Example of change in word meaning

There are factors within these causes that will also impact semantic changes. Have a look at the table below to see some examples of extralinguistic and linguistic causes of semantic change.

Semantic narrowing is the process by which a word’s meaning becomes less generalised (in other words more specific) over time. This means that the new meaning derives directly from the original meaning. Typically this process is caused by linguistic factors, such as ellipses, and can take many years to occur. Narrowing can also be referred to as semantic specialisation or semantic restriction.

Let’s look at two examples of semantic narrowing:

Hound

The word ‘hound’, traditionally was used to refer to any type of dog. However, over the centuries the meaning narrowed until it was only used when discussing dogs used when hunting (such as beagles and bloodhounds).

Fig. 1 — An example of semantic narrowing is ‘hound.’

The term, ‘cool’, was popular within the language of jazz musicians, as it referred to a specific style of music (‘cool jazz’)! Over time, as jazz music grew in popularity, the word started to be used in other contexts.

Fig. 2 — An example of semantic broadening is ‘Jazz.’

Amelioration

Amelioration is a term that refers to when a word acquires a more positive meaning over time. It may also be referred to as semantic amelioration or semantic elevation. Typically this process occurs due to different extralinguistic reasons, such as cultural and worldview changes occurring.

1. Three aspects of semantic
   change.

2. Causes of semantic change.

3. Nature of semantic change.
   Metaphor and metonymy.

4. Results of semantic change.

4.1.
Word meanings are liable to change in the process of historical
development
of the language. The semantic structure of a word is never static.
The number of meanings may change, with new meanings being added and
some meaning dropping out; the existing meanings may be rearranged in
the semantic structure.

When speaking about semantic
change, we must distinguish between:

1. the
   causes
   of semantic change, i.e. the factors bringing it about; we try to
   find out why
   the word has changed its meaning;

2. the
   nature
   of semantic change; we describe the process of the change and try to
   answer the question how
   it has been brought about;

3. the
   results
   of semantic change; we try to state what
   has been changed.

These are three different but
closely connected aspects of the same problem.

4.2.
The causes,
or factors,
that bring about semantic changes are classified into linguistic
and extralinguistic.
By extralinguistic
causes
we mean various changes in the life of a speech community; changes in
social life, culture, science, technology, economy, etc. as reflected
in word meanings,

e.g. mill
originally was borrowed from Latin in the 1st c. B.C. in the meaning
«a building in which corn is ground into flour». When the
first textile factories appeared in Great Britain it acquired a new
meaning — «a textile factory». The cause of this semantic
change is scientific and technological progress.

Linguistic
causes
are factors that operate within the language system.
They are:

1)
Ellipsis.
In a phrase made up of two words one of them is omitted and its
meaning is transferred to the other one,

e.g. In
OE sterven (MnE to starve) meant “to die, perish». It was
often used in the phrase «sterven of hunger», the second
word was omitted and the verb acquired the new meaning ⁿ
die of hunger».

2)
Discrimination
of synonyms,

e.g. In
OE land had two meanings: «1. solid part of Earth’s surface; 2.
the territory of a nation». In ME the word country was borrowed
as a synonym to land. Then the second meaning of land came to be
expressed by country and the semantic structure of land changed.

3)
Linguistic
analogy.
If one member of a synonymic set takes on a new meaning, other
members of the same set may acquire this meaning, too,

e.g.
to catch acquired the meaning «understand»; its synonyms to
get, to qrasp also acquired the same meaning.

1. A
   necessary condition of anу
   semantic change is some connection or association between the old,
   existing meaning and the new one. There are two
   main types of association:

1. Similarity
   of meaning or metaphor,

2. Contiguity
   of meaning or metonymy,
   i.e. contact, proximity in place or time.

Metaphor
is the semantic process of associating two referents, one of which in
some way resembles the other. Metaphors may be based on similarity of
shape, size_,
position, function, etc.

In various languages
metaphoric meanings of words denoting parts of the human body are
most frequent,

e.g. the
eye of a needle «hole in the end of a needle», the neck of
a bottle, the heart of a cabbage — the metaphoric meaning has
developed through similarity of the shape of two objects; the foot of
the hill — this metaphoric change is based on the similarity of
position; the hand of the clock, the Head of the school — the
metaphoric meaning is based on similarity of function.

A special group of metaphors
comprises proper nouns that have become common nouns,

e.g. a
Don Juan — «a lady-killer» , a vandal — «one who
destroys property, works of art» (originally «Germanic
tribe that in the 4th-5th c. ravaged Gaul, Spain, N. Africa, and
Rome, destroying many books and works of art»).

Metonymy
is a semantic process of associating two referents which are somehow
connected or linked in time or space. They may be connected because
they often appear in the same situation,

e.g. bench
has developed the meaning «judges» because it was on
benches that judges used to sit,

or the association may be of
material and an object made of it, etc.,

e.g. silver
– 1) certain .precious metal; 2) silver coins; 3) cutlery; 4)
silver medal,

or they may be associated
because one makes part of the other,

e.g.
factory/farm
hands «workers» (because strong, skillful hands are the
most important part of a person engaged in physical labour).

Common nouns may be derived
from proper names through metonymic transference,

e.g.
Wellingtons
«high boots covering knees in front» (from the 1st Duke of
Wellington, Br. general and statesman, who introduced them in
fashion).

4.4.
Results of semantic change may be observed in the changes of the
denotative component
and the
connotative component
of word meaning.

1) Changes
of the denotative component are of two types:

1. broadening
   (or generalization,
   = widening, = extension)
   of
   meaning,
   i.e. the range of the new meaning is broader, the word is applied to
   a wider range of referents,

e.g. to
arrive, borrowed from French, originally meant «to come to
shore, to land». In MnE it has developed a broader meaning «to
come». Yankee – 1) a native of New England (originally); 2) a
citizen of the USA (now).

(b) narrowing
(or specialization,
= restriction)
of
meaning.

The word comes to denote a
more limited range of referents, fewer types of them,

e.g. meat
in OE meant «any food», now it means «flesh of animals
used as food» (i.e. some special food); in OE hound meant «a
dog», now it is «a dog of special breed used in chasing
foxes».

As a
special group, we can mention proper
names derived from common nouns,

e.g. the
Border — between Scotland and England,

the
Tower — the museum in London.

2) Changes
in the connotative component of meaning are also of two types:

(a)
degeneration
(or degradation,
= deterioration)
of
meaning,
i.e. a word develops a meaning with a negative evaluative connotation
which was absent in the first meaning,

e.g. silly
«happy» (originally) — «foolish» (now);

(b)
elevation
(or amelioration)
of
meaning,
i.e. the first meaning has a negative connotation and the new one has
not,

e.g. nice
originally «foolish» — now «fine, good».

In other cases the new meaning
acquires positive connotation absent in the original meaning,

e.g. knight
«manservant» (originally) — «noble, courageous man»
(now)

The terms elevation and
degeneration of meaning are inaccurate as we actually deal not with
elevation or degradation of meanings but of referents.

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Change of meaning. Extension, narrowing, elevation, degradation of meaning of a word, metaphor, metonymy.

Definition of changes of word meaning Types of changes Extension Elevation Narrowing Degradation Metaphor Metonomy

Changes in word meaning When a word loses its old meaning and comes to refer to something different, the result is a change in word meaning. Change of meaning refers to the alternation of the meaning of existing words, as well as the addition of new meaning to a particular word. Changing word meaning has never ceased since the beginning of the language and will continue in the future. The changes in meaning are gradual, and words are not changed in a day.

Types of Change -Extension of meaning -Narrowing of meaning -Elevation of meaning -Degradation of meaning

Extension of Meaning — Generalization of Meaning It is a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized or has extended to cover a broader concept.

salary (original) a sum of money given to Roman soldiers to enable them to buy salt (present) fixed payment made by employer at regular intervals to employees holiday (original) holy day, a day of religious significance (present) day of festivity or recreation

She is such a pretty little thing. I have to pack my things for the journey. There is another thing I want to ask you about. That only makes things worse. The thing is, can we finish the job in time? A large proportion of polysemous words of modern English have their meanings extended sometime in the course of development. Some words are generalized to such a degree that they can mean almost everything. “Thing” which used to mean “a public assembly” or “a council” in Anglo-Saxon times, now has become an all-purpose word. Its meaning is so general, and we sometimes call this noun a ‘light noun’.

Generalization of meaning is also found in many technical terms, which are confined to specialized use. allergic (original) too sensitive to medicine (present) averse or disinclined alibi (original) a legal term signifying “the plea that the accused is not at the place when the crime is committed” (present) excuse

Narrowing of Meaning It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrow or specialized sense. In other words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special concept in present-day English. Narrowing; specialization; restriction

Narrowing of Meaning For economy, some phrases are shortened and only one element of the original, usually an adjective, is left to retain the meaning of the whole. Such adjectives have thus taken on specialized meanings. a general = a general officer an editorial = an editorial article Some material nouns are used to refer to objects made of them and thus have a more specific sense. glass a cup-like container or a mirror iron device for smoothing clothes

Change in associative meaning Both extension and narrowing of meaning are talking about the changes in conceptual meaning. Next we will talk about the changes in associative meaning. Elevation of meaning Degradation of meaning

Elevation of Meaning (amelioration) -It is the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance. -Some words early in their history signify something quite low or humble, but change to designate something agreeable or pleasant. -A “snarl” word becomes a “purr” word, or a slang becomes a common word. -elevation; amelioration

Examples of elevation nice -ignorant — foolish — delightful, pleasant fond -foolish — affectionate awesome -terrible—terrific marshal -a keeper of horses — a high ranking army officer constable -a keeper of horses — a policeman Terrific headache Terrific party

Degradation of Meaning It is a process by which words with appreciatory or neutral affective meaning fall into ill reputation or come to be used in a derogatory sense. A “purr” word becomes a “snarl” word. degradation, degeneration, pejoration

Examples silly blessed and happy— innocent—-simple or simple-minded —-foolish sad full, satisfied, contented —— calm —— serious —-sorrowful

Figurative use of words Change in word meaning may result from the figurative use of the language. Metaphor and metonymy are two important figures of speech. Metaphor is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison based on similarity. E.x.: A cunning person may be referred to as a fox. Here “fox” means something other than its literal meaning. The word “fox” gets the figurative meaning of “a cunning person”.

Metaphor This is also a horse, but a metaphorical horse.

Example: foot foot 1. The lower extremity of the vertebrate leg that is in direct contact with the ground in standing or walking. 2. The lowest part; the bottom the foot of a mountain the foot of a page This meaning is derived through the metaphor “The last line on this page is the foot of the page.”

Metonymy is another important factor in semantic change. It is a figure of speech by which an object or an idea is described by the name of something else closely related to it.

Example: seat Seat (its sense is extended to the right to sit as a member of a committee, such as the House of Commons) He lost his seat in House of Commons. The word “seat” has acquired the meaning of “the right to sit as a member” through the above metonym.

More Example: cradle Cradle 1. A small low bed for an infant, often furnished with rockers 2. The earliest period of life; infancy from the cradle to the grave 3. A place of origin; a birthplace the cradle of civilization. These meanings are derived through the following metonyms.