kill two birds with one stone.
Combinability (occurrence-range) — the ability of linguistic elements to combine in speech.
The combinability of words is as a rule determined by their meanings, not their forms. Therefore not every sequence of words may be regarded as a combination of words.
In the sentence Frankly, father, I have been a fool neither frankly, father nor father, I … are combinations of words since their meanings are detached and do not unite them, which is marked orally by intonation and often graphically by punctuation marks.
On the other hand, some words may be inserted between the components of a word-combination without breaking it.
Compare,
a) read books
b) read many books
c) read very many books.
In case (a) the combination read books is uninterrupted.In cases (b) and (c) it is interrupted, or discontinuous(read… books).
The combinability of words depends on their lexical, grammatical and lexico-grammatical meanings. It is owing to the lexical meanings of the corresponding lexemes that the word wise can be combined with the words man, act, saying and is hardly combinable with the words milk, area, outline.
The lexico-grammatical meanings of -er in singer (a noun) and -ly in beautifully (an adverb) do not go together and prevent these words from forming a combination, whereas beautiful singer and sing beautifully are regular word-combinations.
The combination * students sings is impossible owing to the grammatical meanings of the corresponding grammemes.
Thus one may speak of lexical, grammatical and lexico-grammatical combinability, or the combinability of lexemes, grammemes and parts of speech.
The mechanism of combinability is very complicated. One has to take into consideration not only the combinability of homogeneous units, e. g. the words of one lexeme with those of another lexeme. A lexeme is often not combinable with a whole class of lexemes or with certain grammemes.
For instance, the lexeme few, fewer, fewest is not combinable with a class of nouns called uncountables, such as milk, information, hatred, etc., or with members of ‘singular’ grammemes (i. e. grammemes containing the meaning of ‘singularity’, such as book, table, man, boy, etc.).
The ‘possessive case’ grammemes are rarely combined with verbs, barring the gerund. Some words are regularly combined with sentences, others are not.
It is convenient to distinguish right-hand and left-hand connections. In the combination my hand (when written down) the word my has a right-hand connection with the word hand and the latter has a left-hand connection with the word my.
With analytical forms inside and outside connections are also possible. In the combination has often written the verb has an inside connection with the adverb and the latter has an outside connection with the verb.
It will also be expedient to distinguish unilateral, bilateral and multilateral connections. By way of illustration we may say that the articles in English have unilateral right-hand connections with nouns: a book, the child. Such linking words as prepositions, conjunctions, link-verbs, and modal verbs are characterized by bilateral connections: love of life, John and Mary, this is John, he must come. Most verbs may have zero
(Come!), unilateral (birds fly), bilateral (I saw him) and multilateral (Yesterday I saw him there) connections. In other words, the combinability of verbs is variable.
One should also distinguish direct and indirect connections. In the combination Look at John the connection between look and at, between at and John are direct, whereas the connection between look and John is indirect, through the preposition at.
2. Lexical and grammatical valency. Valency and collocability. Relationships between valency and collocability. Distribution.
The appearance of words in a certain syntagmatic succession with particular logical, semantic, morphological and syntactic relations is called collocability or valency.
Valency is viewed as an aptness or potential of a word to have relations with other words in language. Valency can be grammatical and lexical.
Collocability is an actual use of words in particular word-groups in communication.
The range of the Lexical valency of words is linguistically restricted by the inner structure of the English word-stock. Though the verbs ‘lift’ and ‘raise’ are synonyms, only ‘to raise’ is collocated with the noun ‘question’.
The lexical valency of correlated words in different languages is different, cf. English ‘pot plants’ vs. Russian ‘комнатные цветы’.
The interrelation of lexical valency and polysemy:
• the restrictions of lexical valency of words may manifest themselves in the lexical meanings of the polysemantic members of word-groups, e.g. heavy, adj. in the meaning ‘rich and difficult to digest’ is combined with the words food, meals, supper, etc., but one cannot say *heavy cheese or *heavy sausage;
• different meanings of a word may be described through its lexical valency, e.g. the different meanings of heavy, adj. may be described through the word-groups heavy weight / book / table; heavy snow / storm / rain; heavy drinker / eater; heavy sleep / disappointment / sorrow; heavy industry / tanks, and so on.
From this point of view word-groups may be regarded as the characteristic minimal lexical sets that operate as distinguishing clues for each of the multiple meanings of the word.
Grammatical valency is the aptness of a word to appear in specific grammatical (or rather syntactic) structures. Its range is delimited by the part of speech the word belongs to. This is not to imply that grammatical valency of words belonging to the same part of speech is necessarily identical, e.g.:
• the verbs suggest and propose can be followed by a noun (to propose or suggest a plan / a resolution); however, it is only propose that can be followed by the infinitive of a verb (to propose to do smth.);
• the adjectives clever and intelligent are seen to possess different grammatical valency as clever can be used in word-groups having the pattern: Adj. + Prep. at +Noun(clever at mathematics), whereas intelligent can never be found in exactly the same word-group pattern.
• The individual meanings of a polysemantic word may be described through its grammatical valency, e.g. keen + Nas in keen sight ‘sharp’; keen + on + Nas in keen on sports ‘fond of’; keen + V(inf)as in keen to know ‘eager’.
Lexical context determines lexically bound meaning; collocations with the polysemantic words are of primary importance, e.g. a dramatic change / increase / fall / improvement; dramatic events / scenery; dramatic society; a dramatic gesture.
In grammatical context the grammatical (syntactic) structure of the context serves to determine the meanings of a polysemantic word, e.g. 1) She will make a good teacher. 2) She will make some tea. 3) She will make him obey.
Distribution is understood as the whole complex of contexts in which the given lexical unit(word) can be used. Есть даже словари, по которым можно найти валентные слова для нужного нам слова — так и называются дистрибьюшн дикшенери
3. What is a word combination? Types of word combinations. Classifications of word-groups.
Word combination — a combination of two or more notional words serving to express one concept. It is produced, not reproduced in speech.
Types of word combinations:
- Semantically:
- free word groups (collocations) — a year ago, a girl of beauty, take lessons;
- set expressions (at last, point of view, take part).
- Morphologically (L.S. Barkhudarov):
- noun word combinations, e.g.: nice apples (BBC London Course);
- verb word combinations, e.g.: saw him (E. Blyton);
- adjective word combinations, e.g.: perfectly delightful (O. Wilde);
- adverb word combinations, e.g.: perfectly well (O, Wilde);
- pronoun word combinations, e.g.: something nice (BBC London Course).
- According to the number of the components:
- simple — the head and an adjunct, e.g.: told me (A. Ayckbourn)
- Complex, e.g.: terribly cold weather (O. Jespersen), where the adjunct cold is expanded by means of terribly.
Classifications of word-groups:
- through the order and arrangement of the components:
• a verbal — nominal group (to sew a dress);
• a verbal — prepositional — nominal group (look at something);
- by the criterion of distribution, which is the sum of contexts of the language unit usage:
• endocentric, i.e. having one central member functionally equivalent to the whole word-group (blue sky);
• exocentric, i.e. having no central member (become older, side by side);
- according to the headword:
• nominal (beautiful garden);
• verbal (to fly high);
• adjectival (lucky from birth);
- according to the syntactic pattern:
• predicative (Russian linguists do not consider them to be word-groups);
• non-predicative — according to the type of syntactic relations between the components:
(a) subordinative (modern technology);
(b) coordinative (husband and wife).
4. What is “a free word combination”? To what extent is what we call a free word combination actually free? What are the restrictions imposed on it?
A free word combination is a combination in which any element can be substituted by another.
The general meaning of an ordinary free word combination is derived from the conjoined meanings of its elements
Ex. To come to one’s sense –to change one’s mind;
To fall into a rage – to get angry.
Free word-combinations are word-groups that have a greater semantic and structural independence and freely composed by the speaker in his speech according to his purpose.
A free word combination or a free phrase permits substitution of any of its elements without any semantic change in the other components.
5. Clichе´s (traditional word combinations).
A cliché is an expression that is trite, worn-out, and overused. As a result, clichés have lost their original vitality, freshness, and significance in expressing meaning. A cliché is a phrase or idea that has become a “universal” device to describe abstract concepts such as time (Better Late Than Never), anger (madder than a wet hen), love (love is blind), and even hope (Tomorrow is Another Day). However, such expressions are too commonplace and unoriginal to leave any significant impression.
Of course, any expression that has become a cliché was original and innovative at one time. However, overuse of such an expression results in a loss of novelty, significance, and even original meaning. For example, the proverbial phrase “when it rains it pours” indicates the idea that difficult or inconvenient circumstances closely follow each other or take place all at the same time. This phrase originally referred to a weather pattern in which a dry spell would be followed by heavy, prolonged rain. However, the original meaning is distanced from the overuse of the phrase, making it a cliché.
Some common examples of cliché in everyday speech:
- My dog is dumb as a doorknob. (тупой как пробка)
- The laundry came out as fresh as a daisy.
- If you hide the toy it will be out of sight, out of mind. (с глаз долой, из сердца вон)
Examples of Movie Lines that Have Become Cliché:
- Luke, I am your father. (Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back)
- i am Groot. (Guardians of the Galaxy)
- I’ll be back. (The Terminator)
- Houston, we have a problem. (Apollo 13)
Some famous examples of cliché in creative writing:
- It was a dark and stormy night
- Once upon a time
- There I was
- All’s well that ends well
- They lived happily ever after
6. The sociolinguistic aspect of word combinations.
Lexical valency is the possibility of lexicosemantic connections of a word with other word
Some researchers suggested that the functioning of a word in speech is determined by the environment in which it occurs, by its grammatical peculiarities (part of speech it belongs to, categories, functions in the sentence, etc.), and by the type and character of meaning included into the semantic structure of a word.
Words are used in certain lexical contexts, i.e. in combinations with other words. The words that surround a particular word in a sentence or paragraph are called the verbal context of that word.
7. Norms of lexical valency and collocability in different languages.
The aptness of a word to appear in various combinations is described as its lexical valency or collocability. The lexical valency of correlated words in different languages is not identical. This is only natural since every language has its syntagmatic norms and patterns of lexical valency. Words, habitually collocated, tend to constitute a cliché, e.g. bad mistake, high hopes, heavy sea (rain, snow), etc. The translator is obliged to seek similar cliches, traditional collocations in the target-language: грубая ошибка, большие надежды, бурное море, сильный дождь /снег/.
The key word in such collocations is usually preserved but the collocated one is rendered by a word of a somewhat different referential meaning in accordance with the valency norms of the target-language:
- trains run — поезда ходят;
- a fly stands on the ceiling — на потолке сидит муха;
- It was the worst earthquake on the African continent (D.W.) — Это было самое сильное землетрясение в Африке.
- Labour Party pretest followed sharply on the Tory deal with Spain (M.S.1973) — За сообщением о сделке консервативного правительства с Испанией немедленно последовал протест лейбористской партии.
Different collocability often calls for lexical and grammatical transformations in translation though each component of the collocation may have its equivalent in Russian, e.g. the collocation «the most controversial Prime Minister» cannot be translated as «самый противоречивый премьер-министр».
«Britain will tomorrow be welcoming on an official visit one of the most controversial and youngest Prime Ministers in Europe» (The Times, 1970). «Завтра в Англию прибывает с официальным визитом один из самых молодых премьер-министров Европы, который вызывает самые противоречивые мнения».
«Sweden’s neutral faith ought not to be in doubt» (Ib.) «Верность Швеции нейтралитету не подлежит сомнению».
The collocation «documentary bombshell» is rather uncommon and individual, but evidently it does not violate English collocational patterns, while the corresponding Russian collocation — документальная бомба — impossible. Therefore its translation requires a number of transformations:
«A teacher who leaves a documentary bombshell lying around by negligence is as culpable as the top civil servant who leaves his classified secrets in a taxi» (The Daily Mirror, 1950) «Преподаватель, по небрежности оставивший на столе бумаги, которые могут вызвать большой скандал, не менее виновен, чем ответственный государственный служащий, забывший секретные документы в такси».
8. Using the data of various dictionaries compare the grammatical valency of the words worth and worthy; ensure, insure, assure; observance and observation; go and walk; influence and влияние; hold and держать.
| Worth & Worthy | |
| Worth is used to say that something has a value:
• Something that is worth a certain amount of money has that value; • Something that is worth doing or worth an effort, a visit, etc. is so attractive or rewarding that the effort etc. should be made. Valency:
|
Worthy:
• If someone or something is worthv of something, they deserve it because they have the qualities required; • If you say that a person is worthy of another person you are saying that you approve of them as a partner for that person. Valency:
|
| Ensure, insure, assure | ||
| Ensure means ‘make certain that something happens’.
Valency:
|
Insure — make sure
Valency:
|
Assure:
• to tell someone confidently that something is true, especially so that they do not worry; • to cause something to be certain. Valency:
|
| Observance & Observation | |
| Observance:
• the act of obeying a law or following a religious custom: religious observances such as fasting • a ceremony or action to celebrate a holiday or a religious or other important event: [ C ] Memorial Day observances [ U ] Financial markets will be closed Monday in observance of Labor Day. |
Observation:
• the act of observing something or someone; • the fact that you notice or see something; • a remark about something that you have noticed. Valency:
|
| Go & Walk | |
|
Walk can mean ‘move along on foot’:
• A person can walk an animal, i.e. exercise them by walking. • A person can walk another person somewhere , i.e. take them there, • A person can walk a particular distance or walk the streets. Valency:
|
| Influence & Влияние | |
| Influence:
• A person can have influence (a) over another person or a group, i.e. be able to directly guide the way they behave, (b) with a person, i.e. be able to influence them because they know them well. • Someone or something can have or be an influence on or upon something or someone, i.e. be able to affect their character or behaviour in some way Valency:
|
Влияние — Действие, оказываемое кем-, чем-либо на кого-, что-либо.
Сочетаемость:
|
| Hold & Держать | |
| Hold:
• to take and keep something in your hand or arms; • to support something; • to contain or be able to contain something; • to keep someone in a place so that they cannot leave. Valency:
|
Держать — взять в руки/рот/зубы и т.д. и не давать выпасть
Сочетаемость:
|
- Contrastive Analysis. Give words of the same root in Russian; compare their valency:
| Chance | Шанс |
|
|
| Situation | Ситуация |
|
|
| Partner | Партнёр |
|
|
| Surprise | Сюрприз |
|
|
| Risk | Риск |
|
|
| Instruction | Инструкция |
|
|
| Satisfaction | Сатисфакция |
|
|
| Business | Бизнес |
|
|
| Manager | Менеджер |
|
|
| Challenge | Челлендж |
|
|
10. From the lexemes in brackets choose the correct one to go with each of the synonyms given below:
- acute, keen, sharp (knife, mind, sight):
• acute mind;
• keen sight;
• sharp knife;
- abysmal, deep, profound (ignorance, river, sleep);
• abysmal ignorance;
• deep river;
• profound sleep;
- unconditional, unqualified (success, surrender):
• unconditional surrender;
• unqualified success;
- diminutive, miniature, petite, petty, small, tiny (camera, house, speck, spite, suffix, woman):
• diminutive suffix;
• miniature camera/house;
• petite woman;
• petty spite;
• small speck/camera/house;
• tiny house/camera/speck;
- brisk, nimble, quick, swift (mind, revenge, train, walk):
• brisk walk;
• nimble mind;
• quick train;
• swift revenge.
11. Collocate deletion: One word in each group does not make a strong word partnership with the word on Capitals. Which one is Odd One Out?
1) BRIGHT idea green
smell
child day room
2) CLEAR
attitude
need instruction alternative day conscience
3) LIGHT traffic
work
day entertainment suitcase rain green lunch
4) NEW experience job
food
potatoes baby situation year
5) HIGH season price opinion spirits
house
time priority
6) MAIN point reason effect entrance
speed
road meal course
7) STRONG possibility doubt smell influence
views
coffee language
SERIOUS
advantage
situation relationship illness crime matter
- Write a short definition based on the clues you find in context for the italicized words in the sentence. Check your definitions with the dictionary.
| Sentence | Meaning |
| The method of reasoning from the particular to the general — the inductive method — has played an important role in science since the time of Francis Bacon. | The way of learning or investigating from the particular to the general that played an important role in the time of Francis Bacon |
| Most snakes are meat eaters, or carnivores. | Animals whose main diet is meat |
| A person on a reducing diet is expected to eschew most fatty or greasy foods. | deliberately avoid |
| After a hectic year in the city, he was glad to return to the peace and quiet of the country. | full of incessant or frantic activity. |
| Darius was speaking so quickly and waving his arms around so wildly, it was impossible to comprehend what he was trying to say. | grasp mentally; understand.to perceive |
| The babysitter tried rocking, feeding, chanting, and burping the crying baby, but nothing would appease him. | to calm down someone |
| It behooves young ladies and gentlemen not to use bad language unless they are very, very angry. | necessary |
| The Academy Award is an honor coveted by most Hollywood actors. | The dream about some achievements |
| In the George Orwell book 1984, the people’s lives are ruled by an omnipotent dictator named “Big Brother.” | The person who have a lot of power |
| After a good deal of coaxing, the father finally acceded to his children’s request. | to Agree with some request |
| He is devoid of human feelings. | Someone have the lack of something |
| This year, my garden yielded several baskets full of tomatoes. | produce or provide |
| It is important for a teacher to develop a rapport with his or her students. | good relationship |
Wordsmyth’s Word Combinations, technically known as “collocations,” provide what is almost like a thesaurus in another dimension. You will find them in most entries in the Advanced Dictionary. Instead of listing synonyms, that is, words you might use instead of the word you are using, Word Combinations provide words to use with the word you are using. In other words, they help you start building a bigger chunk of a sentence.
Compare the thesaurus’s “similar words” for the verb “laugh”:
cackle, chortle, chuckle, giggle, guffaw, howl, snicker, snigger, tee-hee, titter…
…with the Word Combination adverbs for the verb “laugh”:
The similar words allow you to choose from among words for more specific kinds of laugh: from a quiet titter to a hearty guffaw. The Word Combinations allow you to choose from among adverbs that writers frequently use to modify the verb “laugh.” “Ashley laughed uneasily at the cruel joke,” you might write. Or, “Ashley laughed good-naturedly when her error was pointed out.” (Ashley’s a likable person, evidently.)
Word Combinations are the most frequent companions of the headword in published writing and broadcast speech. Thus, they represent the many ways in which the headword-concept is typically talked about and the words typically used to talk about them.
In the entries, word combinations are organized by part of speech combination. Take, for example, the word “election.” The word combinations for the noun “election” fall into four kinds:
adjective + (n.) election
verb + (n.) election
(n.) election + verb
noun + (n.) election
These formulas show you the kind of word (part of speech) and the position (before or after “election”) in which it appears in the corpus of texts. Notice that “election” has some verbs that appear before it and some that appear after it. Here are the full word combinations entries, with some comments in red:
adjective + (n.)election coming, competitive, congressional, contested, democratic, direct, disputed, fair, federal, forthcoming, fraudulent, free, general, gubernatorial, judicial, legislative, local, mayoral, mid-term, multi-party, multiracial, municipal, nationwide, nonpartisan, off-year, parliamentary, periodic, presidential, primary, provincial, scheduled, statewide, transitional, upcoming
verb + (n.)election boycott, cancel, certify, contest, delay, disrupt, influence, hold, monitor, oversee, overturn, postpone, precede, rig, schedule, steal, supervise (These verbs that frequently have the word “election” as their object will give you a glimpse at all the things we can do to an election. )
(n.)election + verb loom, near
(Which of these two verbs would you choose to talk about a coming election? It really depends how you feel about it.)
noun + (n.)election ballot, boycott, candidate, eve, fall, financing, landslide, legitimacy, midterm, month, outcome, poll, primary, recall, registration, round, run-up, runoff, turnout, vote, voting
If you have read through these words, you may have noticed that some make sense when placed immediately before or after the headword “election”: “a fair election,” “postponed the election,” and “a fall [i.e., autumn] election.” True, you have to insert an article, “the” between “postpone” and “election,” but generally these are recognizable phrases that make sense.
Others, especially in the noun+noun category, don’t seem like a chunk of a sentence: “legitimacy election” and “voting election,” for example. Often a preposition will need to be inserted between the words: “the legitimacy of the election,” “voting in this election” are some possible ways the word combinations will work in these cases.
If you don’t know how to fit the two words together, a Google search on the two words will often return a number of similar examples of how they do.
You can try this little exercise to get a feel for how to fill out a word combination:
Complete these common noun + noun word combinations with the correct prepositions and articles.
1. the eve ____ ____ election
2. the outcome ____ ____ election
3. the turnout ____ ____ election
Word Combinations is a subscription feature, but you can try it by signing up for a 15-day free Trial Subscription, no strings attached. (There is a Trial Subscription button on most pages of the Wordsmyth website.) We also include Word Combinations with many Academic Vocabulary of the Day posts.
Read more about collocations here.
The
vocabulary of a language includes not only words but also stable word
combinations which also serve as a means of expressing concepts. They
are phraseological word equivalents reproduced in speech the way
words are reproduced and not created anew in actual speech.
An
ordinary word combination is created according to the grammatical
rules of the language in accordance with a certain idea. The general
meaning of an ordinary free word combination is derived from the
conjoined meanings of its elements. Every notional word functions
here as a certain member of the sentence. Thus, an ordinary word
combination is a syntactical pattern.
A
free word combination is a combination in which any element can be
substituted by another.
e.g.:
I
like this idea. I dislike this idea. He likes the idea. I like that
idea. I like this thought.
But
when we use the term free we are not precise. The freedom of a word
in a combination with others is relative as it is not only the
syntactical pattern that matters. There are logical limitations too.
The
second group of word combinations is semi-free word combinations.
They are the combinations in which the substitution is possible but
limited.
e.g.:
to
cut a poor/funny/strange figure.
Non-free
word combinations are those in which the substitution is impossible.
e.g.:
to
come clean, to be in low water.
2. Classifications of Phraseological Units
A
major stimulus to intensive studies of phraseology was prof.
Vinogradov’s research. The classification suggested by him has been
widely adopted by linguists working on other languages. The
classification of phraseological units suggested by V.V.
Vinogradov
includes:
—
standardised word combinations, i.e. phrases characterised by the
limited combinative power of their components, which retain their
semantic independence: to
meet the request/requirement,
подавати надію, страх бере, зачепити
гордість, покласти край;
—
phraseological unities, i.e. phrases in which the meaning of the
whole is not the sum of meanings of the components but it is based on
them and the motivation is apparent: to
stand to one’s guns,
передати куті меду, прикусити язика,
вивести на чисту воду, тримати камінь
за пазухою;
—
fusions, i.e. phrases in which the meaning cannot be derived as a
whole from the conjoined meanings of its components:
tit
for tat,
теревені правити, піймати облизня,
викинути коника, у Сірка очі позичити.
Phraseological
unities are very often metaphoric. The components of such unities are
not semantically independent, the meaning of every component is
subordinated to the figurative meaning of the phraseological unity as
a whole. The latter may have a homonymous expression — a free
syntactical word combination.
e.g.:
Nick
is a musician. He plays the first fiddle.
It
is his wife who plays the first fiddle in the house.
Phraseological
unities may vary in their semantic and grammatical structure. Not all
of them are figurative. Here we can find professionalisms, coupled
synonyms.
A.V.
Koonin
finds it necessary to divide English phraseological unities into
figurative and non-figurative.
Figurative
unities are often related to analogous expressions with direct
meaning in the very same way in which a word used in its transferred
sense is related to the same word used in its direct meaning.
Scientific
English, technical vocabulary, the vocabulary of arts and sports have
given many expressions of this kind: in
full blast; to hit below the belt; to spike smb’s guns.
Among
phraseological unities we find many verb-adverb combinations: to
look for; to look after; to put down; to give in.
Phraseological
fusions are the most synthetical of all the phraseological groups.
They seem to be completely unmotivated though their motivation can be
unearthed by means of historic analysis.
They
fall under the following groups:
Idiomatic
expressions which are associated with some obsolete customs: the
grey mare, to rob Peter to pay Paul.
Idiomatic
expressions which go back to some long forgotten historical facts
they were based on: to bell the cat, Damocles’ sword.
Idiomatic
expressions expressively individual in their character: My
God! My eye!
Idiomatic
expressions containing archaic elements: by
dint of (dint – blow); in fine (fine – end).
Semantic
Classification of Phraseological Units
1.
Phraseological units referring to the same notion.
e.g.:
Hard
work — to burn the midnight oil; to do back-breaking work; to hit the
books; to keep one’s nose to the grindstone; to work like a dog; to
work one’s fingers to the bone.
Compromise
– to find middle ground; to go halfway.
Independence
– to be on one’s own; to have a mind of one’s own; to stand on
one’s own two feet.
Experience
– to be an old hand at something; to know something like the back
of one’s palm; to know the rope.Ледарювати
– байдики бити, ханьки м’яти, ганяти
вітер по вулицях, тинятися з кутка в
куток, і за холодну воду не братися.
2.
Professionalisms
e.g.:
on
the rocks; to stick to one’s guns; breakers ahead. 3.
Phraseological units having similar components
e.g.:
a
dog in the manger; dog days; to agree like cat and dog; to rain cats
and dogs. To fall on deaf ears; to talk somebody’s ear off; to have
a good ear for; to be all ears. To see red; a red herring; a red
carpet treatment; to be in the red;
з перших рук; як без рук; горить у руках;
не давати волі рукам.
4.
Phraseological units referring to the same lexico-semantic field.
e.g.:
Body
parts – to cost an arm and leg; to pick somebody’s brain; to get
one’s feet wet; to get off the chest; to rub elbows with; not to
have a leg to stand on; to stick one’s neck out; to be nosey; to
make a headway; to knuckle down; to shake a leg; to pay through the
noser; to tip toe around; to mouth off;
без клепки в голові; серце з перцем;
легка рука.
Fruits
and vegetables –
red as a beet; a couch potato; a hot potato; a real peach; as cool as
a cucumber; a top banana;гриби
після дощу; як горох при дорозі; як
виросте гарбуз на вербі.
Animals
– sly
as a fox; to be a bull in a china shop; to go ape; to be a lucky dog;
to play cat and mouse;
як з гуски вода, як баран на нові ворота;
у свинячий голос; гнатися за двома
зайцями.
Structural
Classification of Phraseological Units
Еnglish
phraseological units can function like verbs (to
drop a brick; to drop a line; to go halves; to go shares; to travel
bodkin),
phraseological units functioning like nouns (brains
trust, ladies’ man,
phraseological units functioning like adjectives (high
and dry,
high
and low,ill at ease,
phraseological units functioning like adverbs (tooth
and nail, on
guard;
by heart,
phraseological units functioning like prepositions (in
order to; by virtue
of),
phraseological units functioning like interjections (Good
heavens! Gracious me! Great Scot!).
Ukrainian
phraseological
units
can
function
like
nouns
(наріжний
камінь, біла ворона, лебедина пісня),
adjectives
(
не з полохливого десятка, не остання
спиця в
колесі,
білими нитками шитий),
verbs
(
мотати на вус, товкти воду в ступі,
ускочити
в
халепу),
adverbs
(
не чуючи землі під ногами, кров холоне
в жилах, ні в зуб ногою), interjections
(цур тобі, ні пуху ні пера, хай йому
грець).
Another
structural classification was initiated by A.V. Koonin. He singles
out Nominative, Nominative and Nominative-Communicative,
Interjective, Communicative phraseological units.
Nominative
phraseological units are of several types. It depends on the type of
dependence. The first one is phraseological units with constant
dependence of the elements.
e.g.:
the
Black Maria; the ace of trumps; a spark in the powder magazine.
The
second type is represented by the phraseological units with the
constant variant dependence of the elements.
e.g.:
dead
marines/men; a blind pig/tiger; a good/great deal.
There
also exist phraseological units with grammar variants.
e.g.:
Procrustes’
bed = the Procrustean bed = the bed of Procrustes.
Another
type of the Nominative phraseological units is units with
quantitative variants. They are formed with the help of the reduction
or adding the elements.
e.g.:
the
voice of one crying in the wilderness = a voice crying out in the
wilderness= a voice crying in the wilderness = a voice in the
wilderness.
The
next type of the Nominative phraseological units is adjectival
phraseological units.
e.g.:
mad
as a hatter; swift as thought; as like as two peas; fit as a fiddle.
The
function of the adverbial phraseological units is that of an
adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances.
e.g.:
as
cool as a cucumber; from one’s cradle to one’s grave; from pillar
to post; once in a blue moon.
Nominative
and Nominative-Communicative phraseological units are of several
types as well. The first type is verbal phraseological units. Verbal
phraseological units refer to this type in such cases: a) when the
verb is not used in the Passive voice (
to drink
like
a fish; to buy a pig in a poke; to close one’s eyes on something
; b) if the verb is not used in the Active voice (to
be reduced to a shadow; to be gathered to one’s fathers).
Nominative
and Nominative-Communicative phraseological units can have lexical
variants.
e.g.:
to
tread/walk on air; to close/shut books; to draw a red herring across
the trail/track; to come to a fine/handsome/nice/pretty pass; to sail
close/near to the wind; to crook/lift the elbow/the little finger.
Grammar
variants are also possible.
e.g.:
to
get into deep water = to get into deep waters; to pay nature’s debt
= to pay the debt of nature.
Examples
of quantitative variants can also be found: to
cut the Gordian knot = to cut the knot; to lead somebody a dance = to
lead somebody a pretty dance.
Lexico-grammar
variants are also possible: to
close/shut a /the door/doors on/upon/to somebody.
Interjective
phraseological units are represented by: by
George! By Jove! Good heavens! Gracious me!
Communicative
phraseological units are represented by proverbs and sayings.
e.g.:
Rome
was not built in a day. An apple a day keeps a doctor away. That’s
another pair of shoes. More power to your elbow. Carry me out.
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Word combinations in Modern English Lexicology of the English language
�A Word combination (phrase ) is a non-predicative unit of speech which is, semantically, both global and articulated. 1. Word combination
�In grammar, it is seen as a group of words that functions as a single unit in the syntax of a sentence. It is an intermediate unit between a word and a sentence. �The main function of a word combination is polinomination (it describes an object, phenomenon or action and its attributes and properties at the same time). 2.
� There are two types of word combinations (also known as set-expressions, set-phrases, fixed word-groups, etc): � Free word combinations in which each component may enter different combinations � Set (phraseological) combinations consist of elements which are used only in combination with one another 3.
�Differences between free and set word combinations: SEMANTIC CRITERION �The meaning in phraseological units has partially or fully shifted. The words have a transferred (metaphorical or metonymical) meaning. �cf: a wolf in sheep’s clothing – a man in cheap clothing 4.
STRUCTURAL CRITERION. � Phraseological units are characterized by stability of components: � It is impossible to change the components of a phraseological unit; e. g. to have a bee in the bonnet (hat) � It is impossible to add new components; � It is impossible to change grammatical form of components, even if their form violates grammar rules: e. g. at (the) first sight, from head to foot (feet), to find faults with � However the degree of stability varies: a skeleton/skeletons in the cupboard, a (big) white elephant. � Other features ensuring stability are rhythm, alliteration, contrast, repetition, simile etc. � e. g. on and on, safe and sound, as busy as a bee � Free 5. word combinations allow any changes.
Classifications of phraseological units � According to thematic (etymological) classification, idioms are classified according to their sources of origin. ◦ E. g. Word-groups associated with the sea and the life of seamen are especially numerous in English vocabulary. Thus there may be singled out a group of “marine” phraseological units. � To be all at sea — to be unable to understand; to be in a state of ignorance or bewilderment about something (e. g. How can I be a judge in a situation in which I am all at sea? I’m afraid I’m all at sea in this problem � To sink or swim — to fail or succeed (e. g. It is a case of sink or swim. All depends on his own effort. ) � In deep water — in trouble or danger. � In low water, on the rocks — in strained financial circumstances. 6.
Semantic classification � describes word combinations from the viewpoint of the shift in meaning of words: � Phraseological fusions (idioms) are most idiomatic, the meaning of both words is fully transferred. � e. g. tit for tat, to skate on thin ice � Phraseological unities are motivated semantically, based on imagination. Usually one of the components has retained its meaning. � e. g. to fall ill, to fall in love, small talk � Phraseological combinations are less idiomatic, most motivated � e. g. as dead as mutton 7.
Structural classification takes into consideration the fact that phraseologisms are, in fact, equivalents of words. Phraseological units can perform the same functions as words. So, set expressions are classified according to their function. � Verbal : to run for one’s life, to get the upper hand � Substantive: dog’s life, red tape � Adjectival: high and mighty, safe and sound � Adverbial: high and low � Equivalents of auxiliary parts of speech: by way of, as long as, Good God! � Stereotyped sentences: take your time! 8.
Stylistic classification �Set expressions, as well as words, may be stylistically neutral and stylistically marked. �e. g. it’s raining cats and dogs (bookish) �to do smb. brown (colloquial) 9.
Notions related to set expressions �A simile is a figure of speech that directly compares two different things, usually by employing the words «like» , «as» , or «than» . �Even though both similes and metaphors are forms of comparison, similes indirectly compare the two ideas and allow them to remain distinct in spite of their similarities, whereas metaphors compare two things directly. �e. g. as alike as two peas in a pod (identical or nearly so) �as blind as a bat (completely blind) 10.
�A cliché is a stereotyped expression mechanically reproduced in speech, very often overused to the point of losing its intended force or novelty. �e. g. Love is blind. ◦ Put two and two together. 11.
�A proverb is a simple and concrete saying popularly known and repeated, which expresses a truth, based on common sense or the practical experience of mankind. They are often metaphorical. A proverb that describes a basic rule of conduct may also be known as a maxim. �If a proverb is distinguished by particularly good phrasing, it may be known as an aphorism. 12.
�A collocation is sequence of words or terms which co-occur more often than would be expected by chance. e. g. �time flies �Times passes �the appointed time �Present time �Right time �Wrong time �Opening time �Closing time 13.
�A phrasal verb is a phrase (as take off or look down on) that combines a verb with a preposition or adverb or both and that functions as a verb whose meaning is different from the combined meanings of the individual words. 14.
Translation Tips � Free word combinations and collocations are usually translated by calque (word-for-word). However, translating attributive word groups is challenging, because one and the same attributive word may be translated differently depending on the meaning of the defined head word. � E. g. public opinion – общественное мнение, jamoatchilik fikri � Public debt – государственный долг, davlat qarzlari � Public scandal – публичный скандал, ommaviy janajal � Sometimes more complicated transformations are needed: � E. g. working expectancy – ожидаемая продолжительность трудовой деятельности, ishchini kutilayotgan ishlash muddati 15.
� Phraseological unities are usually translated by one word or equivalent combinations: � e. g. to take a chance – рисковать, imkoniyat berish � To take offence – обидеться, arazlamoq � To put an end to – положить конец, преодолеть, tugatish � To take into account – принимать во внимание, e’tiborga olish � Phraseological fusions (idioms) are translated by their equivalents or analogues or description. e. g. � whip-and-carrot policy – политика кнута и пряника, qamchi va sabzi siyosati (equivalent) � To beat about the bush – ходить вокруг да около, butani o’rab olish (analogue) � Carbon footprint — негативные экологические последствия какой-либо деятельности, faoliyatni salbiy ekologik natijalari (decription) 16.
Origin of set expressions � One of the words becomes archaic: kith and kin of the meanings of a word becomes archaic: to be in two minds � An expression may pass from professional use into common use: to hit below the belt (from boxing) � Part of a proverb may become isolated: the last straw (that was the last straw which broke the camel’s neck) � Literary sources: a Troyan horse; to be or not to be � Translation borrowings: to kill two birds with one stone (calque translation from French) � 17.
� � � � � What do we call word combinations in which the components retain their main meaning, and can freely enter different combinations? What do we call word combinations in which the components typically have shifted meaning and are not freely chosen? What do we call a figure of speech that directly compares two different things, usually by employing the words «like» , «as» , or «than» ? What do we call a trite or overused phrase or expression? What is a simple and concrete saying popularly known and repeated, which expresses a truth, based on common sense or the practical experience of mankind? What do we call a familiar grouping of words that habitually appear together and thereby convey meaning by association? Which of the following underlined word combinations with the word “stand” is free and which one is fixed? a) The British government would not stand in the way of such a proposal. b) She was standing beside my bed staring down at me. 18. CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
� Which of the following word combinations in bold are set phrases? 1) Where do you think you lost your purse? 2) Don’t lose your temper when you talk to her. 3) Have a look at the reverse side of the coat. 4) The reverse side of the medal is that we’ll have to do it ourselves. 5) Keep the butter in the refrigerator. 6) Keep an eye on the child. 19. Case study
� � � 1) lost your purse — it is a free word combination, as it allows any combinations without change of the basic (denotative) meaning of words, e. g. lost you bag, found your purse etc. 2) lose your temper – it is a set (phraseological) word combination, as the meaning of the word ‘lose’ in this combination is not direct but figurative (= to become angry). 3) reverse side of the coat — it is a free word combination, as it allows any combinations without change of the basic (denotative) meaning of words, e. g. reverse side of the dress 4) reverse side of the medal — it is a set (phraseological) word combination, as the meaning of the words in this combination is not direct but figurative (= other side of the matter) 5) Keep the butter — it is a free word combination, as it allows any combinations without change of the basic (denotative) meaning of words, e. g. keep the cheese in the refrigerator etc. 6) Keep an eye — it is a set (phraseological) word combination, as the meaning of the words in this combination is not direct but figurative (= to watch closely or carefully) 20. Key
ONE NINE TWO THREE FOUR(S) FIVE SIX(ES)S EVEN(S) TEN 1) 2) She crawled on all _____ to the window = on her knees, feet and hands. He is at _____ and _____ = He is confused and doesn’t know what to do. 3) He puts _____ and _____ together. = He begins to draw conclusions about something 4) He looks out for number _____ = He only thinks about his interests. 5) «the _____ R’s. » = The basics of education 6) He has a _____ o’clock shadow. = A man hasn’t shaved for a day or two 7) Things that are very cheap and common are _____ a penny. This four bedroom home, located in Country Club Estates, is completed and ready to move in. This home has «the whole _____ yards» in convenience. ’ (=all of it) 21. Fill in the blanks with proper numerals to make an idiom with the specified meaning.
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) fours sixes and sevens two and two one three five ten nine 22. Key
As already mentioned, only those combinations of words (or single words) which convey communication are sentences – the object of syntax. All other combinations of words regularly formed in the process of speech are the object of morphology as well as single words. Like separate words they name things, phenomena, actions, qualities, etc., but in a complex way, for example: manners and table manners, blue and dark blue, speak and speak loudly. Like separate words they serve as a building material for sentences.
The combinability of words is as a rule determined by their meanings, not their forms. Therefore not every sequence of words may be regarded as a combination of words. In the sentence Frankly, my friend, I have told you the truth neither Frankly, my friend nor friend, I … are combinations of words since their meanings are detached and do not unite them.
On the other hand, some words may be inserted between the components of a word combination without breaking it. Compare:
a) read books; b) read many books; c) read very many books.
In case (a) the combination read books is uninterrupted. In cases (b) and (c) it is interrupted, or discontinuous (read … books).
The combinability of words depends on their lexical, grammatical and lexico-grammatical meanings. It is owing to lexical meanings of the corresponding lexemes that the word hot can be combined with the words water, temper, news, dog and is hardly combinable with the words ice, square, information, cat.
The lexico-grammatical meanings of -er in runner (a noun) and -ly in quickly (an adverb) do not go together and prevent these words from forming a combination, whereas quick runner and run quickly are regular word combinations.
The combination * students writes is impossible owing to the grammatical meanings of the corresponding grammemes (Remark: with “*” we mark grammatically incorrect word-combinations or sentences).
Thus one may speak of lexical, grammatical and lexico-grammatical combinability, or the combinability of lexemes, grammemes and parts of speech.
Each word belonging to a certain part of speech is characterized by valency (валентність) or, in other words, the combinability of lexical units. For example, in the sentence I tell you a joke the verb tell is two valent, and in the sentence I will tell you a joke about a Scotchman – three valent. We can also say that modal verbs are valent for infinitives and not valent for gerunds, e.g. I can’t sing; nouns are valent for an article, e.g. a (the) table, that is modal verbs are combined with infinitives not gerunds, and nouns are practically the only part of speech that can be combined with articles.
It is convenient to distinguish right-hand and left-hand connections or combinability. In the combination my friend the word my has a right-hand connection with the word friend and the latter has a left-hand connection with the word my.
With analytical forms inside and outside connections are also possible. In the combination has already done the verb has an inside connection with the adverb and the latter has an outside connection with the verb.
It will also be expedient to distinguish unilateral, bilateral and multilateral combinability (одностороння, двостороння та багатостороння сполучуваність). For instance, we may say that the articles in English have unilateral right-hand connections with nouns: a book, the boy. Such linking words as prepositions, conjunctions, link verbs and modal verbs are characterized by bilateral combinability: book of John, John and Marry, this is John, the boy must leave. Most verbs may have:
– zero (Go!),
– unilateral (boys jump),
– bilateral (I did it),
– and multilateral (Yesterday I saw him there) connections. In other words, the combinability of verbs is variable.
One should also distinguish direct and indirect connections. In the combination Look at him the connection between look and at, between at and him are direct, whereas the connection between look and him is indirect, though the preposition at [24; 28–31].
5. The notions of grammatical opposition
and grammatical category
There is essential difference in the way lexical and grammatical meanings exist in the language and occur in speech. Lexical meanings can be found in a bunch only in a dictionary or in a memory of a man, or, scientifically, in the lexical system of a language. In actual speech a lexical morpheme displays only one meaning of the bunch in each case, and that meaning is singled out by the context or the situation of speech (in grammar terms, syntagmatically). As mentioned already, words of the same lexeme convey different meanings in different surroundings.
The meanings of a grammatical morpheme always come together in the word. In accordance with their relative nature they can be singled out only relatively in contrast to the meanings of other grammatical morphemes (in grammar terms, paradigmatically).
Supposing we want to single out the meaning of “non-continuous aspect” in the word runs. We have then to find another word which has all the meanings of the word runs except that of “non-continuous aspect”. The only word that meets these requirements is the analytical word is running. Run and is running belong to the same lexeme and their lexical meanings are identical. As to the grammatical meanings the two words do not differ in tense (“present”), number (“singular”), person (“third”), mood (“indicative”), etc. They differ only in aspect. The word runs has the meaning of “non-continuous aspect” and is running – that of “continuous aspect”.
When opposed, the two words, runs and is running, form a particular language unit. All their meanings but those of aspects counterbalance one another and do not count. Only the two particular meanings of “non-continuous” and “continuous” aspect united by the general meaning of “aspect” are revealed in this opposition or opposeme. The general meaning of this opposeme (“aspect”) manifests itself in the two particular meanings (“non-continuous aspect” and “continuous aspect”) of the opposite members (or opposites) [24; 22–24].
Thus, the elements which the opposition/opposeme is composed of are called opposites or members of the opposition. Opposites can be different: 1) non-marked, 2) marked. Compare the pair of noun forms table – tables. Together they create the “number” opposeme, where table represents the singular number expressed by a zero morpheme that is why it is called the non-marked member of the opposition, and tables – the plural number expressed by the positive morpheme -s is called the marked member of the opposition. Non-marked opposite is used more often than the marked opposite is. The marked opposite is peculiar by its limited use.
Ferdinand de Saussure claimed that everything in language is based on opposition. On phonetic level we have opposition of sounds. On all levels of the language we have opposition. Any grammatical form has got its contrast or counterpart. Together they make up a grammatical category.
A part of speech is characterized by its grammatical categories manifested in the opposemes (the elements of the opposition – оппозема, член опозиції) and paradigms of its lexemes. Nouns have the categories of number and case. Verbs possess the categories of tense, voice, mood etc. That is why paradigms belonging to different parts of speech are different. The paradigm of a verb lexeme is long: write, writes, wrote, will write, is writing etc. The paradigm of a noun lexeme is much shorter: sister, sister’s, sisters, sisters’. The paradigm of an adjective lexeme is still shorter: cold, colder, coldest. The paradigm of an adverb always consists only of one word.
Thus, the paradigm of a lexeme shows what part of speech the lexeme belongs to.
It must be borne in mind, however, that not all the lexemes of a part of speech have the same paradigms. Compare:
sister book information
sister’s books –
sisters – –
sisters’ – –
The first lexeme has opposemes of two grammatical categories: number and case. The second lexeme has only one opposeme – that of number. It has no case opposemes. The third lexeme is outside both categories: it has no opposemes at all. We may say that the number opposeme with its opposite grammatical meanings of “singularity” and “plurality” is neutralized in nouns like information, bread, milk etc. owing to their lexical meaning which can hardly be associated with “oneness” or “more-than-oneness”.
We may define neutralization as the reduction of an opposeme to one of its members under certain circumstances. This member may be called the member of neutralization. Usually it is the unmarked member of an opposeme.
The term grammatical category implies that:
1) there exist different morphological forms in the words of a part of speech possessing different referential meanings;
2) the oppositions of different forms possessing referential meanings are systematic that is they cover the whole class of words of that part of speech.
In other words a grammatical category is a systematic opposition of different morphological forms possessing different referential meanings. Each grammatical category is composed of at least two contrasting forms. Otherwise category would stop existing.
In general, an opposeme of any grammatical category consists of as many members (or opposites) as there are particular manifestations of the general meaning. Thus, a morphological opposeme is a minimum set of words revealing (by the difference in their forms) only (and all) the particular manifestations of some general grammatical meaning. Any morphological category is the system of such opposemes whose members differ in form to express only (and all) the particular manifestations of the general meaning of the category [24; 23–24].
Grammatical category unites in itself particular grammatical meanings. For example, the grammatical category of gender unites the meanings of the masculine, feminine, neuter and common genders in the Ukrainian language. Each grammatical category is connected, as a minimum, with two forms. For example, the grammatical category of number comprises the forms of singularity and plurality.
Grammatical meaning isan abstract meaning added to the lexical meaning of a word, expressing its relations other words or classes of words. As a rule, a word has several grammatical meanings. Grammatical meanings are realized in a grammatical word form.
Grammatical form of a word is the variety of the same word differing from other forms of this word by its grammatical meaning. For example, in the Ukrainian word-form батьку the ending -у expresses the grammatical meaning of the masculine gender, singular number, dative case.
Grammatical form of a word can be simple (synthetic), in which the grammatical meanings are formed by the ending, suffix, prefix or stress, etc. (дощ – дощ – дощем); or composite (analytical), created by adding several words (буду говорити, більш привабливий). The analytical-synthetic grammatical word form is a combination of two previous types of word forms. For example, в університеті (the local case is expressed by the flexion and the preposition); малював би, малювала б (the grammatical meaning of number and gender is expressed by the form of the main verb, and the meaning of the conditional mood – by the particle би) [2; 40–41].
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