European is a borrowed word

Loanwords are words adopted by the speakers of one language from
a different language (the source language). A
loanword can also be called a borrowing.
The abstract noun borrowing refers to the process of speakers
adopting words
from a source language into their native language. «Loan» and
«borrowing» are of course metaphors, because there is no literal
lending process. There is no transfer from
one language to another, and no «returning» words to
the source language. The words simply come to be used by a speech
community that speaks a different language from the one these words
originated in.

Borrowing is a consequence of cultural contact between two language
communities. Borrowing of words can go in both directions between the
two languages in contact, but often there is an asymmetry, such that more words
go from one side to the other. In this case the source language
community has some advantage of power, prestige and/or wealth that
makes the objects and ideas it brings desirable and useful to the borrowing
language community. For example, the Germanic tribes in the first few
centuries A.D. adopted numerous loanwords from Latin as they
adopted new products via trade with the Romans. Few Germanic words, on
the other hand, passed into Latin.

The actual process of borrowing is complex and involves many usage
events (i.e. instances of use of the new word). Generally, some
speakers of the borrowing language know the source language too, or at
least enough of it to utilize the relevant word. They (often
consciously) adopt the new word when
speaking the borrowing language, because it most exactly fits the idea
they are trying to express. If they are bilingual in the source
language, which is often the case, they might pronounce the words the
same or similar to the way they are pronounced in the source language.
For example, English speakers adopted the word garage from
French, at first with a pronunciation nearer to the French
pronunciation than is now usually found. Presumably the very first
speakers who used the word in English knew at least some French and
heard the word used by French speakers, in a French-speaking context.

Those who first use the new word might use it at first only with
speakers of the source language who know the word, but at some point
they come to use the word with those to whom the word was not
previously known.
To these speakers the word may sound ‘foreign’. At this stage, when
most speakers do not know the word and if they hear it think it is
from another language, the word
can be called a foreign word. There are many foreign words
and phrases used in English such as bon vivant (French),
mutatis mutandis (Latin), and Fahrvergnuegen (German).

However, in time more speakers can become familiar with a new foreign
word or expression.
The community of users of this word can
grow to the point where even people who know little or nothing of the
source language understand, and even use, the novel word
themselves. The new word becomes
conventionalized: part of the conventional ways of speaking in
the borrowing language. At this point we call it a borrowing or loanword.

(It should be noted that not all foreign words do become loanwords; if they fall out of use
before they become widespread, they do not reach the loanword stage.)

Conventionalization is a gradual process in which a word progressively
permeates a larger and larger speech community, becoming part of ever
more people’s linguistic repetoire.
As part of its becoming more familiar to more people,
a newly borrowed word gradually adopts sound and other characteristics
of the borrowing language as speakers who do not know the source
language accommodate it to their own linguistic systems. In time,
people in the borrowing community do not perceive the word as a loanword at all. Generally, the longer a borrowed word
has been in the language, and the more frequently it is used, the more
it resembles the native words of the language.

English has gone through many periods in which large numbers of words
from a particular language were borrowed. These periods coincide with
times of major cultural contact between English speakers and those
speaking other languages. The waves of borrowing during periods
of especially strong cultural contacts are not sharply delimited, and
can overlap. For example, the Norse influence on English began already
in the 8th century A.D. and continued strongly well after the Norman
Conquest brought a large influx of Norman French to the language.

It is part of the cultural history of English speakers that they have
always adopted loanwords from the languages of whatever cultures they have
come in contact with. There have been few periods when borrowing
became unfashionable, and there has never been a national academy in
Britain, the U.S., or other English-speaking countries to
attempt to restrict new loanwords, as there has been in many continental
European countries.

The following list is a small sampling of the loanwords that came into
English in different periods and from different languages.

Latin
The forms given in this section are the Old English ones. The original Latin source word is given in parentheses where significantly different. Some Latin words were themselves originally borrowed from Greek. It can be deduced that these borrowings date from the time before the Angles and Saxons left the continent for England, because of very similar forms found in the other old Germanic languages (Old High German, Old Saxon, etc.). The source words are generally attested in Latin texts, in the large body of Latin writings that were preserved through the ages.

ancor	‘anchor’
butere	‘butter’ (L < Gr. butyros)
cealc	‘chalk’
ceas	‘cheese’ (caseum)
cetel	‘kettle’
cycene	‘kitchen’
cirice	‘church’ (ecclesia < Gr. ecclesia)
disc	‘dish’ (discus)
mil	‘mile’ (milia [passuum] ‘a thousand paces’)
piper	‘pepper’
pund	‘pound’ (pondo ‘a weight’)
sacc	‘sack’ (saccus)
sicol	‘sickle’
straet	‘street’ ([via] strata ‘straight way’ or stone-paved road)
weall	‘wall’ (vallum)
win	‘wine’ (vinum < Gr. oinos)

Latin

apostol	‘apostle’ (apostolus < Gr. apostolos)
casere	‘caesar, emperor’
ceaster	‘city’ (castra ‘camp’)
cest	‘chest’ (cista ‘box’)
circul	‘circle’
cometa	‘comet’ (cometa < Greek)
maegester	‘master’ (magister)
martir	‘martyr’
paper	‘paper’ (papyrus, from Gr.)
tigle	’tile’ (tegula)

Celtic

brocc	‘badger’
cumb	‘combe, valley’

(few ordinary words, but thousands of place and river names: London, Carlisle,
Devon, Dover, Cornwall, Thames, Avon…)

Scandinavian
Most of these first appeared in the written language in Middle English; but many were no doubt borrowed earlier, during the period of the Danelaw (9th-10th centuries).

• anger, blight, by-law, cake, call, clumsy, doze, egg, fellow, gear, get, give, hale, hit, husband, kick, kill, kilt, kindle, law, low, lump, rag, raise, root, scathe, scorch, score, scowl, scrape, scrub, seat, skill, skin, skirt, sky, sly, take, they, them, their, thrall, thrust, ugly, want, window, wing
• Place name suffixes: -by, -thorpe, -gate

French

• Law and government—attorney, bailiff, chancellor, chattel, country, court, crime, defendent, evidence, government, jail, judge, jury, larceny, noble, parliament, plaintiff, plea, prison, revenue, state, tax, verdict
• Church—abbot, chaplain, chapter, clergy, friar, prayer, preach, priest, religion, sacrament, saint, sermon
• Nobility—baron, baroness; count, countess; duke, duchess; marquis, marquess; prince, princess; viscount, viscountess; noble, royal (contrast native words: king, queen, earl, lord, lady, knight, kingly, queenly)
• Military—army, artillery, battle, captain, company, corporal, defense,enemy,marine, navy, sergeant, soldier, volunteer
• Cooking—beef, boil, broil, butcher, dine, fry, mutton, pork, poultry, roast, salmon, stew, veal
• Culture and luxury goods—art, bracelet, claret, clarinet, dance, diamond, fashion, fur, jewel, oboe, painting, pendant, satin, ruby, sculpture
• Other—adventure, change, charge, chart, courage, devout, dignity, enamor, feign, fruit, letter, literature, magic, male, female, mirror, pilgrimage, proud, question, regard, special

Also Middle English French loans: a huge number of words in age, -ance/-ence, -ant/-ent, -ity, -ment, -tion, con-, de-, and pre- .

Sometimes it’s hard to tell whether a given word came from French or whether it was taken straight from Latin. Words for which this difficulty occurs are those in which there were no special sound and/or spelling changes of the sort that distinguished French from Latin

The effects of the renaissance begin to be seriously felt in England. We see the beginnings of a huge influx of Latin and Greek words, many of them learned words imported by scholars well versed in those languages. But many are borrowings from other languages, as words from European high culture begin to make their presence felt and the first words come in from the earliest period of colonial expansion.

Latin

• agile, abdomen, anatomy, area, capsule, compensate, dexterity, discus, disc/disk, excavate, expensive, fictitious, gradual, habitual, insane, janitor, meditate, notorious, orbit, peninsula, physician, superintendent, ultimate, vindicate

Greek (many of these via Latin)

• anonymous, atmosphere, autograph, catastrophe, climax, comedy, critic, data, ectasy, history, ostracize, parasite, pneumonia, skeleton, tonic, tragedy
• Greek bound morphemes: -ism, -ize

Arabic

• via Spanish—alcove, algebra, zenith, algorithm, almanac, azimuth, alchemy, admiral
• via other Romance languages—amber, cipher, orange, saffron, sugar, zero, coffee

Period of major colonial expansion, industrial/technological revolution, and American immigration.

Words from European languages

French
French continues to be the largest single source of new words outside of very specialized vocabulary domains (scientific/technical vocabulary, still dominated by classical borrowings).

• High culture—ballet, bouillabaise, cabernet, cachet, chaise longue, champagne, chic, cognac, corsage, faux pas, nom de plume, quiche, rouge, roulet, sachet, salon, saloon, sang froid, savoir faire
• War and Military—bastion, brigade, battalion, cavalry, grenade, infantry, pallisade, rebuff, bayonet
• Other—bigot, chassis, clique, denim, garage, grotesque, jean(s), niche, shock
• French Canadian—chowder
• Louisiana French (Cajun)—jambalaya

Spanish

• armada, adobe, alligator, alpaca, armadillo, barricade, bravado, cannibal, canyon, coyote, desperado, embargo, enchilada, guitar, marijuana, mesa, mosquito, mustang, ranch, taco, tornado, tortilla, vigilante

Italian

• alto, arsenal, balcony, broccoli, cameo, casino, cupola, duo, fresco, fugue, gazette (via French), ghetto, gondola, grotto, macaroni, madrigal, motto, piano, opera, pantaloons, prima donna, regatta, sequin, soprano, opera, stanza, stucco, studio, tempo, torso, umbrella, viola, violin
• from Italian American immigrants—cappuccino, espresso, linguini, mafioso, pasta, pizza, ravioli, spaghetti, spumante, zabaglione, zucchini

Dutch, Flemish

• Shipping, naval terms—avast, boom, bow, bowsprit, buoy, commodore, cruise, dock, freight, keel, keelhaul, leak, pump, reef, scoop, scour, skipper, sloop, smuggle, splice, tackle, yawl, yacht
• Cloth industry—bale, cambric, duck (fabric), fuller’s earth, mart, nap (of cloth), selvage, spool, stripe
• Art—easel, etching, landscape, sketch
• War—beleaguer, holster, freebooter, furlough, onslaught
• Food and drink—booze, brandy(wine), coleslaw, cookie, cranberry, crullers, gin, hops, stockfish, waffle
• Other—bugger (orig. French), crap, curl, dollar, scum, split (orig. nautical term), uproar

German

• bum, dunk, feldspar, quartz, hex, lager, knackwurst, liverwurst, loafer, noodle, poodle, dachshund, pretzel, pinochle, pumpernickel, sauerkraut, schnitzel, zwieback, (beer)stein, lederhosen, dirndl
• 20th century German loanwords—blitzkrieg, zeppelin, strafe, U-boat, delicatessen, hamburger, frankfurter, wiener, hausfrau, kindergarten, Oktoberfest, schuss, wunderkind, bundt (cake), spritz (cookies), (apple) strudel

Yiddish (most are 20th century borrowings)

• bagel, Chanukkah (Hanukkah), chutzpah, dreidel, kibbitzer, kosher, lox, pastrami (orig. from Romanian), schlep, spiel, schlepp, schlemiel, schlimazel, gefilte fish, goy, klutz, knish, matzoh, oy vey, schmuck, schnook,

Scandinavian

• fjord, maelstrom, ombudsman, ski, slalom, smorgasbord

Russian

• apparatchik, borscht, czar/tsar, glasnost, icon, perestroika, vodka

Words from other parts of the world

Sanskrit

• avatar, karma, mahatma, swastika, yoga

Hindi

• bandanna, bangle, bungalow, chintz, cot, cummerbund, dungaree, juggernaut, jungle, loot, maharaja, nabob, pajamas, punch (the drink), shampoo, thug, kedgeree, jamboree

Dravidian

• curry, mango, teak, pariah

Persian (Farsi)

• check, checkmate, chess

Arabic

• bedouin, emir, jakir, gazelle, giraffe, harem, hashish, lute, minaret, mosque, myrrh, salaam, sirocco, sultan, vizier, bazaar, caravan

African languages

• banana (via Portuguese), banjo, boogie-woogie, chigger, goober, gorilla, gumbo, jazz, jitterbug, jitters, juke(box), voodoo, yam, zebra, zombie

American Indian languages

• avocado, cacao, cannibal, canoe, chipmunk, chocolate, chili, hammock, hominy, hurricane, maize, moccasin, moose, papoose, pecan, possum, potato, skunk, squaw, succotash, squash, tamale (via Spanish), teepee, terrapin, tobacco, toboggan, tomahawk, tomato, wigwam, woodchuck
• (plus thousands of place names, including Ottawa, Toronto, Saskatchewan and the names of more than half the
  states of the U.S., including Michigan, Texas, Nebraska, Illinois)

Chinese

• chop suey, chow mein, dim sum, ketchup, tea, ginseng, kowtow, litchee

Japanese

• geisha, hara kiri, judo, jujitsu, kamikaze, karaoke, kimono, samurai, soy, sumo, sushi, tsunami

Pacific Islands

• bamboo, gingham, rattan, taboo, tattoo, ukulele, boondocks

Australia

• boomerang, budgerigar, didgeridoo, kangaroo (and many more in Australian English)

The modern English language vocabulary possesses a rich history and is characterized by a great number of borrowed words from other languages during different steps of its development.

The reasons why the words were borrowed into English are the following:

Close interaction with a nation for whom English is not the mother tongue

A certain language is imposed on the English people as a result of numerous invasions

The mother tongue lacks the word for denoting a certain notion or object

The notion or object, which is peculiar for another country, is borrowed by the English people, altogether with the word, denoting the object.

The words are borrowed from another language as synonyms that give various shades of meaning to the words already existing in the language. [Арнольд 1986: 205]

Throughout the centuries, the British Isles underwent waves of invasions by Romans, Danes, and Norman French, each inevitably contributing to the way of life on the conquered land and leaving their trace on English vocabulary. [J.Algeo 2010: 247]

The words of Latin origin began to appear in the English language in the 1^st century BC. This process is closely connected with the occupation of the territory belonging to Germanic tribes by the Roman invaders. The adopted words naturally indicate the new conceptions that the Germanic peoples acquired from this contact with a higher civilization. [Albert C.Baugh, Thomas Cable 2002: 73]

During this period, mainly the words having to do with agriculture, cattle-breeding, and military affairs were borrowed. Many of the words borrowed in the Old English period have survived into Modern English. Among them are the following words: ancor ‘anchor’ (Lat. ancora), butere ‘butter’ (Lat. būtyrum), cealc ‘chalk’ (Lat. calx), cēse ‘cheese’ (Lat. cāseus), cetel ‘kettle’ (Lat. catillus), cycene ‘kitchen’ (Vul. Lat. cucīna, var. of coquīna), disc ‘dish’ (Lat. discus), mangere ‘-monger, trader’ (Lat. mangō), mīl ‘mile’ (Lat. mīlia [passuum]), piper ‘pepper’ (Lat. piper), pund ‘pound’ (Lat. pondō ), sacc ‘sack’ (Lat. saccus), sicol ‘sickle’ (Lat. secula), strǣt ‘ (Lat. [via] strata ), weall ‘wall’ (Lat. vallum). [J.Algeo 2010: 249]

Moreover, the Germanic tribes owe the knowledge of some new fruits and vegetables of which they had no idea before to the Romans. Thus, the English vocabulary was enlarged by the Latin names for new food products, such as cherry (Lat. cerasum), pear (Lat. pirum), plum (Lat. plunus), pea (Lat. pisum), beet (Lat.beta), plant (Lat.planta). [Антрушина 1985: 35]

A large plaster of borrowed Latin words appeared in the English language as a result of Christianization of England in the 7^th century AD. The borrowed words indicated the objects and ideas associated with church and religious rituals. [Антрушина 1985: 36] E.g. alter ‘altar’ (Lat. altar), (a)postol ‘apostle’ (Lat. apostolus), balsam (Lat. balsamum), dēmon (Lat. daemon), messe ‘mass’ (Lat. missa, позже messa), martir ‘martyr. [J.Algeo 2010: 250]

The introduction of Christianity meant the building of churches and the establishment of monasteries. Latin, the language of the services and of ecclesiastical learning, became widely spread throughout England. Schools were established in most of the monasteries and churches. [Albert C.Baugh, Thomas Cable 2002: 76]

A great number of Latin borrowings came into usage during the New English period (since 1500). The words were borrowed at the same time directly from Latin and from Greek as the ultimate source with the Latin as the immediate source. [Антрушина 1985: 38; J.Algeo 2010: 251]. All these words enriched the English language vocabulary in the fields of science, art and culture: e.g. datum, status, phenomenon, philosophy, method, music [Антрушина 1985: 38].

It is difficult to overestimate the immense impact on English vocabulary made by the French language. After the Norman Conquest, the Anglo-Saxon nobility was deprived of their real estate and political rights. All the leading positions were distributed among the Norman conquerors, thus, French became the language of the official class in England. [Аракин 2003: 173].

French words of Norman dialect penetrated every aspect of social life, but most of the words had to do with political life and government (counsel, government, state, parliament, country); judicial proceedings (court, judge, justice, condemn, attorney); army and military affairs (war, battle, army, regiment, victory, cannon, mail). Construction and architecture (palace, pillar, chapel); religion and church (religion, clergy, parish, prayer); school (lesson, pupil, pen, pencil); trade (fair, market, money, mercer) and art (art, colour, ornament).

There is also a great number of loan translations from French, such as marriage of convenience (mariage de conveyance), that goes without saying (ça va sans dire), and trial balloon (ballon d’essai).

It is interesting to note that the same French word may be borrowed at various periods in the history of English, like gentle (thirteenth century), genteel (sixteenth century), and jaunty (seventeenth century), all from French gentil. (Gentile, however, was taken straight from Latin gentīlis, meaning ‘foreign’ in post Classical Latin.) It is similar with chief, first occurring in English in the fourteenth century, and chef, in the nineteenth. [J.Algeo 2010: 256]

In Modern English, there are the words of French origin and the native English words, which denote the same notion. However, they are different in their stylistic value. The English words are neutral, and the borrowed French words may be characterized as “bookish” and “high-flown” [Аракин 2003: 177]. E.g. (to begin — to commence, to come – to arrive, to wish – to desire, to do – to act, speech – discourse, harm – injury, help — aid).

The Renaissance period is characterized by extensive cultural contacts between the major European states. During this period, a great number of words of French origin entered the English language and enriched its vocabulary in the fields of science, culture and art. The peculiar feature of such borrowings is that their French pronunciation is preserved. (machine, police, magazine, ballet, matinée, scene, technique). [Антрушина 1985: 38]

Scandinavian loanwords appeared in the English language at the end of the 8^th century AD, when England underwent several Scandinavian invasions.

The newly borrowed words did not denote any new notions – they indicated commonly used objects and habitual actions. [Аракин 2003: 169] In some cases, Scandinavian borrowings so closely resemble their English cognates that it becomes almost impossible to say whether the word was borrowed or not.

Sometimes an English word acquired a new meaning under the influence of a Scandinavian word similar in form. The initial meaning of the word “dream”, for instance, was “joy”. Later on, under the Scandinavian influence it changed its meaning according to the cognate word draumr ‘vision in sleep. ’

Most of the words in Modern English beginning with the sound combination [sk] are of Scandinavian origin e.g. scowl, scrape, scrub, skill, skin, skirt, sky.

References

Антрушина Г.Б., Афанасьева О.В., Морозова Н.Н. Лексикология английского языка. — М.: Высшая школа, 1985. — 223 с.

Аракин В.Д. История английского языка. — М.: ФИЗМАТЛИТ, 2003. — 272 с.

Арнольд И.В. Лексикология современного английского языка. — М. : Высшая школа, 1986. — 295 с.

Пословицы в фразеологическом поле: когнитивный, дискурсивный, сопоставительный аспекты: монография / Н.Ф. Алефиренко [и др.]; под ред. проф. Т.Н. Федуленковой. – Владимир: Изд-во ВлГУ, 2017. 231 с. (С. 176-196)

Современная фразеология: тенденции и инновации: монография (том посвящается д.ф.н. проф. Т.Н. Федуленковой по случаю юбилея) / Н.Ф. Алефиренко, В.И. Зимин, Т.Н. Федуленкова и др. – М.-СПб-Брянск: «Новый проект», 2016. – 200 с.

Традиции и инновации в лингвистике и лингводидактике: Материалы Международ. конф. в честь 65-летия д.ф.н. проф. Т.Н. Федуленковой / ВлГУ им. А.Г. и Н.Г. Столетовых. Владимир, 2015. 268 c.

Федуленкова Т.Н. Лекции по английской фразеологии библейского происхождения. М.: ИД АЕ, 2016. – 146 с.

Федуленкова Т.Н. Сопоставительная фразеология английского, немецкого и шведского языков: курс лекций. М.: ИД Акад. Естествознания, 2012. – 220 с.

Федуленкова Т.Н., Адамия З.К., Чабашвили М. и др. Фразеологическое пространство национального словаря в сопоставительном аспекте: монография. Т.2. / под ред. Т.Н. Федуленковой. – М.: ИД Академии Естествознания, 2014. – 140 с.

Федуленкова Т.Н., Иванов А.В., Куприна Т.В. и др. Фразеология и терминология: грани пересечения: монография – Архангельск: Поморский университет, 2009. – 170 с.

Федуленкова Т.Н., Садыкова А.Г., Давлетбаева Д.Н. Фразеологическое пространство национального словаря в сопоставительном аспекте: монография. Т.1. / отв ред. Т.Н. Федуленкова. – Архангельск: Поморский университет, 2008. – 200 с.

Cross-Linguistic and Cross-Cultural Approaches to Phraseology: ESSE-9, Aarhus, 22-26 August 2008 / T. Fedulenkova (ed.). Arkhangelsk; Aarhus, 2009. 209 p.

John Algeo The Origins and Development of the English Language:. — Wadsworth: Cengage Learning, 2010. — 347 с.

Albert C.Baugh, Thomas Cable A History of the English Language. London: Routledge, 2002. 447 с.

The larger part of English
vocabulary consists of loan words. Borrowing is one of the ways of
enriching the vocabulary. Words can be borrowed through all kinds of
contacts between nations: wars, invasions, occupation, cultural and
trade relations between countries. It is natural, therefore, in
discussing the problem of loan words in any language to give a
survey of certain historical facts from the life of the people
speaking that language.

3.1. Latin borrowings

The
earliest borrowings came into English from Latin. In the 1^st
century B.C. the Germanic tribes lived in Central Europe, they spoke
numerous Germanic languages which contained Indo-European and Common
Germanic elements. As most of Europe was occupied by the Roman Empire
at that time The Germanic tribes came into constant contacts with the
Romans. There were both military conflicts and trade relations. The
Germanic tribes were primitive cattle-breeders who knew next to
nothing about land cultivation. The only products known to them were
meat and milk. So, from the more civilized Romans they learnt how to
make butter and cheese. Since there were no words to name the new
foodstuffs in their tribal languages they had to use Latin words for
them. The Latin names of some fruits and vegetables new to the
Germanic tribes also entered their vocabulary: cherry,
pear, plum, pea, pepper, peach, beet. The
very word plant
is
also of Latin origin. Other Latin borrowings of this period are: cup,
dish, mill, kitchen, wine, mule, pound, inch, mile, kettle.

As Britain
was also part of the Roman Empire at that time, such words as street
(strata
via), wall
(vallum),
camp
(campus),
port
(portus),
chester
(as
in Manchester)
(castra) remaine in the language.

Historically,
all Latin loan words in English can be divided into 3 layers. The
borrowings described above belong to the
first layer.

The second
stream of Latin borrowings came into English with the
Christianization of the British Isles in the 7^th
century A.D. The language of the Christian church was Latin and,
naturally,
the second layer
of Latin borrowings consists mostly of different religious terms:
pope,
bishop, monk, nun, priest, altar, devil, creed, angel, psalm, candle,
hymn, apostle, disciple. The
priests were educated people who began to establish church schools
and the words school,
master, verse, scholar, chalk came
into the language. Of words other than religious and educational
terms we may name such as lion,
copper, marble, gem, palm-tree, cap, spade, fork
(вилы).

The
third layer
of Latin borrowings refers to the epoch of Renaissance (in England it
came in the 16^th
century, later than in Italy). This period was marked by the
prospering of art, science and culture in all European countries.
There also came a revival of interest in ancient civilizations of
Greece and Rome. The words that came into English during this period
differ greatly from earlier Latin borrowings. Now the borrowing was
done from literature and scientific works that were written in Latin
and the loan words, in contrast to the previous two layers, were
mostly abstract in meaning and many of them were scientific terms.
There were many verbs and adjectives among them and comparatively few
nouns: introduce,
execute, collect, decorate, senior, solar, triangular, evident,
cordial, obvious, union, relation, etc. The
words of the first and second layers were mostly nouns and the
borrowing was from oral everyday communication, not from written
sources.

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