Example of a back formation word

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Back-formation is either the process of creating a new lexeme (less precisely, a new «word») by removing actual or supposed affixes, or a neologism formed by such a process. Back-formations are shortened words created from longer words, thus back-formations may be viewed as a sub-type of clipping.

Each back-formation in this list is followed by the original word from which it was back-formed.

A[edit]

• abduct probably from abduction ^[1]
• abscess (v.) from abscessed^[1]
• aborigine from aborigines, mistaken for a plural noun^[1]
• accord (n.) from Old French acorde, acort, a back-formation from acorder^[1]
• accrete from accretion (root: accrescere)^[2]
• acculturate from acculturation^[2]
• addict from addicted (root: addicere)^{[2][dubious – discuss]}
• admix from admixt^[3]
• Adirondack Mountains from Adirondacks, mistaken for a plural noun^[1]
• adsorb from adsorption^[1]
• adolesce from adolescence^[1]
• adulate from adulation^[3]
• advect from advection^[3]
• advisor perhaps from advisory^[1]
• aerate (meaning «expose to air») probably from aeration^[1]
• aesthete from aesthetic^[2]
• aggress from aggression^[4]
• air-condition from air conditioning^[2]
• alley ^[1]
• alliterate from alliteration ^[1]
• allotrope from allotropy ^[1]
• amaze from Middle English amased ^[1]
• ambivalent from ambivalence ^[1]
• ameliorate perhaps from amelioration in some cases ^[1]
• annunciate perhaps from annunciation in some cases ^[1]
• anticline from anticlinal^[5]
• antipode from antipodes (non-standard)
• appeal (n.) from Old French apel, back-formation from apeler^[1]
• apperceive (in modern psychological use) from apperception ^[1]
• aristocrat from French aristocrate, a back-formation from aristocratie ^[1]
• assent (n.) from Old French assent, a back-formation from assentir
• attrit from attrition^[5]
• auto-destruct from auto-destruction (cf. auto-destroy)
• automate from automation^[2][4]
• aviate from aviation^[2]
• avid partly from avidity ^[1]
• awe-strike perhaps from awestruck ^[1]

B[edit]

• babysit from babysitter^[2][4]
• back-form from back-formation
• bartend from bartender^[5]
• beg from beggar^{[dubious – discuss]}
• benefact from benefactor (and also the derived benefactee, cf. benefactor)
• bibliograph from bibliography
• bicep from biceps (non-standard)^[2]
• biograph from biography
• bird (verb) from bird watcher
• blockbust from blockbuster^[5]
• book-keep from book-keeping
• brainwash from brainwashing^[5]
• bulldoze from bulldozer^[5]
• bum possibly from bummer^[5]
• burgle from burglar^[5][4]
• bus («to clear dirty dishes from table») from busboy^[5]
• bushwhack from bushwhacker^[5]
• buttle from butler^[5]

C[edit]

• cadge from cadger^[2]
• caretake from caretaker
• cavitate from cavitation^[1]
• chain-smoke from chain-smoker^[4]
• Chess (river) from Chesham
• choate from inchoate
• choreograph from choreography^[5]
• chupacabra from Spanish chupacabras (both a plural and a singular in Spanish)
• claustrophobe from claustrophobia
• cohese from cohesion (disambiguation) (cf. cohere)
• commentate from commentator^[5][4]
• committal from non-committal
• complicit from complicity^[3]
• computerize from computerized
• contracept from contraception (cf. rare contraceive)
• contrapt from contraption
• convect from convection^[2]
• conversate from conversation or conversing^[6]
• cose from cosy
• couth from uncouth^[2]
• co-vary from covariation
• cross multiply from cross multiplication
• cross-refer from cross-reference^[7]
• curate (verb) from curator^[3]
• custom-make from custom-made

D[edit]

• dapple from dappled^[5]
• darkle from darkling^[2]
• decadent from decadence^[2]
• deconstruct from deconstruction^[5]
• dedifferentiate from dedifferentiation^[5]
• demarcate from demarcation^[2]
• demograph from demographics
• destruct from destruction^[5]
• diagnose from diagnosis^[2][4]
• diffract from diffraction^[2]
• dinge from dingy^[2]
• diplomat from diplomatic^[5]
• dishevel from disheveled^[2]
• donate from donation^[2][4]
• drear from dreary
• drowse from drowsy (possibly a backformation)
• dry-clean from dry cleaning^[5]

E[edit]

• eave from eaves^[7]
• eavesdrop from eavesdropper^[2]
• edit from editor (from Latin stem edere, to bring forth)^[1][2]
• electrocute from electrocution^[2]
• elocute from elocution^[7]
• emote from emotion^[5][4]
• enthuse from enthusiasm^[5][4]
• escalate from escalator^[5]
• eutrophicate from eutrophication
• evaluate from evaluation^[2]
• explicate (meaning «explain») from explicable
• extradite from extradition^[4]
• extrapose from extraposition^[5]

F[edit]

• fine-tune from fine tuning^[7]
• flab from flabby^[2]
• flappable from unflappable^[5]
• flake («eccentric person») from flaky
• floss («to show off») from flossy^[7]
• fluoresce from fluorescence^[2]
• fragmentate from fragmentation^[5]
• free-associate from free association (backformed adjective-verb compound)^[4]
• funk (quality of music) from funky^[3]

G[edit]

• gamble from gambler^[2]
• gestate from gestation^[2]
• ghostwrite from ghostwriter^[2]
• gid from giddy^[2]
• gladiola from gladiolus^[2]
• gnarl from gnarled^[5]
• goaltend from goaltender
• godsend from god-sent^[2]
• greed from greedy (the noun was originally «greediness»)^[5][4]
• grid from gridiron^[2]
• grovel from groveling^[2][4]
• grunge from grungy^[2]
• gruntle from disgruntle^[2]

H[edit]

• handwrite from handwriting^[2]
• hard-boil from hard-boiled^[2]
• hawk (meaning «to sell») from hawker^[5]
• haze from hazy^[2]
• headhunt from headhunter^{[citation needed]}
• headquarter from headquarters^[5]
• helicopt from helicopter^{[citation needed]}
• herptile (a reptile or amphibian) from herpetology^{[citation needed]}
• herpe (a single herpes sore) from herpes^{[citation needed]}
• housebreak from housebroken^[2]
• houseclean from housecleaning^[2]
• housekeep from housekeeper^[2]
• hustle from hustler^[2]

I[edit]

• inadvertent from inadvertence^[2]
• ideologue from ideology^[2]
• incent from incentive^[3]
• indice from indices (cf. index)
• injure from injury^[5]
• intercept from interception (possibly a backformation)
• interfluve from interfluvial^[5]
• interlineate from interlinear
• intuit from intuition^[5][4]
• isolate from isolated^[2]

J[edit]

• jell from jelly^[2][4]
• jerry-build from jerry-built^[2]

K[edit]

• kidnap from kidnapper^[2]
• kudo from kudos (some commentators regard it non-standard)^[2][4]

L[edit]

• lase from laser^[2][4]
• laze from lazy^[2][4]
• legislate from legislator^[2][4]
• letch from lecher^[5]
• liaise from liaison^[2][4]
• loaf (meaning «to be idle») from loafer^[5]
• logroll from logrolling^[5]
• luminesce from luminescent^[5]

M[edit]

• manipulate from manipulation^[2][4]
• mase from maser
• mentee from mentor
• mix from mixt (adj. from Old French, misconstrued as past participle of verb)^[2]
• mottle from motley^[2]
• moonlight (the verb, work on second job) from moonlighter^[2]
• multimillion from multimillionaire

N[edit]

• nake from naked^[2]
• nitpick from nit-picking^[2]
• notate from notation^[2]

O[edit]

• obsess (meaning «to behave obsessively») from obsessive^{[dubious – discuss]}
• obligate (as a verb meaning «oblige») from obligation
• one-up or one-upman from one-upmanship^[2][4]
• orate from oration^[2][4]
• orientate from orientation

P[edit]

• panhandle (meaning «to accost») from panhandler^[5]
• paramedic from paramedical
• partake from partaker^[2]
• patriation from repatriation
• pea from Middle English pease^[8]
• peddle from peddler^[2][4]
• peeve from peevish^[2][4]
• pettifog from pettifogger^[5]
• phosphoresce from phosphorescent^[2]
• pleb from plebs
• ply from reply
• preempt from preemption^[2]
• process from procession^[8]
• prodigal from prodigality^[5]
• proliferate from proliferation^[2]
• proofread from proofreader^[5]
• pugn from impugn^{[citation needed]}

Q[edit]

• quadrumvir from quadrumvirate^[2]
• quantitate from quantitative

R[edit]

• raunch from raunchy^[2]
• recurse from recursion
• reminisce from reminiscence^[2][4]
• resurrect from resurrection^[2]
• ruly from unruly
• rotovate from rotovator

S[edit]

• sass (impudence) from sassy^[5]
• scavenge from scavenger^[1][4]
• sculpt from sculptor^[5]
• secrete (meaning «to produce and emit») from secretion^[2]
• secretive from secretiveness^[2]
• sedate (the verb) from sedative^[3]
• self-destruct from self-destruction (cf. self-destroy)^[3][4]
• semantic (adjective) from semantics
• sharecrop from sharecropper^[2]
• shoplift from shoplifter^[2]
• sightsing from sightsinging
• sightsee from sightseeing^[5]
• sipid from insipid^[5]
• sleaze from sleazy^[2]
• sleepwalk from sleepwalking^[5]
• smarm from smarmy^[2]
• sorb from sorption (also a back-formation)
• soft-land from soft landing (backformed adjective-noun compound)
• sorption from adsorption and absorption^[2]
• spectate from spectator^[5]
• stargaze from stargazer^[2]
• statistic from statistics^[4]
• stave (the noun) from staves (the original singular is staff)^[2]
• steamroll from steamroller^[5]
• stridulate from stridulation^[2]
• suburb from suburban ^[2]
• suckle from suckling^[2]
• sulk from sulky^[2]
• summate from summation^[2]
• sunburn (the verb) from sunburned^[2]
• superannuate from superannuated^[2]
• surreal from surrealism^[5]
• surveil from surveillance^[5]
• swashbuckle from swashbuckler^[2]
• swindle from swindler^[5]
• syncline from synclinal^[5]

T[edit]

• tamale, as a singular of tamales (plural form of tamal)^[5]
• tase from Taser
• taxon from taxonomy
• televise from television^[5][4]
• tongue-lash from tongue-lashing^[2]
• transcript (verb) from transcription (cf. verb transcribe)
• tricep from triceps (non-standard)
• trickle-irrigate from trickle-irrigation (possibly backformed from verb-noun compound but may also be verb-verb compound)
• tweeze from tweezers^[5]
• typewrite from typewriter^[2][4]

U[edit]

• underwhelming as a supposed antonym of overwhelming
• unit from unity^[2]
• upholster from upholstery^[2]
• ush from usher

V[edit]

• vaccinate from vaccination^[5]
• vend as in vend out (meaning to contract out to a vendor), derived from vendor
• vinify from vinification^[2]
• vint (meaning to make wine) from vintage and vintner^[7]
• vivisect from vivisection^[2]

W[edit]

• wiretap from wiretapper^[5]

References[edit]

In linguistics, back-formation is the process of forming a new word (a neologism) by removing actual or supposed affixes from another word. Put simply, a back-formation is a shortened word (such as edit) created from a longer word (editor). Verb: back-form (which is itself a back-formation). Also called back-derivation.

The term back-formation was coined by Scottish lexicographer James Murray, the primary editor of the Oxford English Dictionary from 1879 until 1915.

As Huddleston and Pullum have noted, «There is nothing in the forms themselves that enables one to distinguish between affixation and back-formation: it’s a matter of historical formation of words rather than of their structure» (A Student’s Introduction To English Grammar, 2005).

Pronunciation: BAK for-MAY-shun

Examples and Observations

• singular noun pea from the older English plural pease
• the verb burgle from the older English noun burglar
• the verb diagnose from the older English noun diagnosis

«He spoke with a certain what-is-it in his voice, and I could see that, if not actually disgruntled, he was far from being gruntled, so I tactfully changed the subject.» (P.G. Wodehouse, The Code of the Woosters, 1938)

«Here I was maybe forty minutes ago, sort of claustrophobed in the gap between the kickass movie world where Lila dumps the guy with the smarmy mustache and the obvious one where it just keeps getting later.»(Daniel Handler, Adverbs. Ecco, 2006)

«Stripping the in- from inchoate is known as back-formation, the same process that has given us words like peeve (from peevish), surveil (from surveillance) and enthuse (from enthusiasm). There’s a long linguistic tradition of removing parts of words that look like prefixes and suffixes to come up with ‘roots’ that weren’t there to begin with.» (Ben Zimmer, «Choate.» The New York Times, January 3, 2010)

Suffix Snipping

«Alan Prince studied a girl who . . . was delighted by her discovery that eats and cats were really eat + —s and cat + —s. She used her new suffix snipper to derive mik (mix), upstair, downstair, clo (clothes), len (lens), brefek (from brefeks, her word for breakfast), trappy (trapeze), even Santa Claw. Another child, overhearing his mother say they had booze in the house, asked what a ‘boo’ was. One seven-year-old said of a sports match, ‘I don’t care who they’re going to verse,’ from expressions like the Red Sox versus the Yankees.» (Steven Pinker, Words and Rules: The Ingredients of Language. HarperCollins, 1999)

«In many cases of back-formation a presumed affix is removed which is in fact not truly an affix, as in the following words where the -or, -ar, and -er are not the agentive suffix, but part of the root: orator — -er> orate, lecher + -er> lech, peddler + -er> peddle, escalator + -er> escalate, editor + -er> edit, swindle + -er> swindle, sculptor + -er> sculpt, hawker + -er> hawk. These mistakes are called back-formations. Note that some of them are colloquial or marginal, while others are fully accepted.» (Laurel J. Brinton, The Structure of Modern English: A Linguistic Introduction. John Benjamins, 2000)

Back-Formation in Middle English

«[T]he weakening of the flexional endings during the early Middle English period, which made possible the derivation from verbs of a multitude of nouns, and vice-versa, was also as essential to the rise of and development of back-formation.» (Esko V. Pennanen, Contributions to the Study of Back-Formation in English, 1966)

Back-Formation in Contemporary English

«Back formation continues to make a few contributions to the language. Television has given televise on the model of revise/revision, and donation has given donate on the model of relate/relation. Babysitter and stage manager have given babysit and stage manage for obvious reasons. More remote was the surprising lase from laser (the latter an acronym for ‘lightwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation’), recorded from 1966.» (W.F. Bolton, A Living Language: The History and Structure of English. Random House, 1982)

Filling a Void

«Backformations are more likely to occur with very strongly entrenched patterns and they have the effect of filling an apparent void. The process has given us common verbs such as afflict (from affliction), enthuse (from enthusiasm), laze (from lazy), liaise from liaison), aggress (from aggression), televise (from television), housekeep (from housekeeper), jell (from jelly), and many more.» (Kate Burridge, Gift of the Gob: Morsels of English Language History. HarperCollins Australia, 2011)

Usage

«[B]ack-formations are objectionable when they are merely needless variations of already existing verbs:

back-formed verb — ordinary verb
*administrate — administer
*cohabitate — cohabit
*delimitate — delimit
*interpretate — interpret
*orientate — orient
*registrate — register
*remediate — remedy
*revolute — revolt
*solicitate-solicit

Many back-formations never gain real legitimacy (e.g., *elocute, *enthuse), some are aborted early in their existence (e.g., *ebullit, *evolute), and still others are of questionable vigor (e.g., aggress, attrit, effulge, evanesce, frivol). . . .

«Still, many examples have survived respectably.» (Bryan Garner, Garner’s Modern American Usage, 3rd ed. Oxford University Press, 2009)

В лингвистике бэк-формирование – это процесс образования нового слова (неологизм) путем удаления реальных или предполагаемых аффиксов из другого слова. Проще говоря, обратная формация – это сокращенное слово (например, edit ), созданное из более длинного слова ( editor ). Глагол: back-form (который сам по себе является back-формацией). Также называется бэк-деривацией .

Термин бэк-формирование был придуман Шотландский лексикограф Джеймс Мюррей, главный редактор Оксфордского словаря английского языка с 1879 по 1915 год.

Как писали Хаддлстон и Пуллум отметил: «В самих формах нет ничего, что позволяло бы различать аффиксирование и обратное образование: это вопрос исторического образования слов, а не их структуры» ( Введение в грамматику английского языка для студентов , 2005).

Произношение: BAK for-MAY-shun

Примеры и наблюдения

• существительное в единственном числе pea из более древнего английского множественного числа pease
• глагол burgle от старого английского существительного burglar
• глагол диагностировать по старому английскому существительному diagnosis

“Он заговорил с определенным “что есть это” в ч – это голос, и я мог видеть, что он, если не был на самом деле рассержен, был далек от того, чтобы ворчать , поэтому я тактично сменил тему “. (П.Г. Вудхаус, Кодекс Вустеров , 1938)

«Здесь я был минут сорок назад, вроде как страдающий клаустрофобией в промежутке между крутым кино-миром, где Лила бросает парня с вкраплениями усов, и очевидным, где это становится все позже “. (Дэниел Хэндлер, наречия . Ecco, 2006)

“Удаление in- из inchoate известен как back-education , тот же процесс, который дал нам такие слова, как peeve (от peevish ), слежка (от слежки ) и энтузиазм (от энтузиазма ). давняя лингвистическая традиция удаления частей слов, которые выглядят как префиксы и суффиксы, чтобы получить «корни», которых изначально не было ». (Бен Циммер, “Choate.” The New York Times , 3 января 2010 г.)

Suffix Snipping

“Алан Принс изучал девушку, которая … была в восторге от своего открытия, что ест и кошки действительно были eat + – s и cat + – s . Она использовала свой новый сниппер суффикса, чтобы получить mik (микс), наверху, внизу, clo (одежда), len (линза), брефек (от брефекс , ее слово на завтрак), траппи (трапеция), даже Санта-Коготь . Другой ребенок, услышав, как его мать сказала, что в доме есть выпивка, спросил, что это за «бу». Один семилетний мальчик сказал о спортивном матче: «Меня не волнует, кого они собираются строить», исходя из таких выражений, как Red Sox против Yankees ». (Стивен Пинкер , Слова и правила: составные части языка . HarperCollins, 1999)

«Во многих случаях обратное формирование предполагаемый аффикс удаляется, что на самом деле не является аффиксом, как в следующих словах, где -или, -ar и -er не суффикс агента, а часть корня: orator – -er> orate, lecher + -er> lech, peddler + -er> peddle, escalator + -er> escalate , редактор + -er > редактировать, мошенничество + -er > мошенничество , скульптор + -er > sculpt, hawker + -er > hawk . Эти ошибки называются бэк-формациями . Обратите внимание, что некоторые из них являются разговорным или маргинальным, в то время как другие полностью принимаются. “ (Лорел Дж. Бринтон, Структура современного английского языка: введение в язык . John Benjamins, 2000)

Back-Formation в среднеанглийском

«[T] ослабление сгибательных окончаний во время период раннего среднеанглийского языка, который сделал возможным возникновение от глаголов множества существительных и наоборот , также был важен для возникновения и развития – информация . “(Эско В. Пеннанен, Вклады в изучение бэк-формации на английском языке , 1966)

Бэк-формация в современном английском

“ Бэк-формация продолжает вносить определенный вклад в язык. Телевидение предоставило телетрансляцию по образцу исправления/исправления и пожертвования предоставил пожертвовать по модели relate/Relations . Няня и постановщик предоставили присмотр за детьми и постановку сцены по очевидным причинам. Более отдаленным оказался удивительный лазер от лазера (последний является аббревиатурой от «усиления световой волны за счет вынужденного испускания излучения»), зарегистрированный в 1966 году »(WF). Болтон, Живой язык: история и структура английского языка . Random House, 1982)

Заполнение пустоты

“ Backformations чаще возникают с очень сильно укоренившимися шаблонами, и они имеют эффект заполнения кажущейся пустоты. Процесс дал нам общие глаголы, такие как afflict (от affliction ), enthuse (от энтузиазм ), бездельничанье (от ленивый ), связь от связи ), агрессия (от агрессии ), телевидение (от телевидения ), домработница (от housekeeper ), желе (от желе ), и многое другое ». (Кейт Берридж, Gift of the Gob: Morsels of English Language History . HarperCollins Australia, 2011)

Использование

“ [B] ack-образования нежелательны, если они представляют собой просто ненужные вариации уже существующих глаголов:

глагол обратной формы – обычный глагол
* administrator – administer
* cohabitate – сосуществовать
* разделить – разделить
* интерпретировать – интерпретировать
* ориентировать – ориентировать
* зарегистрировать – зарегистрировать
* исправить – исправить
* rev olute – revolt
* solicitate-solicit

Многие бэк-формации никогда не получают реальной легитимности (например, * elocute , * enthuse ), некоторые прерываются на раннем этапе их существования (например, * ebullit , * evolute ) , А третьи имеют сомнительную силу (например, агрессия, аттрит, сияние, мимолетность, фриволь ). . . .

«Тем не менее, многие примеры сохранились достойно». (Брайан Гарнер, Современное американское использование Гарнера , 3-е изд. Oxford University Press, 2009)

Back
formation or back derivation is a term of diachronistic linguistics.
It implies the inferring of a short word from a long one. If we take,
for example, the word speaker we reasonably connect it with the verb
to speak. The existence of a derivative speaker suggests that the
basic word speak also exists. Now, if speaker is correlated to speak,
then editor must have the basis, edit too. But historically speaking,
things are different.

There
are words in English which owe their origin to one part of a word
being mistaken for some derivative suffix or more rarely a prefix. A
word of this kind has often been supposed to imply the existence of a
primary word from which it has been derived. Similarly, the new verb
to burgle has been created from burglar, evidently through
reinterpretation on the analogy to the lie from liar. Further
examples of back formation are: to hush from husht, to pettifog from
pettifogger, to audit from auditor, to peeve from peevish. These
examples show that simple, derived words were formed from other root
lexical units by means of splitting the root.

Back
formation may be also based on the analogy of inflectional forms as
testified by the singular nouns pea and cherry. Pea (Plural peas) is
from ME pese < OE pise< Lat. pisa, Plural pesum. The ending s
being the most frequent mark of the plural in English, English
speakers thought that sweet peas(e) was a plural and turned
peas(e)(soup into pea soup. Cherry is from OFr. cherise
and
the se was dropped for exactly the same reason.

At
the present time back formation is applied intentionally. At the
beginning of the 19^th
century to diddle appeared by means of back formation from the
surname Jeremy Diddler (the character in J.Kenney’s work “Raising
the Wind”. At the beginning of the 20^th
century the verb to maffick appeared under the influence of the
spirit which was in London during Anglo-boerish war after the town
Mafeking yielded.

Back
formation is held due to the rules of the development of the English
language. It is not by chance that such words as to beg, to peeve, to
resurrect were formed on the analogy of the existing word-building
pattern.

8. Blending

The
term blending is used to designate the method of merging parts of
words (not morphemes) into one new word. The result of it is a blend,
also known as a portmanteau word. It was Lewis Carroll , the author
of the well-known book “Alice in Wonderland”, who called such
creations portmanteau words and described them as words into which
two meanings are packed like in a portmanteau.

We
always look for a way of saving time. This explains the growing
popularity of blends. Why use two words if one will do? If, for
example, you get up too late for breakfast and too early for lunch
you can have brunch. If a state decides to execute a criminal with
the aid of electricity it electrocutes him. A telegram sent by cable
is a cablegram.
The astronaut has a tool, a space hammer, which is known as spammer.
News that is broadcast is a newscast.
If
фрукт
is added to йогурт
you will get
фругурт.

Many
blends are short-lived. A fair proportion has become established in
the vocabulary. In most cases blends belong to the colloquial layer
of the vocabulary sometimes bordering on slang: slanguage
= slang + language, pollutician = pollute + politician.

The
process when the final part of one word and the initial part of
another coincide is called telescoping because the words seem to
slide into one another like sections of a telescope: infanticipate
= infant + anticipate.

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Long time not see! 

It’s been almost a month since I wrote my last entry. I think you may excuse me since I’ve been busy dealing with the end of course and the beginning of my non-official -yet existing holidays and now we’re in the middle of the summer. 

Anyway, the entry I intend to write today is not exactly refreshing for this sweltering summery heat but… well, it’s an entry I’ve been meaning to write for so long and…what better timing than summer holidays?

Well, today it’s time for some back formations. Nope! It obviously doesn’t have to do with your back. Back formation are words created by removing some suffixes of an original word, creating a new word that didn’t exist before but whose meaning can be easily elicited. Too complicated? Well, let’s put this simply:

New words are usually created by affixation, that is by adding prefixes or suffixes, for example, the word ‘‘form’ can be expanded with the prefix ‘trans’ and then it can be enlarged by the suffix -ation. Thus, we have this process: 

Form —> Transform —> Transformation.  In other words, a new word is created by adding things.

However, in back formation, the process is totally the opposite. A new word is created specifically, for instance, ‘donation’, and from that noun, by removing the suffix -ion, the verb ‘donate’ (which didn’t exist before) was created. Therefore, the word ‘donate’ was invented after ‘donation’ backwards. 

Let’s illustrate this with some more examples of back formations:

— Babysitter: From this word, the term babysit originated (it can even be inflected: ‘babysat’ being the past and participle).




— Caretaker: The verb ‘caretake’ originated from the person (very similar to the previous example).



— Enthusiasm: From this wonderful feeling, the verb ‘enthuse’ was created, and after that, the adjectives ‘enthusing’. 





— Housekeeper: The person that takes care of your house, like a handmaid. From that person, we have the verb ‘housekeep’ 



— Drink-driving: An abominable action that no one should ever do. From that action, the verb ‘drink-drive’ appeared. 


— Opinion: From this word, the uncommonly formal verb ‘opine’ sprang up. 





— Sleepwalking: This is a condition whereby a person walks in their sleep. From that condition, the verb ‘sleepwalk’ appeared. 





— Typewriter: From this old-fashioned yet vintage machine, the verb ‘typewrite’ came to be!



— Air-conditioning: This is probably the best invention of the century, especially if you live in Madrid or in the south of Spain. From this invention, the verb ‘air-condition’ appear. You can air-condition a house or a room. 



— Bartender: This is the person that serves in a bar, similar to a waiter. From this person, the action of ‘bartend’ appeared (meaning: to serve in a bar).


Well, did you understand the concept of back formation? As you can imagine, more and more new words are invented every day by means of this unique process. This is one of the reasons why I keep loving English every day. It never ceases to surprise me!
Please, contribute with some more examples of your own and post them in a comment!

Back-formation refers to either the process of creating a new lexeme (less precisely, a new «word») by removing actual or supposed affixes, or to the neologism formed by such a process. Back-formations are shortened words created from longer words, thus back-formations may be viewed as a sub-type of clipping.

Each back-formation in this list is followed by the original word from which it was back-formed.

A

* «ablute» from «ablution»
* «aborigine» as a mistaken singular for «aborigines» (correct Latin singular is aboriginal) [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/aborigine]
* «accrete» from «accretion» (root: «accrescere») [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/accrete]
* «acculturate» from «acculturation» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/acculturate]
* «admix» from «admixture»
* «adsorb» from «adsorption»
* «adolesce» from «adolescence»
* «adulate» from «adulation» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/adulate]
* «advect» from «advection» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/advect]
* «aesthete» from «aesthetic» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/aesthete]
* «air-condition» from «air conditioning» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/air-condition]
* «alm» from «alms»
* «anticline» from «anticlinal» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/anticline]
* «arch» («to practice archery») from «archery»
* «arm» (weapon) from «arms» (from Latin «arma»)
* «attrit» from «attrition» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/attrit]
* «auto-destruct» from «auto-destruction» (cf. «auto-destroy»)
* «automate» from «automation» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/automate]
* «aviate» from «aviation» [http://mw1.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/aviate]

B

* «babysit» from «babysitter» [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/babysit]
* «back-form» from «back-formation»
* «bartend» from «bartender» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/bartend]
* «benefact» from «benefactor» (and also the derived «benefactee», cf. «benefactor»)
* «bibliograph» from «bibliography»
* «bicep» from «biceps» (non-standard) [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bicep]
* «biograph» from «biography»
* «blockbust» from «blockbuster» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/blockbust]
* «book-keep» from «book-keeping»
* «bonafy» from «bonafied» (which itself is a corruption of «bona fide») [http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/bonafied.html Common Errors in English — List of Errors]
* «brainwash» from «brainwashing» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/brainwash]
* «bulldoze» from «bulldozer» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/bulldoze]
* «bum» possibly from «bummer» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/bum]
* «burgle» from «burglar» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/burgle]
* «bus» («to clear dirty dishes from table») from «busboy» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/bus]
* «bushwhack» from «bushwhacker» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/bushwhack]
* «buttle» from «butler» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/buttle]

C

* «cadge» from «cadger» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/cadge]
* «caretake» from «caretaker»
* «chemist» from «alchemist»
* «cavitate» from «cavitation» [http://www.yourdictionary.com/ahd/c/c0176500.html]
* «cherry» from Old French «cerise» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/cherry]
* «choate» from «inchoate»
* «choreograph» from «choreography» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/choreograph]
* «claustrophobe» from «claustrophobia»
* «cohese» from «cohesion» (cf. «cohere»)
* «commentate» from «commentator» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/commentate]
* «committal» from «non-committal»
* «complicit» from «complicity» [http://www.yourdictionary.com/ahd/c/c0531500.html]
* «computerize» from «computerized»
* «congratulation» from «congratulations»
* «contracept» from «contraception» (cf. rare «contraceive»)
* «contrapt» from «contraption»
* «convect» from «convection» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/convect]
* «conversate» from «conversation or conversing» {http://www.dictionary.reference.com/browse/conversate
* «cose» from «cosy»
* «couth» from «uncouth» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/couth]
* «co-vary» from «covariation»
* «crank» (noun) from «cranky»
* «creep» (as a noun for a person) from «creepy»
* «cross multiply» from «cross multiplication»
* «cross-refer» from «cross-reference» [http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50054606?single=1&query_type=word&queryword=cross-refer&first=1&max_to_show=10]
* «curate» from «curator» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/curate]
* «custom-make» from «custom-made»

D

* «dapple» from «dappled» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/dapple]
* «darkle» from «darkling» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/darkle]
* «decadent» from «decadence» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/decadent]
* «deconstruct» from «deconstruction» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/deconstruct]
* «dedifferentiate» from «dedifferentiation» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/dedifferentiate]
* «demarcate» from «demarcation» [http://mw1.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/demarcate]
* «destruct» from «destruction» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/destruct]
* «diagnose» from «diagnosis» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/diagnose]
* «diffract» from «diffraction» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/diffract]
* «dinge» from «dingy» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/dinge]
* «diplomat» from «diplomatic» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/diplomat]
* «dishevel» from «disheveled» [http://mw1.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dishevel]
* «donate» from «donation» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/donate]
* «drear» from «dreary»
* «drowse» from «drowsy» (possibly a backformation)
* «dry-clean» from «dry cleaning» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/dry-clean]

E

* «eave» from «eaves» [http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50071731?query_type=word&queryword=eave&first=1&max_to_show=10&sort_type=alpha&result_place=1&search_id=NELO-TD52Ni-4993&hilite=50071731]
* «eavesdrop» from «eavesdropper» [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/eavesdrop]
* «edit» from «editor» (from Latin stem «edere», to bring forth) [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/edit] , [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=edition]
* «electrocute» from «electrocution» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/electrocute]
* «elocute» from «elocution» [http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50073311?single=1&query_type=word&queryword=elocute&first=1&max_to_show=10]
* «emote» from «emotion» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/emote]
* «enthuse» from «enthusiasm» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/enthuse]
* «escalate» from «escalator» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/escalate]
* «eutrophicate» from «eutrophication»
* «evaluate» from «evaluation» [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/evaluate]
* «extrapose» from «extraposition» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/extrapose]

F

* «fine-tune» from «fine tuning» [http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50084941?single=1&query_type=word&queryword=fine-tune&first=1&max_to_show=10]
* «flab» from «flabby» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/flab]
* «flappable» from «unflappable» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/flappable]
* «flake» («eccentric person») from «flaky»
* «floss» («to show off») from «flossy» [http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50291992?query_type=word&queryword=floss&first=1&max_to_show=10&sort_type=alpha&search_id=NELO-lxSD7n-5019&result_place=5]
* «fluoresce» from «fluorescence» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/fluoresce]
* «forward-form» from «forward-formation» (a back-formation)
* «fragmentate» from «fragmentation» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/fragmentate]
* «free-associate» from «free association» (backformed adjective-verb compound)
* «funk» (quality of music) from «funky» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/funk]

G

* «gamble» from «gambler» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/gamble]
* «gestate» from «gestation» [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/gestate]
* «ghostwrite» from «ghostwriter» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/ghostwrite]
* «gid» from «giddy» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/gid]
* «gnarl» from «gnarled» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/gnarl]
* «godsend» from «god-sent» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/godsend]
* «greed» from «greedy» (the noun was originally «greediness») [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/greed]
* «grid» from «gridiron» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/grid]
* «grovel» from «groveling» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/grovel]
* «grunge» from «grungy» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/grunge]
* «gruntle» from «disgruntle» [http://mw1.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/gruntled]

H

* «handwrite» from «handwriting» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/handwrite]
* «hard-boil» from «hard-boiled» [http://mw1.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hard-boil]
* «hawk» (meaning «to sell») from «hawker» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/hawk]
* «haze» from «hazy» [http://mw1.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/haze]
* «headhunt» from «headhunter»
* «headquarter» from «headquarters» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/headquarter]
* «helicopt» from «helicopter»
* «housebreak» from «housebroken» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/housebreak]
* «houseclean» from «housecleaning» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/houseclean]
* «housekeep» from «housekeeper» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/housekeep]

I

* «ideologue» from «ideology» [http://mw1.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ideologue]
* «incent» from «incentive» [http://www.thefreedictionary.com/incent]
* «indice» from «indices» (cf. «index»)
* «injure» from «injury» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/injure]
* «intercept» from «interception» (possibly a backformation)
* «interfluve» from «interfluvial» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/interfluve]
* «interlineate» from «interlinear»
* «intuit» from «intuition» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/intuit]
* «isolate» from «isolated» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/isolate]

J

* «jell» from «jelly» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/jell]
* «jerry-build» from «jerry-built» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/jerry-build]

K

* «kempt» from «unkempt» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/kempt]
* «kidnap» from «kidnapper» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/kidnap]
* «kudo» from «kudos» (non-standard) [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/kudos]

L

* «lase» from «laser» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/lase]
* «laze» from «lazy» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/laze]
* «lech» from «lecher» [http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=letch]
* «legislate» from «legislator» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/legislate]
* «liaise» from «liaison» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/liaise]
* «loaf» (meaning «to be idle») from «loafer» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/loaf]
* «logroll» from «logrolling» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/logroll]
* «luminesce» from «luminescent» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/luminesce]

M

* «manipulate» from «manipulation» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/manipulate]
* «mase» from «maser»
* «mix» from «mixt» (adj. from Old French, misconstrued as past participle of verb) [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/mix]
* «mottle» from «motley» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/mottle]
* «moonlight» (the verb, work on second job) from «moonlighter» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/moonlight]
* «multimillion» from «multimillionaire»

N

* «nitpick» from «nit-picking» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/nitpick]
* «notate» from «notation» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/notate]

O

* «obsess» (meaning «to behave obsessively») from «obsessive»
* «one-up» or «one-upman» from «one-upmanship» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/one-up]
* «opine» from «opinion» [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=opin&searchmode=none]
* «orate» from «oration» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/orate]
* «orientate» from «orientation» [http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node=back%20formation]

P

* «panhandle» (meaning «to accost») from «panhandler» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/panhandle]
* «paramedic» from «paramedical»
* «partake» from «partaker» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/partake]
* «pea» from Middle English «pease» [http://www.yourdictionary.com/ahd/p/p0130200.html]
* «peddle» from «peddler» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/peddle]
* «peeve» from «peevish» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/peeve]
* «pettifog» from «pettifogger» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/pettifog]
* «phosphoresce» from «phosphorescent» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/phosphoresce]
* «preempt» from «preemption» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/preempt]
* «presentate» from «presentation»
* «procéss» from «procession» [http://www.yourdictionary.com/ahd/p/p0576700.html]
* «prodigal» from «prodigality» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/prodigal]
* «proliferate» from «proliferation» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/proliferate]
* «proofread» from «proofreader» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/proofread]

Q

* «quadrumvir» from «quadrumvirate» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/quadrumvir]
* «quantitate» from «quantitative»

R

* «raunch» from «raunchy» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/raunch]
* «reminisce» from «reminiscence» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/reminisce]
* «resurrect» from «resurrection» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/resurrect]
* «rotovate» from «rotovator»

* «sass» (impudence) from «sassy» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/sass]
* «sculpt» from «sculptor» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/sculpt]
* «secrete» (meaning «to produce and emit») from «secretion» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/secrete]
* «secretive» from «secretiveness» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/secretive]
* «sedate» (the verb) from «sedative» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/sedate]
* «self-destruct» from «self-destruction» (cf. «self-destroy») [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/self-destruct]
* «semantic» (adjective) from «semantics»
* «sharecrop» from «sharecropper» [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sharecrop]
* «shoplift» from «shoplifter» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/shoplift]
* «sightsee» from «sightseeing» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/sightsee]
* «sipid» from «insipid» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/sipid]
* «sleaze» from «sleazy» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/sleaze]
* «sleepwalk» from «sleepwalking» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/sleepwalk]
* «smarm» from «smarmy» [http://mw1.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/smarm]
* «sorb» from «sorption» (also a back-formation)
* «soft-land» from «soft landing» (backformed adjective-noun compound)
* «sorption» from «adsorption» and «absorption» [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sorption]
* «spectate» from «spectator» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/spectate]
* «stargaze» from «stargazer» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/stargaze]
* «stave» (the noun) from «staves» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/stave]
* «steamroll» from «steamroller» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/steamroll]
* «stridulate» from «stridulation» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/stridulate]
* «suckle» from «suckling» [http://mw1.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/suckle]
* «sulk» from «sulky» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/sulk]
* «summate» from «summation» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/summate]
* «sunburn» (the verb) from «sunburned» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/sunburn]
* «superannuate» from «superannuated» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/superannuate]
* «surreal» from «surrealism» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/surreal]
* «surveil» from «surveillance» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/surveil]
* «swashbuckle» from «swashbuckler» [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/swashbuckle]
* «swindle» from «swindler» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/swindle]
* «syncline» from «synclinal» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/syncline]

T

* «tase» from «Taser»
* «televise» from «television» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/televise]
* «tongue-lash» from «tongue-lashing» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/tongue-lashing]
* «transcript» (verb) from «transcription» (cf. verb «transcribe»)
* «tricep» from «triceps»
* «trickle-irrigate» from «trickle-irrigation» (possibly backformed from verb-noun compound but may also be verb-verb compound)
* «tweeze» from «tweezers» [http://wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=tweeze]
* «typewrite» from «typewriter» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/typewrite]

U

* «upholster» from «upholstery» [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/upholster]

V

* «vaccinate» from «vaccination» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/vaccinate]
* «vend» as in «vend out» (meaning to contract out to a vendor), derived from «vendor»
* «vinify» from «vinification» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/vinify]
* «vivisect» from «vivisection» [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/vivisect]

W

* «wiretap» from «wiretapper» [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/wiretap]

References

Back-formation (or back formation or backformation) is a term that describes the way certain words are formed. It also refers to the words themselves, so back-formations result from back-formation. If affixation means forming a word by adding an affix (e.g. frosty from frost, refusal from refuse, instrumentation from instrument), then back-formation is essentially this process in reverse: it adapts an existing word by removing its affix, usually a suffix (e.g. sulk from sulky, proliferate from proliferation, back-form from back-formation).

Sometimes a back-formation arises through the assumption that it must already exist, and that its source word is the derivative term. Such an assumption, while misguided, is altogether reasonable, being based on a summary analysis of the source word’s morphology. Consider donation. You might think it derives from donate, but the noun is several centuries older; donate is the back-formation. You are unlikely to recognise a back-formation just by looking at it.

Another everyday example is burgle, a back-formation from burglary. In U.S. English, burglarize (or -ise) is by far the more common verb, but burgle dominates in British English. That burgle has failed to take hold in U.S. English may be partly a result of its lowly origins as a back-formation, as well as its funny phonetic blend of burble and gurgle. But whatever the reasons, I wouldn’t call it “hideous”. Back-formations are not inherently wrong, but they can be redundant; before you use one that seems new or gimmicky, check if there is a standard alternative. [Image: burgling tools. Or are they burglarizing tools?]

Back-formations are frequently made by dropping -tion or -ion from a noun, and adding -e when appropriate, to form a new verb, such as donate from donation. From evolution we get evolute, which has technical meanings as a noun in mathematics and as an adjective in botany, but as a verb meaning the same as evolve, it is a needless variant. Similarly superfluous are cohabitate for cohabit, interpretate for interpret, and solicitate for solicit. Solicitate has a standard adjectival use; it is only its unnecessary use as a verb that I advise against. Last week I heard someone on the radio say installating, as if he had forgotten all about install. But some of these may eventually become standard, even installate.

In most of the examples I’ve included so far, the change has occurred at the end of the word, i.e. the removed affix has been a suffix. Back-forming by removing prefixes is less common, except in humorous contexts such as Jack Winter’s “How I met my wife”, which boasts a litany of deliberately malformed terms like chalant, ept, and peccable.

Regardless of how back-formations are formed, they are often initially considered to be irregular, even ignorant, and suitable only for informal use in slang or jokes. Sometimes, as we have seen, there is no need for them because the semantic niche they purport to inhabit has already been filled. Other back-formations, such as enthuse and liaise, inhabit a grey area of acceptability. And then there are many that serve a useful purpose and have become standard. Here are some I haven’t mentioned already:

automate from automation
beg from beggar
diagnose from diagnosis
drowse from drowsy
edit from editor
execute from execution
free associate from free association
grovel from grovelling (or -l-) (adj.)
injure from injury
intuit from intuition
kidnap from kidnapper
orate from oration
pea from pease
peddle from peddler
reminisce from reminiscence
resurrect from resurrection
scavenge from scavenger
self-destruct from self-destruction (from destroy, destruction)
sleaze from sleazy
statistic from statistics
surveil from surveillance
televise from television
vaccinate from vaccination
window-shop (v.) from window-shopping

This entry was posted on Tuesday, April 28th, 2009 at 2:44 pm and is filed under etymology, language, morphology, words. You can follow any responses to this entry through the RSS 2.0 feed.
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