Euphemism is a word which is

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A euphemism () is an innocuous word or expression used in place of one that is deemed offensive or suggests something unpleasant.^[1] Some euphemisms are intended to amuse, while others use bland, inoffensive terms for concepts that the user wishes to downplay. Euphemisms may be used to mask profanity or refer to topics some consider taboo such as disability, sex, excretion, or death in a polite way.^[2]

Etymology[edit]

Euphemism comes from the Greek word euphemia (εὐφημία) which refers to the use of ‘words of good omen’; it is a compound of eû (εὖ), meaning ‘good, well’, and phḗmē (φήμη), meaning ‘prophetic speech; rumour, talk’.^[3] Eupheme is a reference to the female Greek spirit of words of praise and positivity, etc. The term euphemism itself was used as a euphemism by the ancient Greeks; with the meaning «to keep a holy silence» (speaking well by not speaking at all).^[4]

Purpose[edit]

Avoidance[edit]

Reasons for using euphemisms vary by context and intent. Commonly, euphemisms are used to avoid directly addressing subjects that might be deemed negative or embarrassing, e.g. death, sex, excretory bodily functions. They may be created for innocent, well-intentioned purposes or nefariously and cynically, intentionally to deceive and confuse.

Mitigation[edit]

Euphemisms are also used to mitigate, soften or downplay the gravity of large-scale injustices, war crimes, or other events that warrant a pattern of avoidance in official statements or documents. For instance, one reason for the comparative scarcity of written evidence documenting the exterminations at Auschwitz, relative to their sheer number, is «directives for the extermination process obscured in bureaucratic euphemisms».^[5] Another famous example of this is during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine Russian President Vladimir Putin famously used in his speech starting the invasion calling the invasion a «special military operation».^[6]

Euphemisms are sometimes used to lessen the opposition to a political move. For example, according to linguist Ghil’ad Zuckermann, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu used the neutral Hebrew lexical item פעימות peimót («beatings (of the heart)»), rather than נסיגה nesigá («withdrawal»), to refer to the stages in the Israeli withdrawal from the West Bank (see Wye River Memorandum), in order to lessen the opposition of right-wing Israelis to such a move.^[7]: 181 The lexical item פעימות peimót, which literally means «beatings (of the heart)» is thus a euphemism for «withdrawal».^[7]: 181

Rhetoric[edit]

Euphemism may be used as a rhetorical strategy, in which case its goal is to change the valence of a description.^{[clarification needed]}

Controversial use[edit]

The act of labeling a term as a euphemism can in itself be controversial, as in the following two examples:

• Affirmative action, meaning a preference for minorities or the historically disadvantaged, usually in employment or academic admissions. This term is sometimes said to be a euphemism for reverse discrimination, or, in the UK, positive discrimination, which suggests an intentional bias that might be legally prohibited, or otherwise unpalatable.^[8]
• Enhanced interrogation is a euphemism for torture. For example, columnist David Brooks called the use of this term for practices at Abu Ghraib, Guantánamo, and elsewhere an effort to «dull the moral sensibility».^[9]

Formation methods[edit]

Phonetic modification[edit]

Phonetic euphemism is used to replace profanities and blasphemies, diminishing their intensity. Modifications include:

• Shortening or «clipping» the term, such as Jeez (Jesus) and what the— («what the hell»).
• Mispronunciations, such as oh my gosh («oh my God»), frickin («fucking»), darn («damn») or oh shoot («oh shit»). This is also referred to as a minced oath.
• Using acronyms as replacements, such as SOB («son of a bitch»). Sometimes, the word «word» or «bomb» is added after it, such as F-word («fuck»), etc. Also, the letter can be phonetically respelled.

Pronunciation[edit]

To alter the pronunciation or spelling of a taboo word (such as a swear word) to form a euphemism is known as taboo deformation, or a minced oath. Feck is a minced oath originating in Hiberno-English and popularised outside of Ireland by the British sitcom Father Ted. Some examples of Cockney rhyming slang may serve the same purpose: to call a person a berk sounds less offensive than to call a person a cunt, though berk is short for Berkeley Hunt,^[10] which rhymes with cunt.^[11]

Understatement[edit]

Euphemisms formed from understatements include: asleep for dead and drinking for consuming alcohol. «Tired and emotional» is a notorious British euphemism for «drunk», one of many recurring jokes popularised by the satirical magazine Private Eye; it has been used by MPs to avoid unparliamentary language.

Substitution[edit]

Pleasant, positive, worthy, neutral, or nondescript terms are often substituted for explicit or unpleasant ones, with many substituted terms deliberately coined by sociopolitical movements, marketing, public relations, or advertising initiatives, including:

• «meat packing company» for «slaughter-house» (avoids entirely the subject of killing); «natural issue» or «love child» for «bastard»; «let go» for «fired», etc.

Over time, it becomes socially unacceptable to use the latter word,^{[citation needed]} as one is effectively downgrading the matter concerned to its former lower status, and the euphemism becomes dominant, due to a wish not to offend; see euphemism treadmill.

Metaphor[edit]

• Metaphors (beat the meat, choke the chicken, or jerkin’ the gherkin for masturbation; take a dump and take a leak for defecation and urination, respectively)
• Comparisons (buns for buttocks, weed for cannabis)
• Metonymy (men’s room for «men’s toilet»)

Slang[edit]

The use of a term with a softer connotation, though it shares the same meaning. For instance, screwed up is a euphemism for fucked up; hook-up and laid are euphemisms for sexual intercourse.

Foreign words[edit]

Expressions or words from a foreign language may be imported for use as euphemism. For example, the French word enceinte was sometimes used instead of the English word pregnant;^[12] abattoir for «slaughter-house», although in French the word retains its explicit violent meaning «a place for beating down», conveniently lost on non-French speakers. «Entrepreneur» for «business-man», adds glamour; «douche» (French: shower) for vaginal irrigation device; «bidet» (French: little pony) for «vessel for intimate ablutions». Ironically, although in English physical «handicaps» are almost always described with euphemism, in French the English word «handicap» is used as a euphemism for their problematic words «infirmité» or «invalidité».^{[citation needed]}

Periphrasis/circumlocution[edit]

Periphrasis, or circumlocution, is one of the most common: to «speak around» a given word, implying it without saying it. Over time, circumlocutions become recognized as established euphemisms for particular words or ideas.

Doublespeak[edit]

Bureaucracies frequently spawn euphemisms intentionally, as doublespeak expressions. For example, in the past, the US military used the term «sunshine units» for contamination by radioactive isotopes.^[13] Into the present,^{[when?][citation needed]} the United States Central Intelligence Agency refers to systematic torture as «enhanced interrogation techniques».^[14] An effective death sentence in the Soviet Union during the Great Purge often used the clause «imprisonment without right to correspondence»: the person sentenced would be shot soon after conviction.^[15] As early as 1939, Nazi official Reinhard Heydrich used the term Sonderbehandlung («special treatment») to mean summary execution of persons viewed as «disciplinary problems» by the Nazis even before commencing the systematic extermination of the Jews. Heinrich Himmler, aware that the word had come to be known to mean murder, replaced that euphemism with one in which Jews would be «guided» (to their deaths) through the slave-labor and extermination camps^[16] after having been «evacuated» to their doom. Such was part of the formulation of Endlösung der Judenfrage (the «Final Solution to the Jewish Question»), which became known to the outside world during the Nuremberg Trials.^[17]

Lifespan[edit]

Frequently, over time, euphemisms themselves become taboo words, through the linguistic process of semantic change known as pejoration, which University of Oregon linguist Sharon Henderson Taylor dubbed the «euphemism cycle» in 1974,^[18] also frequently referred to as the «euphemism treadmill«. For instance, the act of human defecation is possibly the most needy candidate for a euphemism in all eras. Toilet is an 18th-century euphemism, replacing the older euphemism house-of-office, which in turn replaced the even older euphemisms privy-house and bog-house.^[19] In the 20th century, where the old euphemisms lavatory (a place where one washes) or toilet (a place where one dresses^[20]) had grown from widespread usage (e.g., in the United States) to being synonymous with the crude act they sought to deflect, they were sometimes replaced with bathroom (a place where one bathes), washroom (a place where one washes), or restroom (a place where one rests) or even by the extreme form powder room (a place where one applies facial cosmetics). The form water closet, which in turn became euphemised to W.C., is a less deflective form.^{[citation needed]}

Another example in American English is the replacement of «colored people» with «Negro» (euphemism by foreign language), which itself came to be replaced by either «African American» or «Black».^[21] Also in the United States the term «ethnic minorities» in the 2010s has been replaced by people of color.^[22]

Venereal disease, which associated shameful bacterial infection with a seemingly worthy ailment emanating from Venus the goddess of love, soon lost its deflective force in the post-classical education era, as «VD», which was replaced by the three-letter initialism «STD» (sexually transmitted disease); later, «STD» was replaced by «STI» (sexually transmitted infection).^[23]

The word shit appears to have originally been a euphemism for defecation in Pre-Germanic, as the Proto-Indo-European root *sḱeyd-, from which it was derived, meant ‘to cut off’.^[24]

Mentally disabled people were originally defined with words such as «morons» or «imbeciles», which then became commonly used insults. The medical diagnosis was changed to «mentally retarded», which morphed into a pejorative against those with mental disabilities. To avoid the negative connotations of their diagnoses, students who need accommodations because of such conditions are often labeled as «special needs» instead, although the word «special» has begun to crop up as a schoolyard insult.^{[25][better source needed]} As of August 2013, the Social Security Administration replaced the term «mental retardation» with «intellectual disability».^[26] Since 2012, that change in terminology has been adopted by the National Institutes of Health and the medical industry at large.^[27] There are numerous disability-related euphemisms that have negative connotations.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

Further reading[edit]

• Keith, Allan; Burridge, Kate. Euphemism & Dysphemism: Language Used as Shield and Weapon, Oxford University Press, 1991. ISBN 0-7351-0288-0.
• Benveniste, Émile, «Euphémismes anciens and modernes», in: Problèmes de linguistique générale, vol. 1, pp. 308–314. [originally published in: Die Sprache, I (1949), pp. 116–122].
• «Euphemism» . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 9 (11th ed.). 1911.
• Enright, D. J. (1986). Fair of Speech. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-283060-0.
• Fussell, Paul: Class: A Guide Through The American Status System, Touchstone – Simon & Schuster Inc., 1983. ISBN 0-671-44991-5, 0-671-79225-3.
• R.W.Holder: How Not to Say What You Mean: A Dictionary of Euphemisms, Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-19-860762-8.
• Keyes, Ralph (2010). Euphemania: Our Love Affair with Euphemisms. Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 978-0-316-05656-4.
• Maledicta: The International Journal of Verbal Aggression (ISSN US).
• McGlone, M. S., Beck, G., & Pfiester, R. A. (2006). «Contamination and camouflage in euphemisms». Communication Monographs, 73, 261–282.
• Rawson, Hugh (1995). A Dictionary of Euphemism & Other Doublespeak (second ed.). ISBN 0-517-70201-0.
• Smyth, Herbert Weir (1920). Greek Grammar. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 678. ISBN 0-674-36250-0.
• Heidepeter, Philipp; Reutner, Ursula. «When Humour Questions Taboo: A Typology of Twisted Euphemism Use», in: Pragmatics & Cognition 28/1, 138–166. ISSN 0929-0907.

External links[edit]

• The dictionary definition of euphemism at Wiktionary

There
is a variety of periphrasis which we shall call euphemistic.

Euphemism,
as is known, is a word or phrase used to replace an unpleasant word
or expression by a conventionally more acceptable one, for example,
the word ‘to die’ has bred the following euphemisms: to pass away, to
expire, to be no more, to depart, to join the majority, to be gone,
and the more facetious ones: to kick the bucket, to give up the
ghost, to go west. So euphemisms are synonyms which aim at producing
a deliberately mild effect.

The
origin of the term ‘euphemism’ discloses the aim of the device very
clearly, i.e. speaking well (from Greek—eu = well + -pheme =
speaking). In the vocabulary of any language, synonyms can be found
that soften an otherwise coarse or unpleasant idea. Euphemism is
some­times figuratively called «a whitewashing device»..
The linguistic peculi­arity of euphemism lies in the fact that
every euphemism must call up a definite synonym in the mind of the
reader or listener. This synonym, or dominant in a group of synonyms,
as it is often called, must follow the euphemism like a shadow, as
‘to possess a vivid imagination’, or ‘to tell stories’ in the proper
context will call up the unpleasant verb to lie. The euphemistic
synonyms given above are part of the language-as-a-system. They have
not been freshly invented. They are expressive means of the language
and are to be found in all good dictionaries. They cannot be regarded
as stylistic devices because they do not call to mind the key­word
or dominant of the group; in other words, they refer the mind to the
concept directly, not through the medium of another word. Compare
these euphemisms with the following from Dickens’s «Pickwick
Papers»: «They think we have come by this horse in some
dishonest manner»

The
italicized parts call forth the word ‘steal’ (have stolen it).

Euphemisms
may be divided into several groups according to their spheres of
application. The most recognized are the following: 1) religi­ous,
2) moral, 3) medical and 4) parliamentary.

The
life of euphemisms is short. They very soon become closely
as­sociated with the referent (the object named) and give way to
a newly-coined word or combination of words, which, being the sign of
a sign, throws another veil over an unpleasant or indelicate concept.
Here is an interesting excerpt from an article on this subject.

«The
evolution over the years of a civilized mental health service has
been marked by periodic changes in terminology. The madhouse became
the lunatic asylum; the asylum made way for the mental hospital—even
if the building remained the same. Idiots, imbeciles and the
feeble-minded became low, medium and high-grade mental defectives.
All are now to be lumped together as patients of severely subnormal
personality. The insane became per­sons of unsound mind, and are
now to be mentally-ill patients. As each phrase develops the stigmata
of popular prejudice, it is aban­doned in favour of another,
sometimes less precise than the old. Unimportant in themselves, these
changes of name are the sign­posts of progress.» l

Albert
C. Baugh gives another instance of such changes:

«…the
common word for a woman’s undergarment down to the eighteenth century
was ‘smock’. It was then replaced by the more delicate word ‘shift’®
In the nineteenth century the same motive led to the substitution of
the word ‘chemise’ and in the twentieth this has been replaced by
‘combinations’, ‘step-ins’, and other euphemisms,» 2

Today
we have a number of words denoting similar garments, as ‘briefs’, and
others. ^

Conventional
euphemisms—employed in conformity to social usages are best
illustrated by the parliamentary codes of expression. In an article
headed «In Commons, a Lie is Inexactitude» written by James
Fe-ron in The New York Times, we may find a number of words that are
not to be used in Parliamentary debate. «When Sir Winston
Churchill, some years ago,» writes Feron, «termed a
parliamentary opponent a ‘purveyor of terminological
inexactitudes’,.every one in the chamber knew he meant ‘liar’. Sir
Winston hacT been ordered by the Speaker to withdraw a strong­er
epithet. So he used the euphemism, which became famous and is still
used in the Commons. It conveyed the insult without sounding
offensive, and it satisfied the Speaker.» 3 —

The
author further points out that certain words, for instance, traitor
and coward, are specifically banned in the House of Commons because
ear­lier Speakers have ruled them disorderly or unparliamentary,
Speakers

have
decided that jackass is unparliamentary but goose is acceptable; dog,
rat and swine are out of order, but halfwit and Tory clot are in
order.

We
also learn from this article that «a word cannot become the
sub­ject of parliamentary ruling unless a member directs the
attention of the Speaker to it.» *

The
changes in designating objects disclose the true nature of the
re­lations between words and their referents. We must admit that
there is a positive magic in words and, as Prof, Randolph Quirk has
it,

«…we
are liable to be dangerously misled through being mes­merized by
a word or through mistaking a word for its referent.» 2

This
becomes particularly noticeable in connection with what are called
political euphemisms. These are really understatements, the aim of
which is to mislead public opinion and to express what is unpleasant
in a more delicate manner. Sometimes disagreeable facts are even
distorted with the help of a euphemistic expression. Thus the
headline in one of the British newspapers «Tension in Kashmir»
was to hide the fact that there was a real uprising in that area;
«Undernourishment of children in India» stood for
‘starvation’. In A. J. Cronin’s novel «The Stars Look Down»
one of the members of Parliament, referring to the words
«Under­nourishment of children in India» says:
«Honourable Members of the House understand the meaning of this
polite euphemism.» By calling under­nourishment a polite
euphemism he discloses the true meaning of the word.

An
interesting article dealing with the question of «political
euphem­isms» appeared in «Литературная
газета» § written by the Italian jour­nalist Entzo
Rava and headed «The Vocabulary of the Bearers of the Burden of
Power.» In this article Entzo Rava wittily discusses the
euphe­misms of the Italian capitalist press, which seem to have
been borrowed from the American and English press. Thus, for
instance, he mockingly states that capitalists have disappeared from
Italy. When the adherents of capitalism find it necessary to mention
capitalists, they replace the word capitalist by the combination
‘free enterprisers’, the word profit is replaced by ‘savings’, the
building up of labour reserves stands for ‘unem­ployment’,
‘dismissal’ (‘discharge’, ‘firing’) of workers is the reorganiza­tion
of the enterprise, etc.

As
has already been explained, genuine euphemism must call up the word
it stands for. It is always the result of some deliberate clash
between two synonyms. If a euphemism fails to carry along with it the
word it is intended to replace, it is not a euphemism, but a
deliberate veiling of the truth. All these building up of labour
reserves, -savings, free enterprisers and the like are not intended
to give the referent its true name, but to distort the truth. The
above expressions serve that purpose. Compare these word-combinations
with real euphemisms, like a four-letter word (= an obscenity); or a
woman of a certain type (= a prostitute, a whore); to

glow
•(= to sweat), all of which bring to our mind the other word
(words) and only through them the referent.

Here
is another good example of euphemistic phrases used by Gals­worthy
in his «Silver Spoon.»

«In
private I should merely call him a liar. In the Press you should use
the words: ‘Reckless disregard for truth1 and in Parli­ament—that
you regret he ‘should have been so misinformed.»»

Periphrastic
and euphemistic expressions were characteristic of cer­tain
literary trends and even produced a term periphrastic style. But it
soon gave way to a more straightforward way of describing things.

«The
veiled forms of expression,» writes G. H. McKnight, «which
served when one was unwilling to look facts in the face have been
succeeded by naked expressions exhibiting reality.»1

Definition of Euphemism

Euphemism is a figure of speech commonly used to replace a word or phrase that is related to a concept that might make others uncomfortable. Euphemism refers to figurative language designed to replace phrasing that would otherwise be considered harsh, impolite, or unpleasant. This literary device allows for someone to say what they mean indirectly, without using literal language, as a way of softening the impact of what is being said. The reason for this would be for the sake of politeness, discretion, and other means of mitigating communication. Euphemisms are used for certain abstractions such as death, sex, aging, getting fired, bodily functions, and others.

For example, in Disney’s The Emperor’s New Groove, the character Kuzco has decided to fire his advisor Yzma. Kuzco begins by stating directly that she is fired, without using a euphemism. However, when Yzma questions his statement, he replies with a string of euphemisms for someone losing their job:

Um, how else can I say it? You’re being let go. Your department’s being downsized. You’re part of an outplacement program. We’re going in a different direction. We’re not picking up your option. Take your pick. I got more.

This is a humorous and ironic twist on the use of euphemism in that the character uses so many to reinforce what he has already said directly.

Common Examples of Euphemism

There are many common examples of euphemism used in everyday conversation and writing. Here are some well-known uses of this figure of speech:

• porcelain throne (toilet)
• friends with benefits (friends having sex)
• pre-owned (something used)
• bun in the oven (pregnancy)
• number one (urination)
• number two (defecation)
• roll in the hay (have sex)
• see a man about a horse (go to the bathroom)
• senior (old)
• gentlemen’s club (strip club)
• economically challenged (poor)
• put to sleep (euthanize)
• between jobs (unemployed)
• upchuck (vomit)
• big-boned (overweight)
• blowing smoke (lying)
• split (divorce)
• enhanced interrogation (torture)
• well-off (rich)
• belch (burp)
• adult entertainment (pornography)
• correctional facility (prison)
• go around the bend (to go insane)
• thin on top (bald)
• had one too many (drunk)

Examples of Euphemism for Death

A very bitter phenomenon of life, death has been glossed over with several words so that its harshness and bitterness could lessen. Using euphemism to express death and dying may be a way to avoid confronting mortality or to gain some emotional distance from a sad circumstance. Here are some examples of euphemism used to express death or dying:

• Passed away
• Bought The Farm
• Kicked the bucket
• Departed
• Lost
• Gone
• Pushing up daisies
• Resting in peace
• Met untimely demise
• Meet the maker
• Going to a better place
• Six feet under
• Sleeping with the fishes
• Eternal slumber
• Over the rainbow bridge (for pets and animals)
• Demise
• Eternal rest
• Departure to heavenly abode
• Martyred
• Gone
• Slipped away
• Have left
• Breathing one’s last
• Gone to meet his Lord
• Has gone to meet his Maker
• God has called him

Euphemism For Fat

There are several euphemistic expressions used for fat persons. Some of them have been used in the sentences below.

• He is selling plus-sized undergarments.
• They are looking at real women having curves.
• She is just big-boned and nothing else.
• There is nothing wrong with him. He is just shorter than his weight.
• All of his friends are chubby fellows.
• She has become a bit plump after two years.
• Although she tries, she is not a model material.
• Why are you looking lean challenged?

Euphemisms for Propaganda

Propaganda is often glossed over with general euphemistic terms. For example, Americans often call their missions in foreign countries peacekeeping missions, while the civilians killed during skirmishes are collateral damage. Similarly, several other such terms are used to lessen the harshness of the situation such as neutralizing militants instead of killing freedom fighters’ grave mistakes instead of mistaken deadly attacks, intense competition instead of rivalry, and contain instead of threatening. Some euphemisms are specifically coined for propaganda to spread a certain perspective such as during the war times. Some of them are given below.

• The pilot has dropped bombs, causing collateral damage.
• The soldiers have neutralized the ultras.
• Most of the players are charging the opposite goalpost.
• They are in his good books these days.

Euphemism for Attraction

Some euphemisms are specifically used for attractive persons. Some of them are used in the sentences below.

• She is full of charm even though in rags.
• They are completely bewitched by her aura.
• The beguilement of guests lies in her beauty.
• The leader has such charisma that the audience were mesmerized.
• He is revealing some sort of magnetism.
• Some other such words are sexiness, personal appeal, and charm.

Euphemism for Physically Challenged

• Challenged
• Handicapped
• Differently-abled
• Disabled
• Disability
• Special people
• Differently-abled person
• Out of commission
• Disarmed
• Infirm
• Invalid
• Out of one’s feet
• Dog tired.

Euphemism in Macbeth

Some of the best euphemisms given in Macbeth are as follows.

1. No more that Thane of Cawdor shall deceive Our bosom interest. (Act-I, Scene-III)
2. Stay, you imperfect speakers. (Act I, Scene-III)
3. His wonders and his praises do contend Which should be thine or his. (Act-I, Scene-III)
4. According to the gift which bounteous nature Hath in him closed. (Act-III, Scene-III.)

These are some euphemisms such as “out bosom interest”, “imperfect speakers”, “wonders and praises” and “bounteous nature.”

Euphemism For Stubborn

• Hell-bent
• Inexorable
• Persistent
• Resolved
• Set
• Single-minded
• Tenacious
• Unflinching
• Determined

Note: However, some could have negative connotations, depending on the usage and context.

Famous Examples of Euphemism

Euphemism is also found in many famous examples of movie and television quotes, drama, speeches, lyrics, and prose. Here are some famous examples of euphemism and to what they refer:

• “Perhaps we have been guilty of some terminological inexactitudes.” (Winston Churchill, not telling the exact truth)
• “The question is…are you still master of your domain?” (Seinfeld episode about masturbation)
• “I brought juice boxes!” (Will and Grace episode, boxes of wine)
• “Oh, fudge. Only I didn’t say fudge.” (A Christmas Story, profane word)
• “The love shack is a little old place where we can get together.” (Love Shack, B52s, rendezvous place)
• “Gimme some sugar.” (Evil Dead, kiss)
• “Oh no, she’s all there. Too much there is the problem.” (Driving Miss Daisy, an older woman’s mental fitness)
• “I slipped my moorings.” (David Petraeus, extramarital affair)
• “Another bride, another June / Another sunny honeymoon / Another season, another reason /  For makin’ whoopee” (Makin’ Whoopee, Ella Fitzgerald, having sex)
• “At least I’m housebroken.” (The Big Lebowski, uses the bathroom properly)

Difference Between Euphemism and Political Correctness

Some people may have trouble distinguishing euphemism from political correctness. However, there are distinct differences between the two. For example, whereas people used to use the phrase “disabled person,” it is now considered politically correct to say “person with disabilities.” This change in phrasing is not meant to be euphemistic or an indirect way of expressing something unpleasant or undesirable. Instead, politically correct phrasing is meant to express something in a more direct and respectful way.

Political correctness differs from euphemism in that it is not a figure of speech and does not utilize figurative language. In fact, political correctness is considered avoidance, almost to an extreme, of expressions or actions that people perceive as exclusive, marginal, or insulting to others who face discrimination or disadvantage of some kind. Therefore, the purpose of politically correct phrasing is not to replace words with others that are less offensive or inflammatory. Instead, the goal of political correctness is to avoid such indirect expression altogether.

Writing Euphemism

Euphemism is a useful literary device for writers. This figure of speech allows a writer to address potentially sensitive, offensive, or unpleasant subjects in a more delicate or less damaging manner than literal words or phrasings would be. In addition, euphemisms can add to the poetic nature of writing as a means of describing something in a more figurative manner. They can also elevate a writer’s prose.

It’s important for writers to understand that overuse of euphemisms can be confusing and lose their meaning for readers. In addition, depending on the tone of a written work, euphemisms can actually be more crass, unpleasant, or offensive than direct and literal wording. Therefore, euphemisms should be carefully and appropriately selected by writers in order to be effective. Here are some benefits of incorporating euphemism into writing:

Communicate Meaning for Painful Subjects

Writers often tackle subjects that can be painful, such as death or heartbreak. Euphemism is an excellent literary device for writers, and poets, in particular, to communicate meaning when it comes to these painful subjects. Figurative language through euphemism can allow readers to feel less confronted as they might by harsh, literal wording. As a result, meaning is enhanced through the figure of speech.

Incorporate Humor for Reader

Euphemism is often inherently humorous. In attempting to replace wording or phrasing that is impolite or offensive, euphemisms can range from being unclear to nonsensical. They have no meaning as stand-alone phrases without the context of the literal abstraction. However, euphemisms can be a way for writers to incorporate the ridiculous in their writing as humor for the reader.

Use of Euphemism in Sentences 

1. Our beloved teacher, Joseph has left us for his heavenly abode today morning.
2. Several rebels were wiped out in the forces’ action in self-defense.
3. More than two ultras were neutralized.
4. Two air force fighters were involved in surgical strikes.
5. His father passed away yesterday.

Examples of Euphemism in Literature

Euphemism is an effective literary device. Here are some examples of euphemism and how it adds to the significance of well-known literary works:

Example 1: The Wife of Bath’s Prologue from The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer

In wyfhod I wol use myn instrument (In wifehood I will use my instrument)

As frely as my Makere hath it sent. (As freely as my Maker has it sent.)

In this section of The Canterbury Tales, the Wife of Bath uses a euphemism to refer to her sexuality as a woman. The Wife says she will use her “instrument” in wifehood, which is figurative language for her lust, physical attributes and nature, and sexual power. Chaucer’s utilization of this euphemism makes the situation less shocking due to the fact that women were meant to be pure and chaste–especially in wifehood.

Ironically, even though Chaucer uses euphemism as a literary device to avoid the Wife directly describing her “instrument” of sexual power, he invokes a sense of the divine associated with this socially impolite and scandalous assertion of female sexuality. In the second line, the Wife indicates that her “Maker,” meaning Creator, has sent this “instrument” freely. This line underscores the seemingly useless purpose of euphemism in describing something natural. In addition, it underscores the idea that a creator would not freely give someone, including a woman, an attribute that isn’t intended for use.

Example 2: The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger

‘What’d you do?’ I said. ‘Give her the time in Ed Banky’s goddam car?’

In this quote from Salinger’s novel, the main character Holden Caulfield is questioning one of his fellow students, Stradlater, about his date with a girl named Jane. Holden essentially grew up with Jane, and he knows that Stradlater is something of a sexual predator when it comes to girls. However, Holden can’t bring himself to directly ask Stradlater what happened on their date, and especially whether Stradlater and Jane had sex.

Therefore, Holden uses the euphemism “give her the time” to indirectly indicate what he wants to know. In addition, this euphemism is helpful as a literary device for the reader who wants to know the same information as Holden. By utilizing a euphemism rather than asking outright about the sexual encounter, both Holden and the reader can hope that Stradlater will provide an answer.

Example 3: Afterwards by Thomas Hardy

If I pass during some nocturnal blackness, mothy and warm,
When the hedgehog travels furtively over the lawn,
One may say, “He strove that such innocent creatures should come to no harm,
But he could do little for them; and now he is gone.”

In his poem, Hardy uses two euphemisms to reference death. The poet refers to his own death by stating “If I pass” and then refers to how others might reference his death with the phrase “‘now he is gone.’” These euphemisms add to the poetic value of this stanza. For example, utilizing the word “pass” as a figure of speech rather than the literal term “die,” underscores the feeling in the poem of the passage of time in addition to the passage of the poet.

The use of “gone” as a euphemistic figure of speech reinforces the permanence of death as a lack of physical presence. However, this figurative language also suggests that though the poet is physically “gone,” he is still remembered by others. As a result, the poet lives on in the memory of others in the poem and is immortalized by the poem itself.

Synonyms of Euphemism

There are a few synonyms of euphemism but not all words express the same meanings such as polite term, mild term, indirect term, understatement, underplaying, politeness, genteelism, or coy term. None of them, however, is the exact substitute for euphemism.

A euphemism is a substitution of an agreeable or less offensive expression in place of one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant to the listener, [ [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Euphemism Euphemism] «Webster’s Online Dictionary»] or in the case of doublespeak, to make it less troublesome for the speaker.Fact|date=April 2008 It also may be a substitution of a description of something or someone rather than the name, to avoid revealing secret, holy, or sacred names to the uninitiated, or to obscure the identity of the subject of a conversation from potential eavesdroppers. Some euphemisms are intended to be funny.

Usage

When a phrase is used as a euphemism, it often becomes a metaphor whose literal meaning is dropped. Euphemisms may be used to hide unpleasant or disturbing ideas, even when the literal term for them is not necessarily offensive. This type of euphemism is used in public relations and politics, where it is sometimes called doublespeak. Sometimes, using euphemisms is equated to politeness. There are also superstitious euphemisms, based (consciously or subconsciously) on the idea that words have the power to bring bad fortune (for example, not speaking the word «cancer»; see etymology and common examples below) and religious euphemisms, based on the idea that some words are sacred, or that some words are spiritually imperiling («taboo»; see etymology and religious euphemisms below).

Etymology

The word euphemism comes from the Greek word «euphemo», meaning «auspicious/good/fortunate speech/kind» which in turn is derived from the Greek root-words «eu» (ευ), «good/well» + «pheme» (φήμη) «speech/speaking». The «eupheme» was originally a word or phrase used in place of a religious word or phrase that should not be spoken aloud; etymologically, the «eupheme» is the opposite of the «blaspheme» (evil-speaking). The primary example of taboo words requiring the use of a euphemism are the unspeakable names for a deity, such as Persephone, Hecate, or Nemesis.

Historical linguistics has revealed traces of taboo deformations in many languages. Several are known to have occurred in Indo-European languages, including the original Proto-Indo-European words for «bear» («*rtkos»), «wolf» («*wlk^wos»), and «deer» (originally, «hart»; the deformation likely occurred to avoid confusion with «heart»). In different Indo-European languages, each of these words has a difficult etymology because of taboo deformations—a euphemism was substituted for the original, which no longer occurs in the language. An example is the Slavic root for «bear»—»*medu-ed-«, which means «honey eater». One example in English is «donkey» replacing the old Indo-European-derived word «ass». The word «dandelion» (lit., tooth of lion, referring to the shape of the leaves) is another example, being a substitute for «pissenlit», meaning «wet the bed», a possible reference to the fact that dandelion was used as a diuretic.

In some languages of the Pacific, using the name of a deceased chief is taboo. Amongst indigenous Australians, it is forbidden to use the name, image, or audio-visual recording of the deceased, so that the Australian Broadcasting Corporation now publishes a warning to indigenous Australians when using names, images or audio-visual recordings of people who have died [ [http://www.abc.net.au/message/proper/death.htm Cultural Protocol — Death in a community] «Australian Broadcasting Corporation»] .

Since people are often named after everyday things, this leads to the swift development of euphemisms. These languages have a very high rate of vocabulary change. (Dyen, Isidore, A. T. James & J. W. L. Cole. 1967. Language divergence and estimated word retention rate. Language 43/1: 150-171.)

In a similar manner, classical Chinese texts were expected to avoid using characters contained within the name of the currently ruling emperor as a sign of respect. In these instances, the relevant ideographs were replaced by homophones. While this practice creates an additional wrinkle for anyone attempting to read or translate texts from the classical period, it does provide a fairly accurate means of dating the documents under consideration.

The common names of illicit drugs, and the plants used to obtain them, often undergo a process similar to taboo deformation, because new terms are devised in order to discuss them secretly in the presence of others. This process often occurs in English (e.g. «speed» or «crank» for «meth»). It occurs even more in Spanish, e.g. the deformation of names for cannabis: «mota» (lit., «something which moves» on the black market), replacing «grifa» (lit., «something coarse to the touch»), replacing «marihuana» (a female personal name, María Juana), replacing «cañamo» (the original Spanish name for the plant, derived from the Latin genus name «Cannabis»). All four of these names are still used in various parts of the Hispanophone world, although «cañamo» ironically has the least underworld connotation, and is often used to describe industrial hemp, or legitimate medically-prescribed cannabis.

The «euphemism treadmill»

Euphemisms often evolve over time into taboo words themselves, through a process described by W.V.O. Quine, and more recently dubbed the «euphemism treadmill» by Steven Pinker. («cf.» Gresham’s Law in economics). This is the well-known linguistic process known as pejoration.

Words originally intended as euphemisms may lose their euphemistic value, acquiring the negative connotations of their referents. In some cases, they may be used mockingly and become dysphemisms.

For example, the term «concentration camp,» to describe camps used to house civilian prisoners in close (concentrated) quarters, was used by the British during the Second Boer War, primarily because it sounded bland and inoffensive. However, after the Third Reich used the expression to describe its death camps, the term gained enormous negative connotation.

Also, in some versions of English, «toilet room,» itself a euphemism, was replaced with «bathroom» and «water closet», which were replaced with «restroom» and «W.C.» These are also examples of euphemisms which are geographically concentrated: the term «restroom» is rarely used outside of the United States and «W.C.», where before it was quite popular in Britain, is passing out of favour and becoming more popular in France.

Connotations easily change over time. «Idiot,» «imbecile,» and «moron» were once neutral terms for an adult of toddler, preschool, and primary school mental ages, respectively. [Gould, S.J., «The Mismeasure of Man», W.W. Norton & Co, New York, 1996, pp. 188-189] As with Gresham’s law, negative connotations tend to crowd out neutral ones, so the phrase mentally retarded was pressed into service to replace them. [ [http://www.answers.com/retarded&r=67 «American Heritage Dictionary» definition of «retarded» via answers.com] ] Now that, too, is considered rude, used commonly as an insult of a person, thing, or idea. As a result, new terms like «mentally challenged,» «with an intellectual disability» and «special needs» have replaced «retarded». A similar progression occurred with

:» → → → disabled → physically challenged → differently abled

although in the case of «crippled» the meaning has also broadened (and hence has been narrowed with adjectives, which themselves have been euphemised); a dyslexic or colorblind person, for example, would not be termed «crippled». Even more recent is the use of person-centric phrases, such as «person(s) with disability, dyslexia, colorblindness, etc.», which ascribe a particular condition to those previously qualified with the aforementioned adjectives.

Euphemisms can also serve to recirculate words that have passed out of use because of negative connotation. The word «lame» from above, having faded from the vernacular, was revitalized as a slang word generally meaning «not living up to expectations». Connotation of a euphemism can also be subject-specific. The term «handicap» was in common use to describe a physical disability; it gained common use in sports and games to describe a scoring advantage given to a player who has a disadvantageous standing in ability, and this definition has remained common, even though the term as describing physical disability has mostly faded from common use. One exception to this is in the United States when designating «handicapped» parking spaces for such individuals.

In the early 1960s, Major League Baseball franchise owner and promoter Bill Veeck, who was missing part of a leg, argued against the then-favored euphemism «handicapped,» saying he preferred «crippled» because it was merely descriptive and did not carry connotations of limiting one’s capability the way «handicapped» (and all of its subsequent euphemisms) seemed to do («Veeck as in Wreck», chapter «I’m Not Handicapped, I’m Crippled»). Later, comedian George Carlin gave a famous monologue of how he thought euphemisms can undermine appropriate attitudes towards serious issues such as the evolving terms describing the medical problem of the cumulative mental trauma of soldiers in high stress situations: [George Carlin, «They’re Only Words», Track 14 on «Parental Advisory: Explicit Lyrics», Atlantic/Wea audio CD, 1990.]

:»Shell shock (World War I) → battle fatigue (World War II)→ Operational exhaustion (Korean War) → Post-traumatic stress disorder (Vietnam War)»

He contended that, as the name of the condition became more complicated and seemingly , sufferers of this condition have been taken less seriously as people with a serious illness, and were given poorer treatment as a result. He also contended that Vietnam veterans would have received the proper care and attention they needed were the condition still called «shell shock». In the same routine, he echoed Bill Veeck’s opinion that «crippled» was a perfectly valid term (and noted that early English translations of the Bible seemed to have no qualms about saying that Jesus «healed the cripples»).

A complementary «dysphemism treadmill» exists, but is more rarely observed. One modern example is the word «». «That sucks» began as American shorthand for «that sucks cock,» referring to fellatio, but quickly evolved into slang for «that is very unpleasant» ;Fact|date=June 2007 along with the exactly synonymous phrase «that blows», it developed over the late-20th century from being an extremely vulgar phrase to near-acceptability. Likewise, «scumbag», which was originally a reference to a used condom, now is a fairly mild epithet. [ [http://www.randomhouse.com/wotd/index.pperl?date=19980429 Random House.com] ] This is in stark contrast to the related term «douchebag», which is still semi-common but has a much more negative connotation.

In his remarks on the ever-changing London slang, made in «Down and Out in Paris and London», George Orwell mentioned both the «euphemism treadmill» and the «dysphemism treadmill». He did not use the now-established terms, but observed and commented on the respective processes as early as in 1933.

Classification of euphemisms

Many euphemisms fall into one or more of these categories:
* Terms of foreign and/or technical origin («derrière», «copulation», «perspire», «urinate», «security breach», «mierda de toro», «prophylactic», «feces occur», «sheist»)
* Abbreviations («SOB» for «son of a bitch», «BS» for «bullshit», «TS» for «tough shit», «SOL» for «shit out of luck» or «PDQ» for «pretty damn(ed) quick», [ [http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2006/01/05/1136387552818.html The Age.com] ] «BFD» for «big fucking deal», «STFU» or «STHU» for «shut the fuck/hell up»)
** Abbreviations using a spelling alphabet, especially in military contexts («Charlie Foxtrot» for «Cluster fuck», «Whiskey Tango Foxtrot Oscar» for «What the fuck, over?», «Bravo Sierra» for «bullshit»—»See» Military slang)
** Plays on abbreviations («H-e-double hockey sticks» for «hell», «a-double snakes» or «a-double-dollar-signs» for «ass», «Sugar Honey Iced Tea» for «shit», «bee with an itch» or «witch with a capital B» for «bitch», «catch (or see) you next Tuesday (or Thursday)» for «cunt»)
** Use in mostly clinical settings («» for «pain in the ass» patient)
** Abbreviations for phrases that are not otherwise common («PEBKAC» for «Problem Exists Between Keyboard And Chair», «TOBAS» for «Take Out Back And Shoot»)
* Abstractions and ambiguities («it» for excrement, «the situation» for pregnancy, «going to the other side» for death, «do it» or «come together» in reference a sexual act, as well as «readiness» in reference to an erection.)
* Indirections («behind», «unmentionables», «privates», «live together», «go to the bathroom», «sleep together», «sub-navel activities»)
* Mispronunciation («goldarnit», «dadgummit», «freakin», «shoot»—»See» minced oath)
* Litotes or reserved understatement («not exactly thin» for «fat», «not completely truthful» for «lied», «not unlike cheating» for «an instance of cheating»)
* Changing nouns to modifiers («makes her look slutty» for «is a slut», «right-wing element» for «Right Wing»)

There is some disagreement over whether certain terms are or are not euphemisms. For example, sometimes the phrase «visually impaired» is labeled as a politically correct euphemism for «blind». However, visual impairment can be a broader term, including, for example, people who have partial sight in one eye, or even those with uncorrected poor vision, a group that would be excluded by the word «blind».

There are three antonyms of euphemism: «dysphemism», «cacophemism», and «power word». The first can be either offensive or merely humorously deprecating with the second one generally used more often in the sense of something deliberately offensive. The last is used mainly in arguments to make a point seem more correct.

The evolution of euphemisms

Euphemisms may be formed in a number of ways. «Periphrasis» or «circumlocution» is one of the most common—to «speak around» a given word, implying it without saying it. Over time, circumlocutions become recognized as established euphemisms for particular words or ideas.

To alter the pronunciation or spelling of a taboo word (such as a swear word) to form a euphemism is known as «taboo deformation». There is an astonishing number of taboo deformations in English, of which many refer to the infamous four-letter words. In American English, words which are unacceptable on television, such as «fuck», may be represented by deformations such as «freak»—even in children’s cartoons. Some examples of Cockney rhyming slang may serve the same purpose—to call a person a «berk» sounds less offensive than to call him a «cunt», though «berk» is short for «Berkeley Hunt» which rhymes with «cunt».

Bureaucracies such as the military and large corporations frequently spawn euphemisms of a more deliberate (and to some, more sinisterFact|date=September 2008) nature. Organizations coin «doublespeak» expressions to describe objectionable actions in terms that seem neutral or inoffensive. For example, a term used in the past for contamination by radioactive isotopes is «Sunshine units». [Citation
last = McCool
first = W.C.
publication-date = 1957-02-06
title = Return of Rongelapese to their Home Island — Note by the Secretary
publisher = United States Atomic Energy Commission
url = http://worf.eh.doe.gov/ihp/chron/A43.PDF
accessdate = 2007-11-07]

Military organizations kill people, sometimes deliberately and sometimes by mistake; in doublespeak, the first may be called «neutralizing the target» and the second «collateral damage». Violent destruction of non-state enemies may be referred to as «pacification». Two common terms when a soldier is accidentally killed («buys the farm») by their own side are «friendly fire» or «blue on blue» («BOBbing»)—»buy the farm» has its own interesting history. [ [http://www.snopes.com/language/phrases/farm.htm Snopes.com] , «Buy the Farm»]

«Execution» is an established euphemism referring to the act of putting a person to death, with or without judicial process. It originally referred to the execution, i.e., the carrying out, of a death warrant, which is an authorization to a sheriff, prison warden, or other official to put a named person to death. In legal usage, «execution» can still refer to the carrying out of other types of orders; for example, in U.S. legal usage, a writ of execution is a direction to enforce a civil money judgment by seizing property. Likewise, lethal injection itself may be considered a euphemism for putting the convict to death by poisoning.

«Abortion» originally meant premature birth, and came to mean birth before viability. The term «abort» was extended to mean any kind of premature ending, such as aborting the launch of a rocket. Euphemisms have developed around the original meaning. «Abortion», by itself, came to mean «induced abortion» or «elective abortion» exclusively. Hence the parallel term «spontaneous abortion», an «act of nature», was dropped in favor of the more neutral-sound «miscarriage». The politically-charged subject of elective abortion also led to parallel euphemisms: «pro-life» being characterized as another way of saying «anti-abortion» and «pro-choice» similarly coming to mean «pro-abortion».

Industrial unpleasantness such as pollution may be toned down to «outgassing» or «runoff»—descriptions of physical processes rather than their damaging consequences. Some of this may simply be the application of precise technical terminology in the place of popular usage, but beyond precision, the advantage of technical terminology may be its lack of emotional undertones and the likelihood the general public (at least initially) will not recognize it for what it really is; the disadvantage being the lack of real-life context. Terms like «waste» and «wastewater» are also avoided in favor of terms such as «byproduct», «recycling», «reclaimed water» and «effluent». In the oil industry, «oil-based drilling muds» were simply renamed «organic phase drilling muds», where «organic phase» is a euphemism for «oil».

Euphemisms for the profane

Profane words and expressions in the English language are often taken from three areas: religion, excretion, and sex. While profanities themselves have been around for centuries, their limited use in public and by the media has only slowly become socially acceptable, and there are still many expressions which cannot be used in polite conversation. One vantage point into the current societal tolerance of profane language is found in the frequency of such language on prime-time television. The word «damn» (and most other religious profanity in the English language) has lost its shock value, and as a consequence, euphemisms for it (e.g., dang, darn-it) have taken on a very stodgy feeling. Excretory profanity such as «piss» and «shit» in some cases may be acceptable among informal (and usually youngerFact|date=September 2008) friends (while they almost are never acceptable in formal relationships or public use); euphemisms such as «Number One» and «Number Two» may be preferred for use with children. Most sexual terms and expressions, even technical ones, either remain unacceptable for general use or have undergone radical rehabilitation.

Religious euphemisms

Euphemisms for deities as well as for religious practices and artifacts date to the earliest of written records. Protection of sacred names, rituals, and concepts from the uninitiated has always given rise to euphemisms, whether it be for exclusion of outsiders or the retention of power among select practitioners. Examples from the Egyptians and every other western religion abound.

Euphemisms for God and Jesus, such as gosh and gee, are used by Christians to avoid taking the name of God in a vain oath, which would violate one of the Ten Commandments. (Exodus 20)

When praying, Jews will typically use the word «Adonai» (‘the Lord’). However, when in a colloquial setting, this is deemed inappropriate, and so typically one replaces the word «Adonai» with the word «HaShem», which literally means, «The Name». It is notable that «Adonai» is itself a word that refers to the Jewish God’s name, the original pronunciation of which is unknown due to a lack of vowels, though translated as Jehovah in English, but is not the name itself. Traditionally, Jews have seen the name of God as ineffable and thus one that must not be spoken. According to the Torah, when Moses saw the burning bush, he asked God, «who are you?» The answer he heard was, «I am that I am». Thus, the Jews have for centuries recognized the name of the Almighty as ineffable, because pronouncing it is equivalent to calling oneself God.Fact|date=August 2007

Euphemisms for hell, damnation, and the devil, on the other hand, are often used to avoid invoking the power of the adversary. The most famous in the latter category is the expression «what the dickens» and its variants, which does not refer to the famed British writer but instead was a popular euphemism for Satan in its time. In the Harry Potter books, the evil wizard Lord Voldemort is usually referred to as «He Who Must Not Be Named» or «You-Know-Who». However, the character Professor Dumbledore is quoted as saying in the first book of the series that «Fear of a name only increases fear of the thing itself».

Excretory euphemisms

While «urinate» and «defecate» are not euphemisms, they are used almost exclusively in a clinical sense. The basic Anglo-Saxon words for these functions, «piss» and «shit», are considered vulgarities and unacceptable in general use, despite the use of «piss» in the King James Bible (in Isaiah 36:12 and elsewhere).

.)

There are any number of lengthier periphrases for excretion used to excuse oneself from company, such as to «powder one’s nose», to «see a man about a dog» (or «horse») or to «drop the kids off at the pool» (these expressions could actually be regarded as dysphemisms). Slang expressions which are neither particularly euphemistic nor dysphemistic, such as «take a leak», form a separate categoryFact|date=September 2008.

In some languages, various other sensitive subjects give rise to euphemisms and dysphemisms. In Spanish, one such subject is class and status. The word «señorito» is an example, although the euphemism treadmill has turned it to a disparagement, at least in MexicoFact|date=September 2008.

exual euphemisms

The Latin term «pudendum» and the Greek term «αιδοίον» («aidoion») for the genitals literally mean «shameful thing». «Groin,» «crotch,» and «loins» refer to a larger region of the body, but are euphemistic when used to refer to the genitals. The word «masturbate» is derived from Latin, the word «manus» meaning hand and the word «sturbare» meaning to defile. In pornographic stories, the words «rosebud» and «starfish» are often used as euphemisms for «anus,» generally in the context of anal sex. The shock jock Howard Stern once promoted the euphemism «balloon knot» for the anus, referring to the external appearance of the skin surrounding the sphincter muscle.

«Sexual intercourse» was once a euphemism derived from the more general term «intercourse» by itself, which simply meant «meeting» but now is normally used as a synonym for the longer phrase, thus making the town of Intercourse, Pennsylvania, a subject of jokes in modern usage.

The «baseball metaphors for sex» are perhaps the most famous and widely-used set of polite euphemisms for sex and relationship behavior in the U.S. The metaphors encompass terms like «hitting it off» for a good start to relationship, «Striking out» for being unlucky with a love interest, and «running the bases» for progressing sexually in a relationship. The «bases» themselves, from first to third, stand for various levels of sexual activity from French kissing to «petting», itself a euphemism for manual genital stimulation, all of which is short of «scoring» or «coming home», sexual intercourse. «Hitting a home run» describes sex during the first date, «batting both ways» or «batting for the other team» describes bisexuality or homosexuality respectively, and «stealing bases» refers to initiating new levels of sexual contact without invitation. Baseball-related euphemisms also abound for the «equipment»; «Bat and balls» are a common reference to the male genitalia, while «glove» or «mitt» can refer to the female anatomy.

There are many euphemisms for birth control devices, sometimes even propagated by the manufacturers: Condoms are known as «rubbers», «sheaths», «love gloves», «diving suits», «raincoats», «Johnnies»(in Ireland and to a lesser degree Britain) etc. The birth control pill is known simply as «The Pill», and other methods of birth control are also given generalized euphemisms like «The Patch», «The Sponge», «Shots», etc. There are also many euphemisms for menstruation, such as «having the painters in», being «on the rag», «flying the flag» (originally a euphemism for hanging out the bedsheet after a wedding night as a testament to the woman’s virginity), or it simply being «that time of the month».

Euphemisms are also common in reference to sexual orientations and lifestyles. For example in the movie «Closer» the character played by Jude Law uses the euphemism «He valued his privacy» for homosexual and «He enjoyed his privacy» for a flamboyant homosexual. Among common euphemisms for homosexuals, «gay» (the arcane meaning of the word ‘gay’ meant dissolute, hedonistic and a lover of pleasure but is now taken to mean the stereotypical flamboyant personality of homosexual men) and «lesbian» (in reference to the poet Sappho of Lesbos) are the only two that are generally acceptable in society. Other euphemisms for a homosexual, such as homo, queer, fag (originally a verb meaning «work», later applied to a first-year university student who performed chores for an older student — by extension, someone who is subservient, weak, or unmanly), bulldyke or simply dyke, butch (referring to a lesbian assuming the «male» role of a relationship) etc. have relatively quickly acquired a vulgar connotation, and even «gay» and «lesbian» have negative connotations in mainstream society depending on the tone of the conversation. The expression «that’s so gay» has come into frequent pejorative usage in the U.S.

As an aside, the use of euphemisms for sexual activity has grown under the pressure of recent rulings by the Federal Communications Commission regarding what constitutes «decent» on-air broadcast speech. The FCC included many well known euphemisms in its lists of banned terms but indicated that even new and unknown coinages might be considered indecent once it became clear what they referenced. George Carlin’s «Seven Words You Can’t Say On TV» evolved into the «Incomplete List of Impolite Words», available in text and audio form, and contains hundreds of euphemisms and dysphemisms to genitalia, the act of having sex, various forms of sex, sexual orientations, etc. that have all become to pejorative for polite conversation, including such notables as «getting your pole varnished» and «eating the tuna taco». Carlin also does a bit on the uses of the word «fuck», originally only a dysphemism for the sex act but becoming an adverb, adjective, noun, etc. This «diversity» is also mentioned on in the movie The Boondock Saints after the main characters commit a mass murder of Russian mob bosses followed by a violent joke on a friend who is in the Mafia.

Euphemisms referring to profanity itself

In the Spanish language, words that mean «swear word» are used as exclamations in lieu of an actual swear word. The Spanish word «maldición», literally meaning «curse» or «bad word», is occasionally used as an interjection of lament or anger, to replace any of several Spanish profanities that would otherwise be used in that same context. The same is true in Italian with the word «maledizione», and in Canadian French with «sacre».

In Greek, the word κατάρα «curse» is found, and in English (especially British usage), an exclamation that is used in a similar style is «curses». The stereotyped «Perils of Pauline» silent film might have the villain tying his victim to a railroad track. When the hero rescues the heroine, the card might say, «Curses! Foiled again!» in place of whatever cursing the character presumably uttered.

Euphemisms for death

The English language contains numerous euphemisms related to dying, death, burial, and the people and places which deal with death. The practice of using euphemisms for death is likely to have originated with the magical belief that to speak the word «death» was to invite death; where to «draw Death’s attention» is the ultimate bad fortune—a common theory holds that death is a taboo subject in most English-speaking cultures for precisely this reason. It may be said that one is not dying, but «fading quickly» because «the end is near». People who have died are referred to as having «passed away» or «passed» or «departed». «Deceased» is a euphemism for «dead», and sometimes the «deceased» is said to have «gone to a better place», but this is used primarily among the religious with a concept of Heaven.

Some Christians often use phrases such as «gone to be with the Lord» or «called to higher service» (this latter expression being particularly prevalent in the Salvation Army) to express their belief that physical death is not the end.

There are many euphemisms for the dead body, some polite and some profane, as well as dysphemisms such as «worm food», or «dead meat». Modern rhyming slang contains the expression «brown bread». The corpse was once referred to as «the shroud (or house or tenement) of clay», and modern funerary workers use terms such as «the loved one» (title of a novel about Hollywood undertakers by Evelyn Waugh) or «the dear departed». (They themselves have given up the euphemism «funeral director» for «grief therapist», and hold «arrangement conferences» with relatives.) Among themselves, mortuary technicians often refer to the corpse as the «client». A recently dead person may be referred to as «the late John Doe». The terms «cemetery» for «graveyard» and «undertaking» for «burial» are so well-established that most people do not even recognize them as euphemisms. In fact, undertaking has taken on a negative connotation, as undertakers have a devious reputation.

Contemporary euphemisms and dysphemisms for death tend to be quite colorful, and someone who has died is said to have «passed away», «passed on», «checked out», «bit the big one», «kicked the bucket», «bitten the dust», «popped their clogs», «pegged it», «carked it», «turned their toes up», «bought the farm» (comes from the G.I. Insurance Policy as the amount of money the next of kin would receive was enough to buy a farm)., «cashed in their chips», «croaked», «given up the ghost» (originally a more respectful term, «cf.» the death of Jesus as translated in the King James Version of the Bible ), «gone south», «gone west», «shuffled off this mortal coil» (from William Shakespeare’s «Hamlet»), «Run down the curtain and joined the Choir Invisible», or «assumed room temperature» (actually a dysphemism in use among mortuary technicians). When buried, they may be said to be «pushing up daisies», «sleeping the big sleep», «taking a dirt nap», «checking out the grass from underneath» or «six feet under». There are hundreds of such expressions in use. (Old Burma-Shave jingle: «If daisies are your favorite flower, keep pushin’ up those miles per hour!») In Edwin Muir’s ‘The Horses’ a euphemism is used to show the elimination of the human race ‘The seven days war that put the world to sleep.’

«Euthanasia» also attracts euphemisms. One may «put one out of one’s misery», «put one to sleep», or «have one put down», the latter two phrases being used primarily with dogs and cats who have made their final visit to the veterinarian. (These terms are not usually applied to humans, because both medical ethics and civil law deprecate euthanasia.) In fact, Dr. Bernard Nathanson has pointed out that the word «euthanasia» itself is a euphemism, being Greek for «good death».

There are a few euphemisms for killing which are neither respectful nor playful, but rather clinical and detached. Some examples of this type are «terminate», «wet work», to «take care of» one or to «take them for a ride», to «do them in», to «off», to «take them out», to «snuff them out», «frag», «smoke», «lace», «whack» or «waste» someone. To «cut loose» or «open up» on someone or something means «to shoot at with every available weapon».

There are also many dysphemisms, especially for death, which are euphemisms or dysphemisms for other unpleasant events and thus are unpleasant in their literal meaning, used to generalize a bad event. «Having your ass handed to you», «left for the rats», «toasted», «roasted», «burned», «pounded», «bent over the barrel», «screwed over» or other terms commonly describe death or the state of imminent death, but also are common in describing defeat of any kind such as a humiliating loss in a sport or video game, being unfairly treated or cast aside in business affairs, being badly beaten in a fight, and similar.

To «terminate with prejudice» generally means to end one’s employment without possibility of rehire (as opposed to «lay off», where the person can expect rehire if business picks up), but the related term to «terminate with extreme prejudice» now usually means to kill. The adjective «extreme» may occasionally be omitted. In a famous line from the movie «Apocalypse Now», Captain Willard is told to terminate Colonel Kurtz’s commission «with extreme prejudice». An acronym, «TWEP» has been coined from this phrase, which can be used as a verb: «He was TWEPed/TWEPped.»

The Dead Parrot Sketch from «Monty Python’s Flying Circus» contains an extensive list of euphemisms for death, referring to the deceased parrot that the character played by John Cleese had purchased. The popularity of the sketch has itself increased the popularity of some of these euphemisms — indeed, it has introduced another euphemism for death — «pining for the fjords» — although in the sketch that phrase was used by the shop owner to assert that the parrot was «not» dead, but was merely quiet and contemplative.

A similar passage occurs near the beginning of «The Twelve Chairs», where Bezenchuk, the undertaker, astonishes Vorobyaninov with his classification of people by the euphemisms used to speak of their deaths. The game Dungeon Siege contains many euphemisms for death as well.

Also, a scene in the film Patch Adams features Patch (Robin Williams) dressed in an angel costume, reading out various synonyms and euphemisms for the phrase «to die» to a man dying of cancer. This evolves into a contest between the two men to see who can come up with more, and better, euphemisms, ending when Patch comes up with «and if we bury you ass up, we’ll have a place to park my bike.»

The name of the village of Ban Grong Greng in Thailand is a euphemism for «Death Village». It literally means the Village of the Dreaded Gong. It is so named because it is the home to Wat Grong Greng (temple of the dreaded gong) at which the burning of bodies at funerals is preceded by the beating of a gong.

Euphemisms in job titles

Euphemisms are common in job titles; some jobs have complicated titles that make them sound more impressive than the common names would imply. Many of these euphemisms may include words such as engineer, though in fact the people who do the job are not accredited in engineering. Extreme cases, such as sanitation engineer for janitor, or ‘transparent-wall maintenance officer’ for window cleaner, are cited humorously more often than they are used seriously. Another example is Henny Youngman’s joke that his brother-in-law claimed to be a «diamond cutter» — his job was to mow the lawn at Yankee Stadium. Less extreme cases, such as custodian for janitor or administrative assistant for secretary, are considered more terms of respect than euphemisms.

Doublespeak

Doublespeak is language deliberately constructed to disguise or distort its actual meaning, often resulting in a communication bypass. What distinguishes doublespeak from other euphemisms is its deliberate usage. Doublespeak may be in the form of bald euphemisms such as «downsizing» or «rightsizing» for «firing of many employees»; or deliberately ambiguous phrases such as «wet work» for «assassination» and «take out» for «destroy».

Common examples

Other common euphemisms include:
* «wellness» for benefits and treatments that tend to only be used in times of «sickness»
* «restroom» for «toilet room» (the word «toilet» was itself originally a euphemism). This is an American English version.
* «a love of musical theatre» or «confirmed bachelor» for male homosexuality; cf «women in sensible shoes» as a reference to lesbianism.
* «acting like rabbits», «making love to», «getting it on», «cheeky time», «doing it», «making the beast with two backs», or «sleeping with» for «having sex with»
* «sanitary landfill» for «garbage dump» (and a temporary garbage dump is a «transfer station»), also often called a «Civic Amenity» in the UK
* «ill-advised» for «very poor or bad»
* «pre-owned vehicles» for «used cars»
* A student being «held back» a grade level for having «failed» the grade level
* «correctional facility» for «prison»
* «the north of Ireland» for «Northern Ireland», which is seen by many Irish people as a term imposed by the British and therefore a profanity; however, saying «the north of Ireland» may be primarily a way of identifying oneself with the Irish Nationalist cause, rather than a euphemism
* «the big C» for «cancer» (in addition, some people whisper the word when they say it in public, and doctors euphemistically use technical terminology when discussing cancer in front of patients, e.g., «c.a.» or «neoplasia»/»neoplastic process», «carcinoma» for «tumor»); euphemisms for cancer are used even more so in the Netherlands, because the Dutch word for cancer can be used as a curse word
* «bathroom tissue», «t.p.», or «bath tissue» for toilet paper (Usually used by toilet paper manufacturers)
* «custodian» or «caretaker» for «janitor» (Also originally a euphemism—in Latin, it means «doorman». In the British Secret Service, it may still carry the ancient meaning. It does in the novels of John Le Carré.)
* «sanitation worker» (or, sarcastically, «sanitation officer» or «sanitation engineer»), or «garbologist», for «bin man» or «garbage man»
* «working class neighborhood» for «ghetto»
* «digital scatologist» for a bug fixer who studies memory dumps. The job title «Digital Scatologist» has been printed on business cards by some Silicon Valley companies.
* «force», «police action», or «conflict» for «war»
* «mature» for «old» or «elderly»
* «haem» or «heme» (Americanism) for blood, often used in medical settings («Severe heme loss»).
*»enhanced interrogation technique» for torture.
*»persuasion» for ‘torture’
*»fee» for «fine».
*»specific about what one eats» for being a «picky eater».
*»adult entertainment» for «pornography».
* «to have been paid» for ‘being fired from or by one’s employer’
*»to cut excesses (in a budget)» for «to fire employees».
*»legal capital» for «stated capital».These lists might suggest that most euphemisms are well-known expressions. Often euphemisms can be somewhat situational; what might be used as a euphemism in a conversation between two friends might make no sense to a third person. In this case, the euphemism is being used as a type of innuendo. At other times, the euphemism is common in some circles (such as the medical field) but not others, becoming a type of jargon. One such example is the line «put him in bed with the captain’s daughter» from the popular sea shanty «Drunken Sailor». Although this line may sound more like a reward for getting drunk to non-seamen, the phrase «captain’s daughter» was actually a euphemism used among sailors for the cat o’ nine tails (itself a euphemism for a kind of whip).

Hungarian Prime Minister Ferenc Gyurcsány, in his controversial speech that triggered the 2006 anti-government protests, used a number of vulgar phrases that were translated euphemistically by the media as «screwed up» and «did not bother.»

The word euphemism itself can be used as a euphemism. In the animated short «It’s Grinch Night» (See Dr. Seuss), a child asks to go to the «euphemism», where «euphemism» is being used as a euphemism for «outhouse». This euphemistic use of «euphemism» also occurred in the play «Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf?» where a character requests, «Martha, will you show her where we keep the, uh, euphemism?» It is analogous to the 19th-century use of «unmentionables» for «underpants».

ee also

* distancing language
* dysphemism
* code word (figure of speech)
* double entendre
* framing (social sciences)
* litotes
* minced oath
* newspeak
* pun
* sexual slang
* slander and libel
* spin (public relations)
* Thomas Bowdler
* wordplay

References

* Benveniste, Émile, «Euphémismes anciens and modernes», in: «Problèmes de linguistique générale», vol. 1, pp. 308-314. [originally published in: «Die Sprache», I (1949), pp. 116-122] .
* Rawson, Hugh, «A Dictionary of Euphemism & Other Doublespeak», second edition, 1995. ISBN
* R.W.Holder: «How Not to Say What You Mean: A Dictionary of Euphemisms», Oxford University Press, 501 pages, 2003. ISBN
* «Maledicta: The International Journal of Verbal Aggression» (ISSN US)
* McGlone, M.S., Beck, G., & Pfiester, R.A. (2006). Contamination and camouflage in euphemisms. «Communication Monographs, 73,» 261-282.
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Проектная работа Эвфемизмы. Разработала Усольцева Дарья Андреевна, 9 класс. МОУ «Лицей №26», г. Подольск

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Предпросмотр презентации к проектной работе

1.     Introduction

There are words in every language which people instinctively avoid because they are considered indecent, indelicate, rude, too direct or impolite. Such words are often described in a round-about way, by using substitutes called euphemisms. This device is dictated by social conventions. Euphemisms can be used to hide unpleasant or disturbing ideas, even when the literal term for them is not necessarily offensive. This type of euphemisms is used in public relations and politics where it is sometimes called doublespeak. Sometimes using euphemisms is equated to politeness.

The word “euphemism” comes from the Greek word “euphemo”, meaning “good, fortunate, kind”. Etymologically the eupheme is the opposite of the blaspheme (evil-speaking). Linguists suggest different groups of euphemisms. Such scholars as A.S.Kurkiev, L.P.Krysin, V.P. Moskvin give their classifications of these words. Taking everything into consideration we believe that euphemisms can be divided into several groups according to their spheres of application. The most recognized are the following:

1)     moral

2)     religious

3)     medical

4)     superstitious

5)     political

6)     professional.

In our paper we tried to explain and give examples of these groups, dwell on the concept of political correctness, and attempted to find some examples of euphemisms usage in literature. We also compared the use of euphemisms in English and in Russian.

Thus, the objective of our work is to explain the stylistic device called euphemisms and give examples of their use in everyday speech in the English and Russian languages. To achieve this objective we put forward the following tasks:

—        to acquaint English learners with the concept of euphemisms;

—        to explain the reasons for their appearance in the language;

—        to explain what political correctness is;

—        to look through newspapers offering jobs and find examples of euphemisms in job titles in Russian in comparison with English;

—        to hold a survey among 9^th-grade students as to their use of euphemisms;

—        to provide teachers of English with supplementary material to be used in their teaching practice.

Field of research: the vocabulary of the English language.

Object of research: classification of euphemisms and historical events and conditions that brought about their appearance in the language.

The methods of investigation: the descriptive method, the method of classification, the comparative method.

The work has practical significance both for teachers and for students as the information given here will broaden the students’ outlook, enrich their vocabulary and give them motivation for further studying.

2.     Classification of Euphemisms

Neil Postman in his book “Crazy Talk Stupid Talk (New York, Delacorte Press, 1976), suggests that a euphemism is an exalted term used in place of a down-to-earth term, or “an attempt to give prettier term to an uglier reality”.

A great number of euphemisms in English came from the words with Latin roots. After the Norman conquest of England in 1066 the community began to make a distinction between a genteel and an obscene vocabulary, between the French words of the upper class and the lusty Anglo-Saxon of the lower. That is why a duchess perspired and expectorated, while a kitchen maid sweated and spat.

In the mid-19^th century, the human form and its functions were so taboo that any words even hinting that people had bodies were banished from the polite discourse. It became impossible to mention legs – you had to use limb, or even better, lower extremity. You couldn’t ask for the breast of a chicken, but instead had to request the bosom, or make a choice between white and dark meat.

Linguists suggest different groups of euphemisms. A.S.Kurkiev distinguishes between five groups of euphemisms: those which appeared because of: 1) superstitions; 2) fear and displeasure; 3) sympathy and pity; 4) bashfulness, shyness; 5) politeness.

L.P.Krysin, in his turn, believes that euphemisms exist in two spheres – in private life and in social life.

V.P.Moskvin claims that euphemisms are used in six functions: 1) to avoid scary objects; 2) to avoid using words denoting unpleasant objects; 3) to change things which are considered indecent; 4) to change the names of places that can frighten people; 5) to disguise the real essence of an object; 6) to change the names of the organizations and job titles which are considered non-prestigious.

Having considered the above mentioned classifications, we have divided euphemisms  into several groups according to their spheres of application. The most recognized are the following:

—        moral

—        religious

—        medical

—        superstitious

—        political

—        professional

3.     Moral euphemisms

Moral  euphemisms may be used in order not to hurt someone’s feelings. For example, a liar can be described as a person who does not always tell the truth and a stupid man can be said to be not exactly brilliant, etc. The English language contains numerous euphemisms related to dying, death, burial, and the people and places which deal with death. The practice of using euphemisms for death is likely to have originated with the magical belief that to speak the word “death” was to invite death. So, a common theory holds that death is a taboo subject in most English-speaking cultures for this very reason. It may be said that one is not dying but fading quickly because the end is near. Contemporary euphemisms for death tend to be quite colourful, and someone who has died is said to have passed away, passed on, bought the farm, kicked the bucket, gone south, gone west, shuffled off this mortal coil (from W. Shakespeare’s Hamlet), etc. When buried they may be said to be pushing up daisies, sleeping the big sleep, checking out the grass from underneath or six feet under. There are hundreds of such expressions in use. One of them is an old Burma jingle: “If daisies are your favourite flowers, keep pushing up those miles per hours”.

Euthanasia also attracts euphemisms. One may put one out of one’s misery, put one to sleep or have one put down. The latter two phrases are usually used with dogs, cats and horses which are euthanized by a veterinarian. Dr. Bernard Nathanson pointed out that the word “euthanasia” itself is a euphemism, being Greek for “good death”.

Another word which produced many euphemisms is lavatory. Here are some of them: powder room, washroom, restroom, retiring room, comfort station, ladies’ (room), gentlemen’s (room), water-closet, wc, public conveniences and even Windsor castle (which is, actually, a comical phrase for wc.).

Pregnancy is another topic for delicate references. Here are some of the euphemisms used as substitutes for the adjective pregnant: in an interesting condition, in a delicate condition, in the family way, with a baby coming, etc.

The life of euphemisms is short. They very soon become closely associated with the object they name. Thus, the apparently innocent word trousers, not so long ago, had a great number of euphemistic equivalents, some of them quite funny: unmentionables, inexpressibles, indescribles, unwhisperables, you-mustn’t-mention ‘ems, sit-upons. Nowadays, however, nobody seems to regard this word as indecent any more, and so its euphemistic substitutes are no longer used.

A landlady who refers to her lodgers as paying guests is also using a euphemism, aiming at half-concealing the embarrassing fact that she lets rooms.

Fiction writers often ridicule pretentious people for their weak attempts to express themselves in a delicate and refined way.  “… Mrs. Sunbury never went to bed, she retired…” (From “The Kite” by W. S. Maugham). To retire in this ironical sentence is a euphemistic substitute for to go to bed. Another lady in “Rain” by the same author, surpasses Mrs. Sunbury in the delicacy of her speech. She says that there are so many mosquitoes on the island where the story is set, that at the Governor’s parties “…all the ladies are given a pillow-slip to put their lower extremities on… (in Russian – нижние конечности). The substitution makes her speech pretentious and ridiculous.

Eating is also regarded as unrefined by some people. Hence such substitutes as to partake of food, to refresh oneself, to break bread, to have a bite.

There are words which are easy targets for euphemistic substitutions. These include words associated with drunkenness, which are very numerous.  The adjective drunk has a great number of such substitutes, some of them delicate, but most comical. For example, intoxicated, under the influence, tipsy, mellow, fresh, high, merry, overcome, full, drunk as a lord, drunk as an owl and others.

4.     Religious euphemisms.

The Christian religion also made certain words taboo. The proverb “Speak of the devil and he will appear” must have been used and taken quite literally when it was first used. And the fear of calling the devil by name was certainly inherited from ancient superstitious beliefs. So, the word devil became taboo, and a number of euphemisms were substituted for it: the Prince of Darkness, the black one, the evil one, dickens, deuce, black lad, black Sam, black gentleman, etc.

The word God due to other considerations, also had a great number of substitutes which can be still traced in such phrases as Good Lord!, By Heavens!, Good Heavens!, My Goodness! Goodness Gracious!

5.     Euphemisms connected with superstitions.

Superstitious taboos gave rise to the use of other type of euphemisms. The reluctance to call things by their proper names is also typical of this type of euphemisms, but this time it is based on a deeply-rooted subconscious fear. Superstitious taboos have their roots in the distant past of mankind when people believed that there was a supernatural link between a name and the object or creature it represented. Therefore, all the objects denoting evil spirits, dangerous animals, or the powers of nature were taboo. If uttered, it was believed that unspeakable disasters would affect not only the speaker but also those near him. That is why all creatures, objects and phenomena threatening danger were referred to in a round-about descriptive way. So, a dangerous animal might be described as the one-lurking-in-the-wood. Thus, people were very much afraid of the bear, which was a really scary animal. In fact, bears kept early northern Europeans in such a fear that they referred to them  by substitute names because people thought that uttering their real name might attract these ferocious beasts. Instead, they talked of the honey eater, the licker, or the  grandfather (in Russian — Михайло Потапович). Naturally, society’s fear of bears had decreased, perhaps simply because people have little chance to encounter them except for in zoos, and therefore there is no longer the need to invent other names for bears.

When mortal diseases were spread all over the country, people naturally were afraid to pronounce the words plague or smallpox, etc. Instead, the expression the black death was used, though the word death itself was a euphemism.

6.     Euphemisms connected with illnesses.

Doctors often use euphemisms in order not to frighten the patients about their illnesses.

Patients who received the condition described as heart failure believed that the illness would have more serious consequences for their life, that it would last longer and people were more anxious and depressed than those who received the condition described using the euphemism. Doctors are encouraged to be open with their patients and to respect them. The choice of language, therefore, presents a dilemma for doctors. The term “heart failure” may be a sign of openness but, on the other hand, may evoke a more negative response from the patient. In contrast, a euphemism may be less open but more protective of the patient’s experience.  That is why instead the doctors say:

—        Your heart is not pumping hard enough.

—        Your heart is a bit weaker than it used to be.

—        Your heart is not pumping properly.

—        Your heart is not working as well as it should, causing pressure on the lungs.

—        Your heart is not as strong as it should be, etc.

Mental diseases also cause the frequent use of euphemisms. A mad person may be described as insane, mentally unstable, unbalanced, not quite right, not quite there, off one’s head, crazy as a bedbug, cuckoo, nutty, off one’s nut, loony, a mental case, a mental defective, etc.

A clinic for such patients can also be discreetly referred to as, for instance, an asylum, sanatorium, (mental) institution, and, less discreetly, as a nut house, loony bin, etc.

In the story by Evelyn Waugh “Mr. Loveday’s Little Outing” a clinic of this kind, treating only very rich patients, is described as large private grounds suitable for the charge of nervous or difficult cases. This is certainly the peak of euphemistic delicacy.

The great number of humorous substitutes found in such groups of words prove particularly tempting for writers who use them for comical purposes, The following extract from the Roald Dahl’s book “Charlie and the Chocolate Factory” demonstrates the range of colloquial and slang substitutes for the word mad:

“He’s gone off his rocker!” shouted one of the fathers, aghast, and the other parents joined in the chorus of frightened shouting.

—        He’s crazy! They shouted.

—        He’s balmy!

—        He’s nutty!

—        He’s screwy!

—        He’s batty!

—        He’s dippy!

—        He’s dotty!

—        He’s daffy!

—        He’s goofy!

—        He’s beany!

—        He’s buggy!

—        He’s wacky!

—        He’s loony!

“No, he is not!” said Grandpa Joe.

This is the way people spoke about Mr. Willy Wonka, the owner of the Chocolate factory.

7.     Euphemisms and political correctness.

Political vocabulary contains many euphemistic expressions, one of the most popular is the one denoting war, e.g. armed struggle, conflict, confrontation, counter-attack, incident, intervention, limited action, operation. Nowadays, however, mass media pay a great attention to the, so called, political correctness, which has become the way of life in the USA and in many west-European countries. Politically correct means “socially acceptable”, so as not to humiliate, insult or offend the representatives of any ethnic or social groups of people. For example, “socially acceptable” are the words like African-American instead of unacceptable Negro (black), financially challenged instead of poor, hearing impaired instead of deaf, senior instead of old, etc. So, political correctness isn’t only to alleviate the things as they are, but to correct the real or supposed discrimination. One of the main language means to achieve this aim is euphemisms. Euphemisms help people to avoid situations which can lead to conflicts.  So, politically correct words or terms are used to show differences between people or groups in a non-offensive way. This difference may be because of race, gender, beliefs, religion, sexual orientation, or because they have a mental or physical disability, or any difference from what is considered the norm. Thus, people who are blind or deaf may be referred to as vision impaired and hearing impaired. People who cannot speak are never dumb but mute or without speech. The overall terms handicapped and disabled are no longer considered appropriate. Instead,  the term  challenged is used. However, sometimes the terms ending in challenged sound rather ridiculous, for example, someone who is very short might be described as vertically challenged. People also say that things that are obviously bad are called by something else which hides the fact that they are bad. For example, young people who are in trouble with the law, instead of being called juvenile delinquents became children at risk.

Back in the 1990s, lots of jokes were made about “political correctness”, and almost everybody thought they were really funny.  Unfortunately, very few people are laughing now because political correctness has become a way of life in America.  If you say the “wrong thing” you can lose your job or you can rapidly end up in court. We have found some examples of political correctness, though these examples seem rather ridiculous to us:

1. The BBC has dropped the use of the terms Before Christ (BC) and Anno Domini (AD) on one of their programmes and decided that the terms ‘Before Common Era’ / ‘Common Era’ are more appropriate.

2. The European Parliament introduced proposals to outlaw titles stating marital status such as ‘Miss’ and ‘Mrs’ so as not to cause offence. It also meant that ‘Madame’ and ‘Mademoiselle’, ‘Frau’ and ‘Fraulein’ and ‘Senora’ and ‘Senorita’ would be banned.

3. A school in Seattle renamed its Easter eggs spring spheres to avoid causing offence to people who did not celebrate Easter.

4. A UK council has banned the term brainstorming – and replaced it with thought showers, as local lawmakers thought the term may offend epileptics.

5. A UK recruiter was stunned when her job advert for ‘reliable’ and ‘hard-working’ applicants was rejected by the job centre as it could be offensive to unreliable and lazy people.

6. Some US schools now have a ‘holiday tree’ every year at Christmas, rather than a Christmas tree.

8.     Professional Euphemisms

Political correctness is often used in some job titles. Using euphemisms in job titles helps to reduce the negative attitude to people who do some unpopular jobs of attending personnel. As society can’t do without these professions the only way to attach significance to them is to change their names with the help of a euphemism so that they sounded more pleasant to ear. Job title euphemisms are most closely associated with softening the demeaning nature of a job, so that the employees performing the roles will take greater pride in their work. Workplace euphemisms can be used to create a feeling of solidarity amongst employees and help develop a sense of company belonging. At Disney, for example, every employee is called a Cast Member, irrespective as to whether you are in an accounts department or dressed up as Goofy.

Most euphemisms are used in naming the jobs of a cleaner and a janitor. To empathize the importance of people responsible for cleaning premises or streets instead of garbage collector people use the expressions sanitation man, sanitation engineer or garbologist. Instead of road sweeper they say street orderly, instead of janitor – environmental hygienist, custodian or building engineer. Accordingly, the place where they keep the things for cleaning is called Custodial instead of Janitorial.

Service staff is also considered to be unpopular. In English they practically don’t use now the word servant as it sounds humiliating. It has been changed by a stylistically neutral word housekeeper, and in American English one can meet the word help which means a person who helps about the house, underlining the fact that the word is done according to a person’s own wish to help.

Euphemisms are also used to change the jobs of some unimportant office clerks. For example, instead of filing clerk (делопроизводитель) in British English one can meet the expression information retrieval administrator; instead of secretary they say personal assistant or administrative assistant; instead of clerk in the law office – service lawyer is used.

The profession of a teacher is treated now with less respect than it used to be. To express more respect to this profession new euphemisms appeared both for the profession itself and the activity the teachers do. So, teachers turned to be educators, classroom managers, learning facilitators who possess efficient instructional delivery skills that they demonstrate during their microteaching sessions. Pupils don’t study but spend time on tasks in their learning environment.

Some more examples:

euphemism	job
exterminating engineer vermin control officer	rat catcher
noctician	night-watchman
vehicle appearance specialist	car washer
nursing-home care assistant	nurse
childminder daycare provider childcare provider	nanny
waste management disposal technician	bin man
information adviser	librarian
debt management officer field force agent	tax collector
vertical transport engineer	lift engineer
wet leisure assistant	lifeguard
welcoming agent	receptionist

All the examples point out that in society there have always been and still will be low-paid, hard and non-prestigious jobs whose status can be risen only in words. For some people, important sounding job titles are signs of what they are worth, even if their salaries don’t match. However, these euphemistic job titles can cause a lot of arguments whether or not to use them as they cause a lot of misunderstanding.

The unfortunate occasion of being dismissed from employment can be expressed in numerous ways. Some of the most familiar expressions are:

—        to be made redundant

—        to receive a pink slip

—        to be dismissed

—        to be discharged

—        to be laid off

—        to lose one’s job

—        to be fired

—        to be got rid of

—        to be given the boot

—        to get the sack

—        to be sacked, etc.

These homely expressions can be seen in newspaper headlines:

Pentagon gives pink slops to thousands of soldiers, including active-duty officers.

Thousands of Woolworths staff face sack in Christmas week.

Thousands of Doctors fired by United Healthcare.

9.     Euphemisms in Russian

The appearance of euphemisms in Russian is closely connected with the process of globalization, introduction of information technology into different spheres of life and the influence of the world culture. One can notice that the level of aggressiveness in people’s speech has become quite high in recent years and the process of speech euphemisation is becoming the characteristic feature of modern society. Euphemisms lessen the negative characteristic of the message and are used in different spheres of person’s life – in politics, in interpersonal relations, in everyday life, etc. According to the classification of some Russian linguists in Russian as well as in English euphemisms can be divided into several groups:

1)     Religious euphemisms (лукавый instead of дьявол);

2)     Political and economical euphemisms (принцип взаимности instead of око за око, товары повышенного спроса instead of дефицит);

3)     Moral and socially important euphemisms (в интересном положении instead of беременна; афроамериканец instead of негр, лицо с ограниченными возможностями instead of инвалид);

4)     Euphemisms connected with superstitions (уйти в мир иной instead of умереть);

5)     Professional euphemisms (менеджер по клинингу instead of уборщица).

We would like to give more detailed attention to professional euphemisms. As it has been mentioned above, professional euphemisms are not new in English though in the Russian language this phenomenon is comparatively new. We have analyzed the newspapers “Работа для вас”, «Из рук в руки» and the sites |Avito”, Superjob”, “Headhunter” and found out that the first place euphemisms are attached to the professions connected with cleaning: клининг—менеджер, специалист по клинингу, техслужащий, оператор профессиональной уборки instead of уборщик помещений; смотритель, менеджер по уходу за территорией, мастер чистоты, рабочий по благоустройству instead of дворник.

The second place is occupied by jobs of office clerks: экспедитор, специалист отдела доставки instead of курьер; офис—менеджер, ассистент, помощник руководителя instead of секретарь;  менеджер по отгрузке, сотрудник склада instead of грузчик; секьюрити, сотрудник безопасности, специалист по безопасности instead of  охранник; специалист по продажам, менеджер, продавец—консультант, работник кассы, сейлзменеджер instead of  продавец.

The third group of euphemisms names the professions in agriculture: оператор машинного доения, специалист по доению instead of дояр; механизатор, сотрудник транспортного отдела, водитель сельхозтехники instead of тракторист; рабочий сельхозпроизводства, оператор по уходу за животными, работник фермы – пастух.

The fourth position is occupied by euphemisms concerning the jobs done about the house: ландшафтный дизайнер, фитодизайнер, рабочий зеленого хозяйства instead of садовник; помощник по хозяйству, управляющий домом, горничная instead of домработница; персональный водитель instead of шофер.

Finally, the last group of jobs subjected to euphemism change belongs to the professions that give different services to people, for example, мастер маникюра, менеджер ногтевого сервиса, менеджер салона красоты instead of маникюрист; стилист, мастер салона красоты instead of парикмахер; дизайнер, конструктор одежды, модельер, портной instead of швея; менеджер ресторана, специалист по работе с клиентами instead of официант.

As we can see a lot of words are changed by their foreign synonyms as euphemisms (дизайнер, менеджер, секьюрити, сервис, etc.). Probably, these words sound more enigmatic and important for a Russian listener. Sometimes people don’t quite understand the meaning of these words, and it disguises the real essence of the job, making it seem more prestigious.

10.  Examples of Euphemisms

Here are some more examples of euphemisms:

• Correctional facility — jail
• Departed — died
• Differently-abled  — handicapped or disabled
• Fell off the back of a truck  — stolen
• Ethnic cleansing — genocide
• Negative patient outcome — dead
• Collateral damage — accidental deaths
• Letting someone go — firing someone
• Put to sleep — euthanize
• On the streets — homeless
• Big-boned — heavy or overweight
• Chronologically-challenged — late
• Use the rest room — go to the bathroom
• Economical with the truth — liar
• Powder your nose — the rest room
• Between jobs — unemployed
• Domestic engineer — maid

11.  Survey

At school students also use euphemisms without thinking that they really do it. We made a survey and asked 9^th-grade students  if they know what  euphemisms are.  Most respondents couldn’t answer this question, but they were really interested to know what it is.  Immediately an example of a euphemism was given: when pupils want to go to the toilet 100% of those asked said that in this case they ask the teacher: “May I go out?” They believe that the word “toilet” is not good to say aloud in class, so it is changed for this neutral expression.

When asked in what field the euphemisms need to be used, 33% of respondents supposed that euphemisms are necessary in ritual service, 17% — in consumer service, 18% — in medicine 18% — at school and 14% of those asked couldn’t give a definite answer. Thus, according to the survey we made sure that most students think euphemisms are really important in some spheres of life.

12.  Conclusion

Having studied the material about euphemisms, we have come to the conclusion that euphemisms allow us to soften difficult or unpleasant things when we speak, especially to children, or people who might be offended or disturbed by the situation we are talking about. They can be used to shelter children from adult subjects, avoid awkward moments of truth with loved ones, and avoid politically incorrect phrasings in public. Political correctness and politeness are both filled with euphemistic phrases. The high usage of euphemisms by organizations and individuals in formal documents and everyday conversation alike shows how much we value politeness.

No doubt, using euphemisms is not a bad thing if we don’t want to offend people’s feelings. However, we strongly believe that some terms should be named as they are, because in some situations using word substitutes makes the phenomenon sound funny and ridiculous.

In our work we have explained the concept of euphemisms, dwelt on their classification, explained what political correctness is and found the examples of euphemisms usage in Russian and English job titles. However, there is still much to study. Actually, the investigation of this phenomenon is of great importance for complex studying of both, English and Russian and for intercultural communication in order not to be trapped while travelling abroad. The process of forming euphemisms still needs careful and thorough studying as the world around us is constantly changing.

Of course, we couldn’t cover all aspects  of euphemisms forming in this paper, we’ve only touched upon some of them. However, the facts mentioned in it seem to be quite interesting in language learning. That is why we suppose the work has practical value both for teachers and for students as the information given here will broaden the outlook of English learners and enrich their vocabulary. The material of the paper can be used by teachers in their practice.

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