Etymology of the word human

English[edit]

Etymology[edit]

From Late Middle English humayne, humain, from Middle French humain, from Old French humain, umain, from Latin hūmānus m (of or belonging to a man, human, humane, adjective), from humus, with unclear ū. Spelling human has been predominant since the early 18th century.[1]

Pronunciation[edit]

  • (UK) IPA(key): /ˈ(h)juː.mən/, [ˈ(ç)ju̟ːmən], [ˈ(ç)ju̟ːmn̩]
  • (US) enPR: (h)yo͞oʹmən, (h)yo͞omʹn, IPA(key): /ˈ(h)ju.mən/, [ˈ(ç)ju̟mən], [ˈ(ç)ju̟mn̩]
    • (NYC, some other US dialects) IPA(key): /ˈju.mən/
  • (Indian English) IPA(key): /ˈhjuː.mən/
  • Rhymes: -uːmən
  • Hyphenation: hu‧man

Adjective[edit]

human (comparative more human, superlative most human)

  1. (not comparable) Of or belonging to the species Homo sapiens or its closest relatives.
    • c. 1587–1588, [Christopher Marlowe], Tamburlaine the Great. [] The First Part [], part 1, 2nd edition, London: [] [R. Robinson for] Richard Iones, [], published 1592, →OCLC; reprinted as Tamburlaine the Great (A Scolar Press Facsimile), Menston, Yorkshire; London: Scolar Press, 1973, →ISBN, Act II, scene vi:

      Some powers diuine, or els infernall, mixt / Their angry ſeedes at his conception: / For he was neuer ſprong of humaine race, / Since with the ſpirit of his fearefull pride, / He dares so doubtleſly reſolue of rule.

    • 1660, [Richard Allestree], “Sect[ion] V. Of the Second Advantage, Wealth.”, in The Gentlemans Calling, London: [] T[imothy] Garthwait [], →OCLC, page 83:

      [N]o attempt is made to call in God to their reſcue, as if he vvere an idle unconcern’d ſpectator of humane affairs, or ſo inconſiderable an ally, as not to be vvorth the care of engaging him on their ſide.

    • 2013 June 7, David Simpson, “Fantasy of navigation”, in The Guardian Weekly, volume 188, number 26, page 36:

      Like most human activities, ballooning has sponsored heroes and hucksters and a good deal in between. For every dedicated scientist patiently recording atmospheric pressure and wind speed while shivering at high altitudes, there is a carnival barker with a bevy of pretty girls willing to dangle from a basket or parachute down to earth.

  2. (comparable) Having the nature or attributes of a human being.

    To err is human; to forgive, divine.

    • 1922, Ben Travers, chapter 1, in A Cuckoo in the Nest[1]:

      She was like a Beardsley Salome, he had said. And indeed she had the narrow eyes and the high cheekbone of that creature, and as nearly the sinuosity as is compatible with human symmetry.

    • 2011 August 17, Holman W. Jenkins, Jr., The Many Wars of Google: Handset makers will learn to live with their new ‘frenemy’, Business World, Wall Street Journal,
      Google wouldn’t be human if it didn’t want some of this loot, which buying Motorola would enable it to grab.

Alternative forms[edit]

  • humane (obsolete)

Synonyms[edit]

  • mannish, mennish (now rare)

Antonyms[edit]

  • inhuman
  • nonhuman
  • unhuman

Hypernyms[edit]

  • animalian (in its sense including all Animalia)
  • mammalian

Derived terms[edit]

  • anti-human
  • half-human
  • hope springs eternal in the human breast
  • human behaviour
  • human being
  • human blockhead
  • human botfly
  • human burrito
  • human cannonball
  • human capital
  • human chain
  • human chattel
  • human cheese
  • human chorionic gonadotropin
  • human condition
  • human death
  • human development
  • human enhancement
  • human factors
  • human flea
  • human flesh search engine
  • Human Genome Project
  • human geographer
  • human geography
  • human immunodeficiency virus
  • human immunodeficiency virus 1
  • human immunodeficiency virus 2
  • human insulin
  • human interest
  • human interface device
  • human kind, humankind
  • human knot
  • human leukocyte antigen
  • human life
  • human microphone
  • human milk
  • human movement
  • human nature
  • human papillomavirus
  • human potential movement
  • human pyramid
  • human race
  • human relations
  • human resource management
  • human resources (HR)
  • human resources management
  • human right, human rights
  • human roulette wheel
  • human sacrifice
  • human seminal plasma protein hypersensitivity
  • human services
  • human shield
  • human smuggling
  • human statue
  • human terrain
  • human touch
  • human trafficking
  • human year
  • human zoo
  • human-computer interaction
  • human-dominated
  • human-flesh search
  • human-made
  • human-readable
  • human-rightism
  • human-rightist
  • humanism
  • humanist
  • humanization
  • humanize
  • humanizer
  • humanly
  • humanoid
  • humanure
  • inhuman
  • inhumane
  • modern human
  • no human being is illegal
  • no human involved
  • no human is illegal
  • nonhuman, non-human
  • post-human
  • preter-human
  • proto-human
  • semi-human
  • socialism with a human face
  • to err is human

Pages starting with “human”.

[edit]

  • humane
  • humanitarian
  • humanitarianism
  • humanity

Translations[edit]

of or belonging to the species Homo sapiens

  • Afrikaans: mens (af)
  • Albanian: njerëzor
  • Arabic: بَشَرِيّ (ar) (bašariyy), إنْسَانِيّ(ʔinsāniyy)
  • Aragonese: umano (an)
  • Armenian: մարդկային (hy) (mardkayin)
  • Assamese: মানুহ (manuh), মানৱ (manow)
  • Asturian: humanu (ast)
  • Azerbaijani: bəşər (az), insan (az), bəşəri, insani
  • Belarusian: чалаве́чы (čalavjéčy), людскі́ (ljudskí)
  • Bengali: মানবীয় (manobiẏo), মানুষিক (manuśik)
  • Bulgarian: чове́шки (bg) (čovéški)
  • Burmese: မနုဿ (my) (ma.nu.ssa.)
  • Catalan: humà (ca)
  • Central Sierra Miwok: míw·y-
  • Cherokee: please add this translation if you can
  • Chinese:
    Mandarin: 人的 (zh) (rén de), 人類的人类的 (zh) (rénlèi de)
  • Choctaw: okla
  • Czech: lidský (cs) m
  • Danish: menneskelig
  • Dutch: menselijk (nl), mens- (nl)
  • Esperanto: homa (eo)
  • Estonian: inim-, inimese
  • Finnish: inhimillinen (fi), ihmis-
  • French: humain (fr)
    Old French: umain, humain
  • Galician: humano (gl)
  • Georgian: ადამიანური (adamianuri)
  • German: menschlich (de)
  • Gothic: 𐌼𐌰𐌽𐌽𐌹𐍃𐌺𐍃 (mannisks)
  • Greek: ανθρώπινος (el) (anthrópinos)
    Ancient: ἀνθρωπικός (anthrōpikós), ἀνθρώπειος (anthrṓpeios)
  • Gujarati: please add this translation if you can
  • Haitian Creole: imen
  • Hebrew: אֱנוֹשִׁי (he) (enoshí)
  • Hindi: इंसान (insān), मनुष्य (hi) (manuṣya), मानव (hi) (mānav), इंसानी (insānī), मानवी (hi) (mānvī)
  • Hungarian: emberi (hu)
  • Ido: homa (io)
  • Indonesian: manusia (id)
  • Ingrian: ihmiin, ihmihiin, inmiin, inmihiin
  • Interlingua: human (ia)
  • Irish: daonna
  • Italian: umano (it)
  • Japanese: 人の (ja) (hito no), 人間の (ja) (ningen no)
  • Kazakh: адами (adami), адам (kk) (adam)
  • Khmer: មនុស្ស (km) (mɔnuh)
  • Korean: 사람의 (ko) (saramui), 인간의 (ko) (in’ganui)
  • Kyrgyz: адам (ky) (adam)
  • Lao: ມະນຸດ (lo) (ma nut)
  • Latin: humānus (la) m
  • Latvian: cilvēcisks
  • Limburgish: miensjelik (li)
  • Macedonian: човечки m (čovečki)
  • Malay: manusia (ms)
  • Manchu: ᠨᡳᠶᠠᠯᠮᠠᡳ (niyalmai), ᠨᡳᠶᠠᠯᠮᠠ
    ᠊ᡳ
    (niyalma -i)
  • Maori: tangata (mi)
  • Maranao: manosiya
  • Mongolian: хүний (mn) (xünii)
  • Ngazidja Comorian: -a kibinadamu
  • Norwegian:
    Bokmål: menneskelig (no)
  • Occitan: uman (oc)
    Old Occitan: uman, human
  • Old English: mennisċ
  • Oriya: ମନୁଷ୍ୟ (or) (mônuṣyô)
  • Pashto: انساني (ps) (ensāní), بشري (ps) (bašarí)
  • Persian: انسانی (fa) (ensâni), بشری (fa) (bašari)
  • Piedmontese: uman
  • Polish: ludzki (pl), człowieczy (pl)
  • Portuguese: humano (pt)
  • Romanian: omenesc (ro), uman (ro)
  • Romansch: uman (Rumantsch Grischun, Sutsilvan, Surmiran, Vallader), human (Sursilvan), umaun (Puter)
  • Russian: челове́ческий (ru) (čelovéčeskij), людско́й (ru) (ljudskój)
  • Sanskrit: मानव (sa) (mānava), मनुष्य (sa) (manuṣya), मानवीय (sa) (mānavīya), मानुष्यक (sa) (mānuṣyaka)
  • Scots: human
  • Scottish Gaelic: daonna
  • Serbo-Croatian:
    Cyrillic: љу̀дскӣ
    Roman: ljùdskī (sh)
  • Slovak: ľudský
  • Slovene: človeški, ljúdski
  • Sotho: motho (st)
  • Spanish: humano (es)
  • Swedish: mänsklig (sv)
  • Sylheti: ꠝꠣꠘꠥ (manu), ꠝꠣꠘꠥꠡ (manuś)
  • Tajik: одамӣ (odamī), инсонӣ (insonī), башарӣ (bašarī)
  • Telugu: మనిషి (te) (maniṣi)
  • Thai: มนุษย์ (th) (má-nút)
  • Tsonga: munhu
  • Turkish: beşeri (tr), insani (tr)
  • Turkmen: ynsany
  • Ukrainian: людськи́й (ljudsʹkýj)
  • Urdu: انسانی(insānī)
  • Uyghur: ئىنسانىي(insaniy)
  • Uzbek: insoniy (uz), odamiy (uz), bashariy (uz)
  • Vietnamese: người (vi)
  • Welsh: dynol (cy)
  • Yiddish: מענטשלעך(mentshlekh)
  • Yoruba: ènìyàn

having the nature or attributes of a human being

  • Afrikaans: menslik (af)
  • Arabic: آدْمِيّ(ʔādmiyy), بَشَرِيّ (ar) (bašariyy), إِنْسَانِيّ(ʔinsāniyy)
  • Armenian: մարդկային (hy) (mardkayin)
  • Aromanian: uminescu
  • Asturian: humanu (ast)
  • Bulgarian: човешки (bg) (čoveški)
  • Catalan: humà (ca)
  • Cherokee: ᏴᏫ (yvwi)
  • Czech: lidský (cs) m
  • Danish: menneskelig, human (da)
  • Dutch: menselijk (nl)
  • Esperanto: homa (eo)
  • Estonian: inimlik
  • Finnish: inhimillinen (fi)
  • French: humain (fr)
  • Friulian: please add this translation if you can
  • Galician: humano (gl)
  • German: menschlich (de)
  • Gothic: 𐌼𐌰𐌽𐌽𐌹𐍃𐌺𐍃 (mannisks)
  • Greek: ανθρώπινος (el) m (anthrópinos)
    Ancient: ἀνθρώπινος (anthrṓpinos)
  • Hungarian: emberi (hu)
  • Ido: homala (io)
  • Irish: duiniúil, duineata
  • Italian: umano (it)
  • Japanese: please add this translation if you can
  • Khmer: នៃមនុស្សលោក (ney mɔnuh look)
  • Latin: humānus (la) m
  • Latvian: cilvēcisks
  • Macedonian: човечки m (čovečki)
  • Norwegian:
    Bokmål: menneskelig (no)
  • Occitan: uman (oc)
  • Old English: mennisċ
  • Polish: ludzki (pl) m
  • Portuguese: humano (pt)
  • Romanian: omenesc (ro), uman (ro)
  • Romansch: uman (Rumantsch Grischun, Sutsilvan, Surmiran, Vallader), human (Sursilvan), umaun (Puter)
  • Russian: челове́ческий (ru) (čelovéčeskij), людско́й (ru) (ljudskój)
  • Scots: human
  • Scottish Gaelic: daonna
  • Slovak: ľudský
  • Slovene: človeški, ljúdski
  • Spanish: humano (es)
  • Swedish: mänsklig (sv)
  • Turkish: insanca (tr)
  • Yiddish: מענטשלעך(mentshlekh)

Translations to be checked

  • Belarusian: (please verify) чалаве́чы (čalavjéčy), (please verify) лю́дскі (ljúdski)
  • Chinese:
    Mandarin: (please verify)  (zh) (rén), (please verify) 人类 (zh) (rénlèi)
  • Estonian: (please verify) inim-, (please verify) inimlik, (please verify) inimese
  • Igbo: (please verify) madụ
  • Interlingua: (please verify) human (ia)
  • Lithuanian: (please verify) žmoginis m (biological term), (please verify) žmogiškas m
  • Persian: (please verify) انسانی (fa) (ensâni)
  • Serbo-Croatian:
    Cyrillic: (please verify) љу̀дскӣ, (please verify) човечнo n, (please verify) човечнa f
    Roman: (please verify) ljùdskī (sh) m
  • Turkish: (please verify) insan (tr)

Noun[edit]

Rendition of the humans on the Pioneer 10 plaque.

human (plural humans)

  1. (strictly) The tallest, most abundant and most intelligent of primates; Homo sapiens.

    Humans share common ancestors with other apes.

    Synonyms: human being, man; see also Thesaurus:person
  2. (broadly) Any hominid of the genus Homo.

Translations[edit]

Verb[edit]

human (third-person singular simple present humans, present participle humaning, simple past and past participle humaned)

  1. (rare) To behave as or become, or to cause to behave as or become, a human.
    • 1911, Ambrose Bierce, “Music”, in The collected works of Ambrose Bierce, volume 9, page 362:

      [] he sought to charm a single pair of ears, and those more hairy than critical. Later, as the race went on humaning, there grew complexity of sentiment and varying emotional needs, []

    • 2013, Biosocial Becomings, →ISBN, page 19:

      There are, then, many ways of humaning: these are the ways along which we make ourselves and, collaboratively, one another.

References[edit]

  1. ^ Random House Dictionary, 2010

Further reading[edit]

  • human on Wikipedia.Wikipedia
  • human in Webster’s Revised Unabridged Dictionary, G. & C. Merriam, 1913
  • “human”, in The Century Dictionary [], New York, N.Y.: The Century Co., 1911, →OCLC.
  • human at OneLook Dictionary Search

Anagrams[edit]

  • Nahum

Cebuano[edit]

Pronunciation[edit]

  • Hyphenation: hu‧man

Verb[edit]

human

  1. to finish

Adjective[edit]

human

  1. completed; done

Adverb[edit]

human

  1. after

Quotations[edit]

For quotations using this term, see Citations:human.

Danish[edit]

Adjective[edit]

human

  1. human (having the nature or attributes of a human being)
    Synonym: menneskelig
  2. humane (something done from love to humanity)

Inflection[edit]

Inflection of human
Positive Comparative Superlative
Common singular human 2
Neuter singular humant 2
Plural humane 2
Definite attributive1 humane
1) When an adjective is applied predicatively to something definite, the corresponding «indefinite» form is used.
2) The «indefinite» superlatives may not be used attributively.

German[edit]

Pronunciation[edit]

  • IPA(key): /huˈmaːn/
  • Rhymes: -aːn

Adjective[edit]

human (strong nominative masculine singular humaner, comparative humaner, superlative am humansten)

  1. humane
    Synonym: menschlich

Declension[edit]

Comparative forms of human

Superlative forms of human

[edit]

  • Humanismus
  • Humanist
  • humanistisch

Further reading[edit]

  • “human” in Duden online
  • “human” in Digitales Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache

Interlingua[edit]

Adjective[edit]

human (comparative plus human, superlative le plus human)

  1. human
  2. humane

Derived terms[edit]

  • esser human

Northern Sami[edit]

Pronunciation[edit]

  • (Kautokeino) IPA(key): /ˈhuman/

Verb[edit]

human

  1. first-person singular present indicative of hupmat

Norwegian Bokmål[edit]

Etymology[edit]

From Latin hūmānus.

Adjective[edit]

human (neuter singular humant, definite singular and plural humane)

  1. humane

References[edit]

  • “human” in The Bokmål Dictionary.

Norwegian Nynorsk[edit]

Etymology[edit]

From Latin hūmānus.

Adjective[edit]

human (neuter singular humant, definite singular and plural humane)

  1. humane

References[edit]

  • “human” in The Nynorsk Dictionary.

Romansch[edit]

Etymology[edit]

From Latin hūmānus.

Adjective[edit]

human m (feminine singular humana, masculine plural humans, feminine plural humanas)

  1. (Sursilvan) human

Alternative forms[edit]

  • uman (Rumantsch Grischun, Sutsilvan, Surmiran, Vallader)
  • umaun (Puter)

Noun[edit]

human m (plural humans; feminine humana, plural humanas)

  1. (Sursilvan) (male) human being
    Synonym: carstgaun

Alternative forms[edit]

  • uman (Rumantsch Grischun, Surmiran, Vallader)
  • umaun (Puter)

Serbo-Croatian[edit]

Pronunciation[edit]

  • IPA(key): /xûmaːn/
  • Hyphenation: hu‧man

Adjective[edit]

hȕmān (definite hȕmānī, comparative humaniji, Cyrillic spelling ху̏ма̄н)

  1. humane (with regard for the health and well-being of another; compassionate)

Declension[edit]

positive indefinite forms

singular masculine feminine neuter
nominative human humana humano
genitive humana humane humana
dative humanu humanoj humanu
accusative inanimate
animate
human
humana
humanu humano
vocative human humana humano
locative humanu humanoj humanu
instrumental humanim humanom humanim
plural masculine feminine neuter
nominative humani humane humana
genitive humanih humanih humanih
dative humanim(a) humanim(a) humanim(a)
accusative humane humane humana
vocative humani humane humana
locative humanim(a) humanim(a) humanim(a)
instrumental humanim(a) humanim(a) humanim(a)

positive definite forms

singular masculine feminine neuter
nominative humani humana humano
genitive humanog(a) humane humanog(a)
dative humanom(u/e) humanoj humanom(u/e)
accusative inanimate
animate
humani
humanog(a)
humanu humano
vocative humani humana humano
locative humanom(e/u) humanoj humanom(e/u)
instrumental humanim humanom humanim
plural masculine feminine neuter
nominative humani humane humana
genitive humanih humanih humanih
dative humanim(a) humanim(a) humanim(a)
accusative humane humane humana
vocative humani humane humana
locative humanim(a) humanim(a) humanim(a)
instrumental humanim(a) humanim(a) humanim(a)

comparative forms

singular masculine feminine neuter
nominative humaniji humanija humanije
genitive humanijeg(a) humanije humanijeg(a)
dative humanijem(u) humanijoj humanijem(u)
accusative inanimate
animate
humaniji
humanijeg(a)
humaniju humanije
vocative humaniji humanija humanije
locative humanijem(u) humanijoj humanijem(u)
instrumental humanijim humanijom humanijim
plural masculine feminine neuter
nominative humaniji humanije humanija
genitive humanijih humanijih humanijih
dative humanijim(a) humanijim(a) humanijim(a)
accusative humanije humanije humanija
vocative humaniji humanije humanija
locative humanijim(a) humanijim(a) humanijim(a)
instrumental humanijim(a) humanijim(a) humanijim(a)

superlative forms

singular masculine feminine neuter
nominative najhumaniji najhumanija najhumanije
genitive najhumanijeg(a) najhumanije najhumanijeg(a)
dative najhumanijem(u) najhumanijoj najhumanijem(u)
accusative inanimate
animate
najhumaniji
najhumanijeg(a)
najhumaniju najhumanije
vocative najhumaniji najhumanija najhumanije
locative najhumanijem(u) najhumanijoj najhumanijem(u)
instrumental najhumanijim najhumanijom najhumanijim
plural masculine feminine neuter
nominative najhumaniji najhumanije najhumanija
genitive najhumanijih najhumanijih najhumanijih
dative najhumanijim(a) najhumanijim(a) najhumanijim(a)
accusative najhumanije najhumanije najhumanija
vocative najhumaniji najhumanije najhumanija
locative najhumanijim(a) najhumanijim(a) najhumanijim(a)
instrumental najhumanijim(a) najhumanijim(a) najhumanijim(a)

Spanish[edit]

Verb[edit]

human

  1. third-person plural present indicative of humar

Swedish[edit]

Adjective[edit]

human

  1. humane, decent, compassionate

    Deras politik har kritiserats för att inte vara human.

    Their politics have been criticised for being less than humane.
  2. (of prices) reasonable

    Det var ett humant pris.

    That was a reasonable price.

Declension[edit]

Inflection of human
Indefinite Positive Comparative Superlative2
Common singular human humanare humanast
Neuter singular humant humanare humanast
Plural humana humanare humanast
Masculine plural3 humane humanare humanast
Definite Positive Comparative Superlative
Masculine singular1 humane humanare humanaste
All humana humanare humanaste
1) Only used, optionally, to refer to things whose natural gender is masculine.
2) The indefinite superlative forms are only used in the predicative.
3) Dated or archaic

Very wrong.

Homo means ‘man’ in Latin, and has the corresponding adjective humanus, whence English ‘human,’ through French.

If you like the nitty gritty, OED gives

Etymology: < Anglo-Norman humeigne (feminine), humane (feminine), Anglo-Norman and Middle French humain, humayn (French humain ) of or belonging to people (as opposed either to animals or to God) (1119 in Anglo-Norman), having human nature or characteristics (c1170), composed of people (c1174), benevolent (c1175), having people (as opposed to God) as its subject (1552 in letres humaines : compare humane letters n. at humane adj. Special uses) and its etymon classical Latin hūmānus of or belonging to people (as opposed either to animals or to divine beings), characteristic of people, civilized, cultured, cultivated, kindly, considerate, merciful, indulgent < the same base as homin- , homō homo n.1 + -ānus -an suffix, although the origin of the vocalism is unclear. Compare Old Occitan uman , Catalan humà (14th cent.), Spanish humano (c1200), Portuguese humano (13th cent.), Italian umano (13th cent.). With use as noun compare classical Latin hūmānus human being, hūmānum that which is human (uses as noun of masculine and neuter respectively of hūmānus , adjective), French humain human being (1340 in Middle French, usually in plural), human nature (a1630). Compare humane adj.

Human is certainly not derived from ‘Om,’ and I find no sources suggesting that they are cognate.

Lewis & Short (Latin dictionary) entry on homo gives

 comm. root in humus, Gr. χαμαί; cf. Germ. -gam in Bräutigam; O. H. Germ. gomo; Goth. guma; Old Engl. goom; Engl. groom; cf. also Gr. ἐπιχθόνιοι; Hebr. Adam, a human being, man.

Entry on humus gives

 kindr. with Sanscr. Xám, earth
Human[1]

Temporal range: 0.315–0 Ma

PreꞒ

O

S

D

C

P

T

J

K

Pg

N

Chibanian – Present

Akha cropped hires.JPG
An adult human male (left) and female (right) (Thailand, 2007)
Scientific classification edit
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Suborder: Haplorhini
Infraorder: Simiiformes
Family: Hominidae
Subfamily: Homininae
Tribe: Hominini
Genus: Homo
Species:

H. sapiens

Binomial name
Homo sapiens

Linnaeus, 1758

World human population density map.png
Homo sapiens population density (2005)

Humans (Homo sapiens) are the most common and widespread species of primate in the great ape family Hominidae, and also the most common species of primate overall. Humans are broadly characterized by their bipedalism and high intelligence. Humans’ large brain and resulting cognitive skills have allowed them to thrive in a variety of environments and develop complex societies and civilizations. Humans are highly social and tend to live in complex social structures composed of many cooperating and competing groups, from families and kinship networks to political states. As such, social interactions between humans have established a wide variety of values, social norms, languages, and rituals, each of which bolsters human society. The desire to understand and influence phenomena has motivated humanity’s development of science, technology, philosophy, mythology, religion, and other conceptual frameworks.

Although some scientists equate the term «humans» with all members of the genus Homo, in common usage it generally refers to Homo sapiens, the only extant member. Anatomically modern humans emerged around 300,000 years ago in Africa, evolving from Homo heidelbergensis or a similar species and migrating out of Africa, gradually replacing or interbreeding with local populations of archaic humans. For most of history, humans were nomadic hunter-gatherers. Humans began exhibiting behavioral modernity about 160,000–60,000 years ago. The Neolithic Revolution, which began in Southwest Asia around 13,000 years ago (and separately in a few other places), saw the emergence of agriculture and permanent human settlement. As populations became larger and denser, forms of governance developed within and between communities, and a number of civilizations have risen and fallen. Humans have continued to expand, with a global population of over 8 billion as of 2022.

Genes and the environment influence human biological variation in visible characteristics, physiology, disease susceptibility, mental abilities, body size, and life span. Though humans vary in many traits (such as genetic predispositions and physical features), any two humans are at least 99% genetically similar. Humans are sexually dimorphic: generally, males have greater body strength and females have a higher body fat percentage. At puberty, humans develop secondary sexual characteristics. Females are capable of pregnancy, usually between puberty, at around 12 years old, and menopause, around the age of 50.

Humans are omnivorous, capable of consuming a wide variety of plant and animal material, and have used fire and other forms of heat to prepare and cook food since the time of Homo erectus. Humans can survive for up to eight weeks without food and three or four days without water. Humans are generally diurnal, sleeping on average seven to nine hours per day. Childbirth is dangerous, with a high risk of complications and death. Often, both the mother and the father provide care for their children, who are helpless at birth.

Humans have a large, highly developed, and complex prefrontal cortex, the region of the brain associated with higher cognition. Humans are highly intelligent, capable of episodic memory, have flexible facial expressions, self-awareness, and a theory of mind. The human mind is capable of introspection, private thought, imagination, volition, and forming views on existence. This has allowed great technological advancements and complex tool development to be possible through complex reasoning and the transmission of knowledge to subsequent generations. Language, art, and trade are defining characteristics of humans. Long-distance trade routes might have led to cultural explosions and resource distribution that gave humans an advantage over other similar species.

Etymology and definition

All modern humans are classified into the species Homo sapiens, coined by Carl Linnaeus in his 1735 work Systema Naturae.[2] The generic name «Homo» is a learned 18th-century derivation from Latin homō, which refers to humans of either sex.[3][4] The word human can refer to all members of the Homo genus,[5] although in common usage it generally just refers to Homo sapiens, the only extant species.[6] The name «Homo sapiens» means ‘wise man’ or ‘knowledgeable man’.[7] There is disagreement if certain extinct members of the genus, namely Neanderthals, should be included as a separate species of humans or as a subspecies of H. sapiens.[5]

Human is a loanword of Middle English from Old French humain, ultimately from Latin hūmānus, the adjectival form of homō (‘man’ — in the sense of humankind).[8] The native English term man can refer to the species generally (a synonym for humanity) as well as to human males. It may also refer to individuals of either sex, though this form is less common in contemporary English.[9]

Despite the fact that the word animal is colloquially used as an antonym for human,[10] and contrary to a common biological misconception, humans are animals.[11] The word person is often used interchangeably with human, but philosophical debate exists as to whether personhood applies to all humans or all sentient beings, and further if one can lose personhood (such as by going into a persistent vegetative state).[12]

Evolution

Humans are apes (superfamily Hominoidea).[13] The lineage of apes that eventually gave rise to humans first split from gibbons (family Hylobatidae) and orangutans (genus Pongo), then gorillas (genus Gorilla), and finally, chimpanzees and bonobos (genus Pan). The last split, between the human and chimpanzee–bonobo lineages, took place around 8–4 million years ago, in the late Miocene epoch.[14][15] During this split, chromosome 2 was formed from the joining of two other chromosomes, leaving humans with only 23 pairs of chromosomes, compared to 24 for the other apes.[16] Following their split with chimpanzees and bonobos, the hominins diversified into many species and at least two distinct genera. All but one of these lineages—representing the genus Homo and its sole extant species Homo sapiens—are now extinct.[17]

The genus Homo evolved from Australopithecus.[18][19] Though fossils from the transition are scarce, the earliest members of Homo share several key traits with Australopithecus.[20][21] The earliest record of Homo is the 2.8 million-year-old specimen LD 350-1 from Ethiopia, and the earliest named species are Homo habilis and Homo rudolfensis which evolved by 2.3 million years ago.[21] H. erectus (the African variant is sometimes called H. ergaster) evolved 2 million years ago and was the first archaic human species to leave Africa and disperse across Eurasia.[22] H. erectus also was the first to evolve a characteristically human body plan. Homo sapiens emerged in Africa around 300,000 years ago from a species commonly designated as either H. heidelbergensis or H. rhodesiensis, the descendants of H. erectus that remained in Africa.[23] H. sapiens migrated out of the continent, gradually replacing or interbreeding with local populations of archaic humans.[24][25][26] Humans began exhibiting behavioral modernity about 160,000–70,000 years ago,[27] and possibly earlier.[28]

The «out of Africa» migration took place in at least two waves, the first around 130,000 to 100,000 years ago, the second (Southern Dispersal) around 70,000 to 50,000 years ago.[29][30] H. sapiens proceeded to colonize all the continents and larger islands, arriving in Eurasia 125,000 years ago,[31][32] Australia around 65,000 years ago,[33] the Americas around 15,000 years ago, and remote islands such as Hawaii, Easter Island, Madagascar, and New Zealand between the years 300 and 1280 CE.[34][35]

Human evolution was not a simple linear or branched progression but involved interbreeding between related species.[36][37][38] Genomic research has shown that hybridization between substantially diverged lineages was common in human evolution.[39] DNA evidence suggests that several genes of Neanderthal origin are present among all non sub-Saharan African populations, and Neanderthals and other hominins, such as Denisovans, may have contributed up to 6% of their genome to present-day non sub-Saharan African humans.[36][40][41]

Human evolution is characterized by a number of morphological, developmental, physiological, and behavioral changes that have taken place since the split between the last common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees. The most significant of these adaptations are obligate bipedalism, increased brain size and decreased sexual dimorphism (neoteny). The relationship between all these changes is the subject of ongoing debate.[42]

History

Until about 12,000 years ago, all humans lived as hunter-gatherers.[43][44] The Neolithic Revolution (the invention of agriculture) first took place in Southwest Asia and spread through large parts of the Old World over the following millennia.[45] It also occurred independently in Mesoamerica (about 6,000 years ago),[46] China,[47][48] Papua New Guinea,[49] and the Sahel and West Savanna regions of Africa.[50][51][52] Access to food surplus led to the formation of permanent human settlements, the domestication of animals and the use of metal tools for the first time in history. Agriculture and sedentary lifestyle led to the emergence of early civilizations.[53][54][55]

An urban revolution took place in the 4th millennium BCE with the development of city-states, particularly Sumerian cities located in Mesopotamia.[56] It was in these cities that the earliest known form of writing, cuneiform script, appeared around 3000 BCE.[57] Other major civilizations to develop around this time were Ancient Egypt and the Indus Valley Civilisation.[58] They eventually traded with each other and invented technology such as wheels, plows and sails.[59][60][61][62] Astronomy and mathematics were also developed and the Great Pyramid of Giza was built.[63][64][65] There is evidence of a severe drought lasting about a hundred years that may have caused the decline of these civilizations,[66] with new ones appearing in the aftermath. Babylonians came to dominate Mesopotamia while others,[67] such as the Poverty Point culture, Minoans and the Shang dynasty, rose to prominence in new areas.[68][69][70] The Late Bronze Age collapse around 1200 BCE resulted in the disappearance of a number of civilizations and the beginning of the Greek Dark Ages.[71][72] During this period iron started replacing bronze, leading to the Iron Age.[73]

In the 5th century BCE, history started being recorded as a discipline, which provided a much clearer picture of life at the time.[74] Between the 8th and 6th century BCE, Europe entered the classical antiquity age, a period when ancient Greece and ancient Rome flourished.[75][76] Around this time other civilizations also came to prominence. The Maya civilization started to build cities and create complex calendars.[77][78] In Africa, the Kingdom of Aksum overtook the declining Kingdom of Kush and facilitated trade between India and the Mediterranean.[79] In West Asia, the Achaemenid Empire’s system of centralized governance became the precursor to many later empires,[80] while the Gupta Empire in India and the Han dynasty in China have been described as golden ages in their respective regions.[81][82]

Following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476, Europe entered the Middle Ages.[83] During this period, Christianity and the Church would provide centralized authority and education.[84] In the Middle East, Islam became the prominent religion and expanded into North Africa. It led to an Islamic Golden Age, inspiring achievements in architecture, the revival of old advances in science and technology, and the formation of a distinct way of life.[85][86] The Christian and Islamic worlds would eventually clash, with the Kingdom of England, the Kingdom of France and the Holy Roman Empire declaring a series of holy wars to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims.[87] In the Americas, complex Mississippian societies would arise starting around 800 CE,[88] while further south, the Aztecs and Incas would become the dominant powers.[89] The Mongol Empire would conquer much of Eurasia in the 13th and 14th centuries.[90] Over this same time period, the Mali Empire in Africa grew to be the largest empire on the continent, stretching from Senegambia to Ivory Coast.[91] Oceania would see the rise of the Tuʻi Tonga Empire which expanded across many islands in the South Pacific.[92]

The early modern period in Europe and the Near East (c.1450–1800) began with the final defeat of the Byzantine Empire, and the rise of the Ottoman Empire.[93] Meanwhile, Japan entered the Edo period,[94] the Qing dynasty rose in China[95] and the Mughal Empire ruled much of India.[96] Europe underwent the Renaissance, starting in the 15th century,[97] and the Age of Discovery began with the exploring and colonizing of new regions.[98] This includes the British Empire expanding to become the world’s largest empire[99] and the colonization of the Americas.[100] This expansion led to the Atlantic slave trade[101] and the genocide of Native American peoples.[102] This period also marked the Scientific Revolution, with great advances in mathematics, mechanics, astronomy and physiology.[103]

The late modern period (1800–present) saw the Technological and Industrial Revolution bring such discoveries as imaging technology, major innovations in transport and energy development.[104] The United States of America underwent great change, going from a small group of colonies to one of the global superpowers.[105] The Napoleonic Wars raged through Europe in the early 1800s,[106] Spain lost most of its colonies in the New World,[107] while Europeans continued expansion into Africa—where European control went from 10% to almost 90% in less than 50 years[108]—and Oceania.[109] A tenuous balance of power among European nations collapsed in 1914 with the outbreak of the First World War, one of the deadliest conflicts in history.[110] In the 1930s, a worldwide economic crisis led to the rise of authoritarian regimes and a Second World War, involving almost all of the world’s countries.[111] Following its conclusion in 1945, the Cold War between the USSR and the United States saw a struggle for global influence, including a nuclear arms race and a space race.[112][113] The current Information Age sees the world becoming increasingly globalized and interconnected.[114]

Habitat and population

Population statistics[n 1]

World Population.svg

  •   1,000+ million
  •   200–1,000 million
  •   100–200 million
  •   75–100 million
  •   50–75 million
  •   25–50 million
  •   10–25 million
  •   5–10 million
  •   <5 million
World population 8 billion
Population density 16/km2 (41/sq mi) by total area
54/km2 (139/sq mi) by land area
Largest cities[n 2] Tokyo, Delhi, Shanghai, São Paulo, Mexico City, Cairo, Mumbai, Beijing, Dhaka, Osaka, New York-Newark, Karachi, Buenos Aires, Chongqing, Istanbul, Kolkata, Manila, Lagos, Rio de Janeiro, Tianjin, Kinshasa, Guangzhou, Los Angeles-Long Beach-Santa Ana, Moscow, Shenzhen, Lahore, Bangalore, Paris, Jakarta, Chennai, Lima, Bogota, Bangkok, London

Early human settlements were dependent on proximity to water and—depending on the lifestyle—other natural resources used for subsistence, such as populations of animal prey for hunting and arable land for growing crops and grazing livestock.[118] Modern humans, however, have a great capacity for altering their habitats by means of technology, irrigation, urban planning, construction, deforestation and desertification.[119] Human settlements continue to be vulnerable to natural disasters, especially those placed in hazardous locations and with low quality of construction.[120] Grouping and deliberate habitat alteration is often done with the goals of providing protection, accumulating comforts or material wealth, expanding the available food, improving aesthetics, increasing knowledge or enhancing the exchange of resources.[121]

Humans are one of the most adaptable species, despite having a low or narrow tolerance for many of the earth’s extreme environments.[122] Through advanced tools, humans have been able to extend their tolerance to a wide variety of temperatures, humidity, and altitudes.[122] As a result, humans are a cosmopolitan species found in almost all regions of the world, including tropical rainforest, arid desert, extremely cold arctic regions, and heavily polluted cities; in comparison, most other species are confined to a few geographical areas by their limited adaptability.[123] The human population is not, however, uniformly distributed on the Earth’s surface, because the population density varies from one region to another, and large stretches of surface are almost completely uninhabited, like Antarctica and vast swathes of the ocean.[122][124] Most humans (61%) live in Asia; the remainder live in the Americas (14%), Africa (14%), Europe (11%), and Oceania (0.5%).[125]

Within the last century, humans have explored challenging environments such as Antarctica, the deep sea, and outer space.[126] Human habitation within these hostile environments is restrictive and expensive, typically limited in duration, and restricted to scientific, military, or industrial expeditions.[126] Humans have briefly visited the Moon and made their presence felt on other celestial bodies through human-made robotic spacecraft.[127][128][129] Since the early 20th century, there has been continuous human presence in Antarctica through research stations and, since 2000, in space through habitation on the International Space Station.[130]

Humans and their domesticated animals represent 96% of all mammalian biomass on earth, whereas all wild mammals represent only 4%.[131]

Estimates of the population at the time agriculture emerged in around 10,000 BC have ranged between 1 million and 15 million.[132][133] Around 50–60 million people lived in the combined eastern and western Roman Empire in the 4th century AD.[134] Bubonic plagues, first recorded in the 6th century AD, reduced the population by 50%, with the Black Death killing 75–200 million people in Eurasia and North Africa alone.[135] Human population was believed to have reached one billion in 1800. It has since then increased exponentially, reaching two billion in 1930 and three billion in 1960, four in 1975, five in 1987 and six billion in 1999.[136] It passed seven billion in 2011[137] and passed eight billion in November 2022.[138] It took over two million years of human prehistory and history for the human population to reach one billion and only 207 years more to grow to 7 billion.[139] The combined biomass of the carbon of all the humans on Earth in 2018 was estimated at 60 million tons, about 10 times larger than that of all non-domesticated mammals.[131]

In 2018, 4.2 billion humans (55%) lived in urban areas, up from 751 million in 1950.[140] The most urbanized regions are Northern America (82%), Latin America (81%), Europe (74%) and Oceania (68%), with Africa and Asia having nearly 90% of the world’s 3.4 billion rural population.[140] Problems for humans living in cities include various forms of pollution and crime,[141] especially in inner city and suburban slums. Humans have had a dramatic effect on the environment. They are apex predators, being rarely preyed upon by other species.[142] Human population growth, industrialization, land development, overconsumption and combustion of fossil fuels have led to environmental destruction and pollution that significantly contributes to the ongoing mass extinction of other forms of life.[143][144]

Biology

Anatomy and physiology

Basic anatomical features of female and male humans. These models have had body hair and male facial hair removed and head hair trimmed. The female model is wearing red nail polish on her toenails and a ring.

Most aspects of human physiology are closely homologous to corresponding aspects of animal physiology. The human body consists of the legs, the torso, the arms, the neck, and the head. An adult human body consists of about 100 trillion (1014) cells. The most commonly defined body systems in humans are the nervous, the cardiovascular, the digestive, the endocrine, the immune, the integumentary, the lymphatic, the musculoskeletal, the reproductive, the respiratory, and the urinary system.[145][146] The dental formula of humans is: 2.1.2.32.1.2.3. Humans have proportionately shorter palates and much smaller teeth than other primates. They are the only primates to have short, relatively flush canine teeth. Humans have characteristically crowded teeth, with gaps from lost teeth usually closing up quickly in young individuals. Humans are gradually losing their third molars, with some individuals having them congenitally absent.[147]

Humans share with chimpanzees a vestigial tail, appendix, flexible shoulder joints, grasping fingers and opposable thumbs.[148] Apart from bipedalism and brain size, humans differ from chimpanzees mostly in smelling, hearing and digesting proteins.[149] While humans have a density of hair follicles comparable to other apes, it is predominantly vellus hair, most of which is so short and wispy as to be practically invisible.[150][151] Humans have about 2 million sweat glands spread over their entire bodies, many more than chimpanzees, whose sweat glands are scarce and are mainly located on the palm of the hand and on the soles of the feet.[152]

It is estimated that the worldwide average height for an adult human male is about 171 cm (5 ft 7 in), while the worldwide average height for adult human females is about 159 cm (5 ft 3 in).[153] Shrinkage of stature may begin in middle age in some individuals but tends to be typical in the extremely aged.[154] Throughout history, human populations have universally become taller, probably as a consequence of better nutrition, healthcare, and living conditions.[155] The average mass of an adult human is 59 kg (130 lb) for females and 77 kg (170 lb) for males.[156][157] Like many other conditions, body weight and body type are influenced by both genetic susceptibility and environment and varies greatly among individuals.[158][159]

Humans have a far faster and more accurate throw than other animals.[160] Humans are also among the best long-distance runners in the animal kingdom, but slower over short distances.[161][149] Humans’ thinner body hair and more productive sweat glands help avoid heat exhaustion while running for long distances.[162]

Genetics

A graphical representation of the standard human karyotype, including both the female (XX) and male (XY) sex chromosomes (bottom right), as well as the mitochondrial genome (shown to scale as «MT» at bottom left).

Like most animals, humans are a diploid and eukaryotic species. Each somatic cell has two sets of 23 chromosomes, each set received from one parent; gametes have only one set of chromosomes, which is a mixture of the two parental sets. Among the 23 pairs of chromosomes, there are 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes. Like other mammals, humans have an XY sex-determination system, so that females have the sex chromosomes XX and males have XY.[163] Genes and environment influence human biological variation in visible characteristics, physiology, disease susceptibility and mental abilities. The exact influence of genes and environment on certain traits is not well understood.[164][165]

While no humans—not even monozygotic twins—are genetically identical,[166] two humans on average will have a genetic similarity of 99.5%-99.9%.[167][168] This makes them more homogeneous than other great apes, including chimpanzees.[169][170] This small variation in human DNA compared to many other species suggests a population bottleneck during the Late Pleistocene (around 100,000 years ago), in which the human population was reduced to a small number of breeding pairs.[171][172] The forces of natural selection have continued to operate on human populations, with evidence that certain regions of the genome display directional selection in the past 15,000 years.[173]

The human genome was first sequenced in 2001[174] and by 2020 hundreds of thousands of genomes had been sequenced.[175] In 2012 the International HapMap Project had compared the genomes of 1,184 individuals from 11 populations and identified 1.6 million single nucleotide polymorphisms.[176] African populations harbor the highest number of private genetic variants. While many of the common variants found in populations outside of Africa are also found on the African continent, there are still large numbers that are private to these regions, especially Oceania and the Americas.[177] By 2010 estimates, humans have approximately 22,000 genes.[178] By comparing mitochondrial DNA, which is inherited only from the mother, geneticists have concluded that the last female common ancestor whose genetic marker is found in all modern humans, the so-called mitochondrial Eve, must have lived around 90,000 to 200,000 years ago.[179][180][181][182]

Life cycle

Most human reproduction takes place by internal fertilization via sexual intercourse, but can also occur through assisted reproductive technology procedures.[183] The average gestation period is 38 weeks, but a normal pregnancy can vary by up to 37 days.[184] Embryonic development in the human covers the first eight weeks of development; at the beginning of the ninth week the embryo is termed a fetus.[185] Humans are able to induce early labor or perform a caesarean section if the child needs to be born earlier for medical reasons.[186] In developed countries, infants are typically 3–4 kg (7–9 lb) in weight and 47–53 cm (19–21 in) in height at birth.[187][188] However, low birth weight is common in developing countries, and contributes to the high levels of infant mortality in these regions.[189]

Compared with other species, human childbirth is dangerous, with a much higher risk of complications and death.[190] The size of the fetus’s head is more closely matched to the pelvis than other primates.[191] The reason for this is not completely understood,[n 3] but it contributes to a painful labor that can last 24 hours or more.[193] The chances of a successful labor increased significantly during the 20th century in wealthier countries with the advent of new medical technologies. In contrast, pregnancy and natural childbirth remain hazardous ordeals in developing regions of the world, with maternal death rates approximately 100 times greater than in developed countries.[194]

Both the mother and the father provide care for human offspring, in contrast to other primates, where parental care is mostly done by the mother.[195] Helpless at birth, humans continue to grow for some years, typically reaching sexual maturity at 15 to 17 years of age.[196][197][198] The human life span has been split into various stages ranging from three to twelve. Common stages include infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age.[199] The lengths of these stages have varied across cultures and time periods but is typified by an unusually rapid growth spurt during adolescence.[200] Human females undergo menopause and become infertile at around the age of 50.[201] It has been proposed that menopause increases a woman’s overall reproductive success by allowing her to invest more time and resources in her existing offspring, and in turn their children (the grandmother hypothesis), rather than by continuing to bear children into old age.[202][203]

The life span of an individual depends on two major factors, genetics and lifestyle choices.[204] For various reasons, including biological/genetic causes, women live on average about four years longer than men.[205] As of 2018, the global average life expectancy at birth of a girl is estimated to be 74.9 years compared to 70.4 for a boy.[206][207] There are significant geographical variations in human life expectancy, mostly correlated with economic development—for example, life expectancy at birth in Hong Kong is 87.6 years for girls and 81.8 for boys, while in the Central African Republic, it is 55.0 years for girls and 50.6 for boys.[208][209] The developed world is generally aging, with the median age around 40 years. In the developing world, the median age is between 15 and 20 years. While one in five Europeans is 60 years of age or older, only one in twenty Africans is 60 years of age or older.[210] In 2012, the United Nations estimated that there were 316,600 living centenarians (humans of age 100 or older) worldwide.[211]

Human life stages

Redheaded child mesmerized 2.jpg

Ромський хлопчик (Мукачево).jpg

Boy in Dar es Salaam (14453809622).jpg

Pataxo001.jpg

An old age.JPG

Baby playing with yellow paint. Work by Dutch artist Peter Klashorst entitled "Experimental".jpg

Ethnie dong 6511a.jpg

Portrait of a Persian lady in Iran, 10-08-2006 (cropped).jpg

Punjabi woman smile.jpg

HappyPensioneer.jpg

Infant boy and girl Boy and girl before puberty (children) Adolescent male and female Adult man and woman Elderly man and woman

Diet

Humans are omnivorous, capable of consuming a wide variety of plant and animal material.[212][213] Human groups have adopted a range of diets from purely vegan to primarily carnivorous. In some cases, dietary restrictions in humans can lead to deficiency diseases; however, stable human groups have adapted to many dietary patterns through both genetic specialization and cultural conventions to use nutritionally balanced food sources.[214] The human diet is prominently reflected in human culture and has led to the development of food science.[215]

Until the development of agriculture approximately 10,000 years ago, Homo sapiens employed a hunter-gatherer method as their sole means of food collection.[215] This involved combining stationary food sources (such as fruits, grains, tubers, and mushrooms, insect larvae and aquatic mollusks) with wild game, which must be hunted and captured in order to be consumed.[216] It has been proposed that humans have used fire to prepare and cook food since the time of Homo erectus.[217] Around ten thousand years ago, humans developed agriculture,[218][219][220] which substantially altered their diet. This change in diet may also have altered human biology; with the spread of dairy farming providing a new and rich source of food, leading to the evolution of the ability to digest lactose in some adults.[221][222] The types of food consumed, and how they are prepared, have varied widely by time, location, and culture.[223][224]

In general, humans can survive for up to eight weeks without food, depending on stored body fat.[225] Survival without water is usually limited to three or four days, with a maximum of one week.[226] In 2020 it is estimated 9 million humans die every year from causes directly or indirectly related to starvation.[227][228] Childhood malnutrition is also common and contributes to the global burden of disease.[229] However, global food distribution is not even, and obesity among some human populations has increased rapidly, leading to health complications and increased mortality in some developed and a few developing countries. Worldwide, over one billion people are obese,[230] while in the United States 35% of people are obese, leading to this being described as an «obesity epidemic.»[231] Obesity is caused by consuming more calories than are expended, so excessive weight gain is usually caused by an energy-dense diet.[230]

Biological variation

Changes in the number and order of genes (A-D) create genetic diversity within and between population.

There is biological variation in the human species—with traits such as blood type, genetic diseases, cranial features, facial features, organ systems, eye color, hair color and texture, height and build, and skin color varying across the globe. The typical height of an adult human is between 1.4 and 1.9 m (4 ft 7 in and 6 ft 3 in), although this varies significantly depending on sex, ethnic origin, and family bloodlines.[232][233] Body size is partly determined by genes and is also significantly influenced by environmental factors such as diet, exercise, and sleep patterns.[234]

There is evidence that populations have adapted genetically to various external factors. The genes that allow adult humans to digest lactose are present in high frequencies in populations that have long histories of cattle domestication and are more dependent on cow milk.[235] Sickle cell anemia, which may provide increased resistance to malaria, is frequent in populations where malaria is endemic.[236][237] Populations that have for a very long time inhabited specific climates tend to have developed specific phenotypes that are beneficial for those environments—short stature and stocky build in cold regions, tall and lanky in hot regions, and with high lung capacities or other adaptations at high altitudes.[238] Some populations have evolved highly unique adaptations to very specific environmental conditions, such as those advantageous to ocean-dwelling lifestyles and freediving in the Bajau.[239]

Human hair ranges in color from red to blond to brown to black, which is the most frequent.[240] Hair color depends on the amount of melanin, with concentrations fading with increased age, leading to grey or even white hair. Skin color can range from darkest brown to lightest peach, or even nearly white or colorless in cases of albinism.[241] It tends to vary clinally and generally correlates with the level of ultraviolet radiation in a particular geographic area, with darker skin mostly around the equator.[242] Skin darkening may have evolved as protection against ultraviolet solar radiation.[243] Light skin pigmentation protects against depletion of vitamin D, which requires sunlight to make.[244] Human skin also has a capacity to darken (tan) in response to exposure to ultraviolet radiation.[245][246]

There is relatively little variation between human geographical populations, and most of the variation that occurs is at the individual level.[241][247][248] Much of human variation is continuous, often with no clear points of demarcation.[249][250][251][252] Genetic data shows that no matter how population groups are defined, two people from the same population group are almost as different from each other as two people from any two different population groups.[253][254][255] Dark-skinned populations that are found in Africa, Australia, and South Asia are not closely related to each other.[256][257]

Genetic research has demonstrated that human populations native to the African continent are the most genetically diverse[258] and genetic diversity decreases with migratory distance from Africa, possibly the result of bottlenecks during human migration.[259][260] These non-African populations acquired new genetic inputs from local admixture with archaic populations and have much greater variation from Neanderthals and Denisovans than is found in Africa,[177] though Neanderthal admixture into African populations may be underestimated.[261] Furthermore, recent studies have found that populations in sub-Saharan Africa, and particularly West Africa, have ancestral genetic variation which predates modern humans and has been lost in most non-African populations. Some of this ancestry is thought to originate from admixture with an unknown archaic hominin that diverged before the split of Neanderthals and modern humans.[262][263]

Humans are a gonochoric species, meaning they are divided into male and female sexes.[264][265][266] The greatest degree of genetic variation exists between males and females. While the nucleotide genetic variation of individuals of the same sex across global populations is no greater than 0.1%–0.5%, the genetic difference between males and females is between 1% and 2%. Males on average are 15% heavier and 15 cm (6 in) taller than females.[267][268] On average, men have about 40–50% more upper body strength and 20–30% more lower body strength than women at the same weight, due to higher amounts of muscle and larger muscle fibers.[269] Women generally have a higher body fat percentage than men.[270] Women have lighter skin than men of the same population; this has been explained by a higher need for vitamin D in females during pregnancy and lactation.[271] As there are chromosomal differences between females and males, some X and Y chromosome-related conditions and disorders only affect either men or women.[272] After allowing for body weight and volume, the male voice is usually an octave deeper than the female voice.[273] Women have a longer life span in almost every population around the world.[274]There are intersex conditions in the human population, however these are rare.[275]

Psychology

Drawing of the human brain, showing several important structures

The human brain, the focal point of the central nervous system in humans, controls the peripheral nervous system. In addition to controlling «lower,» involuntary, or primarily autonomic activities such as respiration and digestion, it is also the locus of «higher» order functioning such as thought, reasoning, and abstraction.[276] These cognitive processes constitute the mind, and, along with their behavioral consequences, are studied in the field of psychology.

Humans have a larger and more developed prefrontal cortex than other primates, the region of the brain associated with higher cognition.[277] This has led humans to proclaim themselves to be more intelligent than any other known species.[278] Objectively defining intelligence is difficult, with other animals adapting senses and excelling in areas that humans are unable to.[279]

There are some traits that, although not strictly unique, do set humans apart from other animals.[280] Humans may be the only animals who have episodic memory and who can engage in «mental time travel».[281] Even compared with other social animals, humans have an unusually high degree of flexibility in their facial expressions.[282] Humans are the only animals known to cry emotional tears.[283] Humans are one of the few animals able to self-recognize in mirror tests[284] and there is also debate over to what extent humans are the only animals with a theory of mind.[285]

Sleep and dreaming

Humans are generally diurnal. The average sleep requirement is between seven and nine hours per day for an adult and nine to ten hours per day for a child; elderly people usually sleep for six to seven hours. Having less sleep than this is common among humans, even though sleep deprivation can have negative health effects. A sustained restriction of adult sleep to four hours per day has been shown to correlate with changes in physiology and mental state, including reduced memory, fatigue, aggression, and bodily discomfort.[286]

During sleep humans dream, where they experience sensory images and sounds. Dreaming is stimulated by the pons and mostly occurs during the REM phase of sleep.[287] The length of a dream can vary, from a few seconds up to 30 minutes.[288] Humans have three to five dreams per night, and some may have up to seven.[289] Dreamers are more likely to remember the dream if awakened during the REM phase. The events in dreams are generally outside the control of the dreamer, with the exception of lucid dreaming, where the dreamer is self-aware.[290] Dreams can at times make a creative thought occur or give a sense of inspiration.[291]

Consciousness and thought

Human consciousness, at its simplest, is sentience or awareness of internal or external existence.[292] Despite centuries of analyses, definitions, explanations and debates by philosophers and scientists, consciousness remains puzzling and controversial,[293] being «at once the most familiar and most mysterious aspect of our lives».[294] The only widely agreed notion about the topic is the intuition that it exists.[295] Opinions differ about what exactly needs to be studied and explained as consciousness. Some philosophers divide consciousness into phenomenal consciousness, which is sensory experience itself, and access consciousness, which can be used for reasoning or directly controlling actions.[296] It is sometimes synonymous with ‘the mind’, and at other times, an aspect of it. Historically it is associated with introspection, private thought, imagination and volition.[297] It now often includes some kind of experience, cognition, feeling or perception. It may be ‘awareness’, or ‘awareness of awareness’, or self-awareness.[298] There might be different levels or orders of consciousness,[299] or different kinds of consciousness, or just one kind with different features.[300]

The process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses is known as cognition.[301] The human brain perceives the external world through the senses, and each individual human is influenced greatly by his or her experiences, leading to subjective views of existence and the passage of time.[302] The nature of thought is central to psychology and related fields. Cognitive psychology studies cognition, the mental processes underlying behavior.[303] Largely focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, developmental psychology seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes change as they age.[304][305] This may focus on intellectual, cognitive, neural, social, or moral development. Psychologists have developed intelligence tests and the concept of intelligence quotient in order to assess the relative intelligence of human beings and study its distribution among population.[306]

Motivation and emotion

Human motivation is not yet wholly understood. From a psychological perspective, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a well-established theory that can be defined as the process of satisfying certain needs in ascending order of complexity.[307] From a more general, philosophical perspective, human motivation can be defined as a commitment to, or withdrawal from, various goals requiring the application of human ability. Furthermore, incentive and preference are both factors, as are any perceived links between incentives and preferences. Volition may also be involved, in which case willpower is also a factor. Ideally, both motivation and volition ensure the selection, striving for, and realization of goals in an optimal manner, a function beginning in childhood and continuing throughout a lifetime in a process known as socialization.[308]

Emotions are biological states associated with the nervous system[309][310] brought on by neurophysiological changes variously associated with thoughts, feelings, behavioral responses, and a degree of pleasure or displeasure.[311][312] They are often intertwined with mood, temperament, personality, disposition, creativity,[313] and motivation. Emotion has a significant influence on human behavior and their ability to learn.[314] Acting on extreme or uncontrolled emotions can lead to social disorder and crime,[315] with studies showing criminals may have a lower emotional intelligence than normal.[316]

Emotional experiences perceived as pleasant, such as joy, interest or contentment, contrast with those perceived as unpleasant, like anxiety, sadness, anger, and despair.[317] Happiness, or the state of being happy, is a human emotional condition. The definition of happiness is a common philosophical topic. Some define it as experiencing the feeling of positive emotional affects, while avoiding the negative ones.[318][319] Others see it as an appraisal of life satisfaction or quality of life.[320] Recent research suggests that being happy might involve experiencing some negative emotions when humans feel they are warranted.[321]

Sexuality and love

For humans, sexuality involves biological, erotic, physical, emotional, social, or spiritual feelings and behaviors.[322][323] Because it is a broad term, which has varied with historical contexts over time, it lacks a precise definition.[323] The biological and physical aspects of sexuality largely concern the human reproductive functions, including the human sexual response cycle.[322][323] Sexuality also affects and is affected by cultural, political, legal, philosophical, moral, ethical, and religious aspects of life.[322][323] Sexual desire, or libido, is a basic mental state present at the beginning of sexual behavior. Studies show that men desire sex more than women and masturbate more often.[324]

Humans can fall anywhere along a continuous scale of sexual orientation,[325] although most humans are heterosexual.[326][327] While homosexual behavior occurs in some other animals, only humans and domestic sheep have so far been found to exhibit exclusive preference for same-sex relationships.[326] Most evidence supports nonsocial, biological causes of sexual orientation,[326] as cultures that are very tolerant of homosexuality do not have significantly higher rates of it.[327][328] Research in neuroscience and genetics suggests that other aspects of human sexuality are biologically influenced as well.[329]

Love most commonly refers to a feeling of strong attraction or emotional attachment. It can be impersonal (the love of an object, ideal, or strong political or spiritual connection) or interpersonal (love between humans).[330] When in love dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin and other chemicals stimulate the brain’s pleasure center, leading to side effects such as increased heart rate, loss of appetite and sleep, and an intense feeling of excitement.[331]

Culture

Human society statistics

Most widely spoken languages[332][333] English, Mandarin Chinese, Hindi, Spanish, Standard Arabic, Bengali, French, Russian, Portuguese, Urdu
Most practiced religions[333][334] Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, folk religions, Sikhism, Judaism, unaffiliated

Humanity’s unprecedented set of intellectual skills were a key factor in the species’ eventual technological advancement and concomitant domination of the biosphere.[335] Disregarding extinct hominids, humans are the only animals known to teach generalizable information,[336] innately deploy recursive embedding to generate and communicate complex concepts,[337] engage in the «folk physics» required for competent tool design,[338][339] or cook food in the wild.[340] Teaching and learning preserves the cultural and ethnographic identity of human societies.[341] Other traits and behaviors that are mostly unique to humans include starting fires,[342] phoneme structuring[343] and vocal learning.[344]

Language

While many species communicate, language is unique to humans, a defining feature of humanity, and a cultural universal.[345] Unlike the limited systems of other animals, human language is open—an infinite number of meanings can be produced by combining a limited number of symbols.[346][347] Human language also has the capacity of displacement, using words to represent things and happenings that are not presently or locally occurring but reside in the shared imagination of interlocutors.[147]

Language differs from other forms of communication in that it is modality independent; the same meanings can be conveyed through different media, audibly in speech, visually by sign language or writing, and through tactile media such as braille.[348] Language is central to the communication between humans, and to the sense of identity that unites nations, cultures and ethnic groups.[349] There are approximately six thousand different languages currently in use, including sign languages, and many thousands more that are extinct.[350]

The arts

Human arts can take many forms including visual, literary and performing. Visual art can range from paintings and sculptures to film, interaction design and architecture.[351] Literary arts can include prose, poetry and dramas; while the performing arts generally involve theatre, music and dance.[352][353] Humans often combine the different forms (for example, music videos).[354] Other entities that have been described as having artistic qualities include food preparation, video games and medicine.[355][356][357] As well as providing entertainment and transferring knowledge, the arts are also used for political purposes.[358]

Art is a defining characteristic of humans and there is evidence for a relationship between creativity and language.[359] The earliest evidence of art was shell engravings made by Homo erectus 300,000 years before modern humans evolved.[360] Art attributed to H. sapiens existed at least 75,000 years ago, with jewellery and drawings found in caves in South Africa.[361][362] There are various hypotheses as to why humans have adapted to the arts. These include allowing them to better problem solve issues, providing a means to control or influence other humans, encouraging cooperation and contribution within a society or increasing the chance of attracting a potential mate.[363] The use of imagination developed through art, combined with logic may have given early humans an evolutionary advantage.[359]

Evidence of humans engaging in musical activities predates cave art and so far music has been practiced by virtually all known human cultures.[364] There exists a wide variety of music genres and ethnic musics; with humans’ musical abilities being related to other abilities, including complex social human behaviours.[364] It has been shown that human brains respond to music by becoming synchronized with the rhythm and beat, a process called entrainment.[365] Dance is also a form of human expression found in all cultures[366] and may have evolved as a way to help early humans communicate.[367] Listening to music and observing dance stimulates the orbitofrontal cortex and other pleasure sensing areas of the brain.[368]

Unlike speaking, reading and writing does not come naturally to humans and must be taught.[369] Still, literature has been present before the invention of words and language, with 30,000-year-old paintings on walls inside some caves portraying a series of dramatic scenes.[370] One of the oldest surviving works of literature is the Epic of Gilgamesh, first engraved on ancient Babylonian tablets about 4,000 years ago.[371] Beyond simply passing down knowledge, the use and sharing of imaginative fiction through stories might have helped develop humans’ capabilities for communication and increased the likelihood of securing a mate.[372] Storytelling may also be used as a way to provide the audience with moral lessons and encourage cooperation.[370]

Tools and technologies

Train running on a track

Stone tools were used by proto-humans at least 2.5 million years ago.[374] The use and manufacture of tools has been put forward as the ability that defines humans more than anything else[375] and has historically been seen as an important evolutionary step.[376] The technology became much more sophisticated about 1.8 million years ago,[375] with the controlled use of fire beginning around 1 million years ago.[377][378] The wheel and wheeled vehicles appeared simultaneously in several regions some time in the fourth millennium BC.[60] The development of more complex tools and technologies allowed land to be cultivated and animals to be domesticated, thus proving essential in the development of agriculture—what is known as the Neolithic Revolution.[379]

China developed paper, the printing press, gunpowder, the compass and other important inventions.[380] The continued improvements in smelting allowed forging of copper, bronze, iron and eventually steel, which is used in railways, skyscrapers and many other products.[381] This coincided with the Industrial Revolution, where the invention of automated machines brought major changes to humans’ lifestyles.[382] Modern technology is observed as progressing exponentially,[383] with major innovations in the 20th century including: electricity, penicillin, semiconductors, internal combustion engines, the Internet, nitrogen fixing fertilisers, airplanes, computers, automobiles, contraceptive pills, nuclear fission, the green revolution, radio, scientific plant breeding, rockets, air conditioning, television and the assembly line.[384]

Religion and spirituality

Religion is generally defined as a belief system concerning the supernatural, sacred or divine, and practices, values, institutions and rituals associated with such belief. Some religions also have a moral code. The evolution and the history of the first religions have recently become areas of active scientific investigation.[385][386][387] While the exact time when humans first became religious remains unknown, research shows credible evidence of religious behaviour from around the Middle Paleolithic era (45–200 thousand years ago).[388] It may have evolved to play a role in helping enforce and encourage cooperation between humans.[389]

There is no accepted academic definition of what constitutes religion.[390] Religion has taken on many forms that vary by culture and individual perspective in alignment with the geographic, social, and linguistic diversity of the planet.[390] Religion can include a belief in life after death (commonly involving belief in an afterlife),[391] the origin of life,[392] the nature of the universe (religious cosmology) and its ultimate fate (eschatology), and what is moral or immoral.[393] A common source for answers to these questions are beliefs in transcendent divine beings such as deities or a singular God, although not all religions are theistic.[394][395]

Although the exact level of religiosity can be hard to measure,[396] a majority of humans profess some variety of religious or spiritual belief.[397] In 2015 the plurality were Christian followed by Muslims, Hindus and Buddhists.[398] As of 2015, about 16%, or slightly under 1.2 billion humans, were irreligious, including those with no religious beliefs or no identity with any religion.[399]

Science and philosophy

An aspect unique to humans is their ability to transmit knowledge from one generation to the next and to continually build on this information to develop tools, scientific laws and other advances to pass on further.[400] This accumulated knowledge can be tested to answer questions or make predictions about how the universe functions and has been very successful in advancing human ascendancy.[401]

Aristotle has been described as the first scientist,[402] and preceded the rise of scientific thought through the Hellenistic period.[403] Other early advances in science came from the Han Dynasty in China and during the Islamic Golden Age.[404][85] The scientific revolution, near the end of the Renaissance, led to the emergence of modern science.[405]

A chain of events and influences led to the development of the scientific method, a process of observation and experimentation that is used to differentiate science from pseudoscience.[406] An understanding of mathematics is unique to humans, although other species of animals have some numerical cognition.[407] All of science can be divided into three major branches, the formal sciences (e.g., logic and mathematics), which are concerned with formal systems, the applied sciences (e.g., engineering, medicine), which are focused on practical applications, and the empirical sciences, which are based on empirical observation and are in turn divided into natural sciences (e.g., physics, chemistry, biology) and social sciences (e.g., psychology, economics, sociology).[408]

Philosophy is a field of study where humans seek to understand fundamental truths about themselves and the world in which they live.[409] Philosophical inquiry has been a major feature in the development of humans’ intellectual history.[410] It has been described as the «no man’s land» between definitive scientific knowledge and dogmatic religious teachings.[411] Philosophy relies on reason and evidence, unlike religion, but does not require the empirical observations and experiments provided by science.[412] Major fields of philosophy include metaphysics, epistemology, logic, and axiology (which includes ethics and aesthetics).[413]

Society

Humans often live in family-based social structures

Society is the system of organizations and institutions arising from interaction between humans. Humans are highly social and tend to live in large complex social groups. They can be divided into different groups according to their income, wealth, power, reputation and other factors. The structure of social stratification and the degree of social mobility differs, especially between modern and traditional societies.[414][unreliable source?] Human groups range from the size of families to nations. The first form of human social organization is thought to have resembled hunter-gatherer band societies.[415][better source needed]

Gender

Human societies typically exhibit gender identities and gender roles that distinguish between masculine and feminine characteristics and prescribe the range of acceptable behaviours and attitudes for their members based on their sex.[416][417] The most common categorisation is a gender binary of men and women.[418] Many societies recognise a third gender,[419] or less commonly a fourth or fifth.[420][421] In some other societies, non-binary is used as an umbrella term for a range of gender identities that are not solely male or female.[422]

Gender roles are often associated with a division of norms, practices, dress, behavior, rights, duties, privileges, status, and power, with men enjoying more rights and privileges than women in most societies, both today and in the past.[423] As a social construct,[424] gender roles are not fixed and vary historically within a society. Challenges to predominant gender norms have recurred in many societies.[425][426] Little is known about gender roles in the earliest human societies. Early modern humans probably had a range of gender roles similar to that of modern cultures from at least the Upper Paleolithic, while the Neanderthals were less sexually dimorphic and there is evidence that the behavioural difference between males and females was minimal.[427]

Kinship

All human societies organize, recognize and classify types of social relationships based on relations between parents, children and other descendants (consanguinity), and relations through marriage (affinity). There is also a third type applied to godparents or adoptive children (fictive). These culturally defined relationships are referred to as kinship. In many societies, it is one of the most important social organizing principles and plays a role in transmitting status and inheritance.[428] All societies have rules of incest taboo, according to which marriage between certain kinds of kin relations are prohibited, and some also have rules of preferential marriage with certain kin relations.[429]

Ethnicity

Human ethnic groups are a social category that identifies together as a group based on shared attributes that distinguish them from other groups. These can be a common set of traditions, ancestry, language, history, society, culture, nation, religion, or social treatment within their residing area.[430][431] Ethnicity is separate from the concept of race, which is based on physical characteristics, although both are socially constructed.[432] Assigning ethnicity to a certain population is complicated, as even within common ethnic designations there can be a diverse range of subgroups, and the makeup of these ethnic groups can change over time at both the collective and individual level.[169] Also, there is no generally accepted definition of what constitutes an ethnic group.[433] Ethnic groupings can play a powerful role in the social identity and solidarity of ethnopolitical units. This has been closely tied to the rise of the nation state as the predominant form of political organization in the 19th and 20th centuries.[434][435][436]

Government and politics

As farming populations gathered in larger and denser communities, interactions between these different groups increased. This led to the development of governance within and between the communities.[437] Humans have evolved the ability to change affiliation with various social groups relatively easily, including previously strong political alliances, if doing so is seen as providing personal advantages.[438] This cognitive flexibility allows individual humans to change their political ideologies, with those with higher flexibility less likely to support authoritarian and nationalistic stances.[439]

Governments create laws and policies that affect the citizens that they govern. There have been many forms of government throughout human history, each having various means of obtaining power and the ability to exert diverse controls on the population.[440] As of 2017, more than half of all national governments are democracies, with 13% being autocracies and 28% containing elements of both.[441] Many countries have formed international political organizations and alliances, the largest being the United Nations with 193 member states.[442]

Trade and economics

Trade, the voluntary exchange of goods and services, is seen as a characteristic that differentiates humans from other animals and has been cited as a practice that gave Homo sapiens a major advantage over other hominids.[443] Evidence suggests early H. sapiens made use of long-distance trade routes to exchange goods and ideas, leading to cultural explosions and providing additional food sources when hunting was sparse, while such trade networks did not exist for the now extinct Neanderthals.[444][445] Early trade likely involved materials for creating tools like obsidian.[446] The first truly international trade routes were around the spice trade through the Roman and medieval periods.[447]

Early human economies were more likely to be based around gift giving instead of a bartering system.[448] Early money consisted of commodities; the oldest being in the form of cattle and the most widely used being cowrie shells.[449] Money has since evolved into governmental issued coins, paper and electronic money.[449] Human study of economics is a social science that looks at how societies distribute scarce resources among different people.[450] There are massive inequalities in the division of wealth among humans; the eight richest humans are worth the same monetary value as the poorest half of all the human population.[451]

Conflict

Humans commit violence on other humans at a rate comparable to other primates, but have an increased preference for killing adults, infanticide being more common among other primates.[452] It is predicted that 2% of early H. sapiens would be murdered, rising to 12% during the medieval period, before dropping to below 2% in modern times.[453] There is great variation in violence between human populations with rates of homicide in societies that have legal systems and strong cultural attitudes against violence at about 0.01%.[454]

The willingness of humans to kill other members of their species en masse through organized conflict (i.e., war) has long been the subject of debate. One school of thought holds that war evolved as a means to eliminate competitors, and has always been an innate human characteristic. Another suggests that war is a relatively recent phenomenon and has appeared due to changing social conditions.[455] While not settled, current evidence indicates warlike predispositions only became common about 10,000 years ago, and in many places much more recently than that.[455] War has had a high cost on human life; it is estimated that during the 20th century, between 167 million and 188 million people died as a result of war.[456]

See also

  • List of human evolution fossils
  • Timeline of human evolution – Chronological outline of major events in the development of the human species

Notes

  1. ^ The world population and population density statistics are updated automatically from a template that uses the CIA World Factbook and United Nations World Population Prospects.[115][116]
  2. ^ Cities with over 10 million inhabitants as of 2018.[117]
  3. ^ Traditionally this has been explained by conflicting evolutionary pressures involved in bipedalism and encephalization (called the obstetrical dilemma), but recent research suggest it might be more complicated than that.[191][192]

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The spirit and determination of the people to chart their own destiny is the greatest power for good in human affairs.

Matt Blunt

section

ETYMOLOGY OF THE WORD HUMAN

From Latin hūmānus; related to Latin homō man.

info

Etymology is the study of the origin of words and their changes in structure and significance.

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PRONUNCIATION OF HUMAN

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GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF HUMAN

Human can act as a noun and an adjective.

A noun is a type of word the meaning of which determines reality. Nouns provide the names for all things: people, objects, sensations, feelings, etc.

The adjective is the word that accompanies the noun to determine or qualify it.

WHAT DOES HUMAN MEAN IN ENGLISH?

human

Human

Modern humans are the only extant members of the hominin clade, a branch of great apes characterized by erect posture and bipedal locomotion; manual dexterity and increased tool use; and a general trend toward larger, more complex brains and societies. Early hominids, such as the australopithecines who had more apelike brains and skulls, are less often thought of or referred to as «human» than hominids of the genus Homo some of whom used fire, occupied much of Eurasia, and gave rise to anatomically modern Homo sapiens in Africa about 200,000 years ago where they began to exhibit evidence of behavioral modernity around 50,000 years ago and migrated out in successive waves to occupy all but the smallest, driest, and coldest lands; and permanently manned bases in Antarctica, on offshore platforms, and orbiting the Earth. The spread of humans and their large and increasing population has had a destructive impact on large areas of the environment and millions of native species worldwide.


Definition of human in the English dictionary

The first definition of human in the dictionary is of, characterizing, or relating to man and mankind. Other definition of human is consisting of people. Human is also having the attributes of man as opposed to animals, divine beings, or machines.

WORDS THAT RHYME WITH HUMAN

Synonyms and antonyms of human in the English dictionary of synonyms

SYNONYMS OF «HUMAN»

The following words have a similar or identical meaning as «human» and belong to the same grammatical category.

Translation of «human» into 25 languages

online translator

TRANSLATION OF HUMAN

Find out the translation of human to 25 languages with our English multilingual translator.

The translations of human from English to other languages presented in this section have been obtained through automatic statistical translation; where the essential translation unit is the word «human» in English.

Translator English — Chinese


人类的

1,325 millions of speakers

Translator English — Spanish


humano

570 millions of speakers

English


human

510 millions of speakers

Translator English — Hindi


मानव

380 millions of speakers

Translator English — Arabic


بَشَرِيّ

280 millions of speakers

Translator English — Russian


человеческий

278 millions of speakers

Translator English — Portuguese


humano

270 millions of speakers

Translator English — Bengali


মানবীয়

260 millions of speakers

Translator English — French


humain

220 millions of speakers

Translator English — Malay


Manusia

190 millions of speakers

Translator English — German


menschlich

180 millions of speakers

Translator English — Japanese


人間の

130 millions of speakers

Translator English — Korean


사람의

85 millions of speakers

Translator English — Javanese


Manungsa

85 millions of speakers

Translator English — Vietnamese


thuộc loài người

80 millions of speakers

Translator English — Tamil


மனித

75 millions of speakers

Translator English — Marathi


मानवी

75 millions of speakers

Translator English — Turkish


insan

70 millions of speakers

Translator English — Italian


umano

65 millions of speakers

Translator English — Polish


człowiek

50 millions of speakers

Translator English — Ukrainian


людський

40 millions of speakers

Translator English — Romanian


uman

30 millions of speakers

Translator English — Greek


ανθρώπινος

15 millions of speakers

Translator English — Afrikaans


menslike

14 millions of speakers

Translator English — Swedish


mänsklig

10 millions of speakers

Translator English — Norwegian


menneskelig

5 millions of speakers

Trends of use of human

TENDENCIES OF USE OF THE TERM «HUMAN»

The term «human» is very widely used and occupies the 434 position in our list of most widely used terms in the English dictionary.

Trends

FREQUENCY

Very widely used

The map shown above gives the frequency of use of the term «human» in the different countries.

Principal search tendencies and common uses of human

List of principal searches undertaken by users to access our English online dictionary and most widely used expressions with the word «human».

FREQUENCY OF USE OF THE TERM «HUMAN» OVER TIME

The graph expresses the annual evolution of the frequency of use of the word «human» during the past 500 years. Its implementation is based on analysing how often the term «human» appears in digitalised printed sources in English between the year 1500 and the present day.

Examples of use in the English literature, quotes and news about human

10 QUOTES WITH «HUMAN»

Famous quotes and sentences with the word human.

I hope I’m thought of as not just a showbiz personality, but as someone who has lived a life and who has hopefully made a contribution to something along the way — someone who is a human being as well as an actress.

I feel like we’re attracted to paths in life that force us to look at our weaknesses or deficiencies as human beings. Not to get all deep on you, but that’s how I feel.

I like the idea of a place that is dealing with painful, messy, frightening, and very human events that is also so beautiful and ethereal.

Every State has the primary duty to protect its own population from grave and sustained violations of human rights, as well as from the consequences of humanitarian crises, whether natural or man-made.

The spirit and determination of the people to chart their own destiny is the greatest power for good in human affairs.

Fortuitous circumstances constitute the moulds that shape the majority of human lives, and the hasty impress of an accident is too often regarded as the relentless decree of all ordaining fate.

For me, unemployment and poverty in the Greater Montreal area is not mainly a problem of structure, or design, or statistics. It is a profoundly human situation.

From the beginning, each human embryo has its own unique genetic identity.

I would never offer advice without the person asking for it. I, in general, don’t believe in giving advice, actually, as a human being I don’t.

But this Christ or Redeemer took not upon him the nature of angels, but the seed of Abraham, that is, human nature, that in the nature which sinned he might make the expiation required.

10 ENGLISH BOOKS RELATING TO «HUMAN»

Discover the use of human in the following bibliographical selection. Books relating to human and brief extracts from same to provide context of its use in English literature.

1

Human Transit: How Clearer Thinking about Public Transit Can …

Whether you are in the field or simply a concerned citizen, here is an accessible guide to achieving successful public transit that will enrich any community.

2

Human Rights as Politics and Idolatry:

«These essays make a splendid book. Ignatieff’s lectures are engaging and vigorous; they also combine some rather striking ideas with savvy perceptions about actual domestic and international politics.

Michael Ignatieff, Amy Gutmann, 2001

3

Advanced Human Nutrition

Rev. ed. of: Advanced human nutrition / Robert E.C. Wildman, Denis M. Medeiros. 2000.

Denis Medeiros, Robert Wildman, 2011

4

The Human-Computer Interaction Handbook: Fundamentals, …

This second edition of The Human-Computer Interaction Handbook provides an updated, comprehensive overview of the most important research in the field, including insights that are directly applicable throughout the process of developing …

Andrew Sears, Julie A. Jacko, 2007

5

THE ECOLOGY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

To understand the way children develop, Bronfenbrenner believes that it is necessary to observe their behavior in natural settings, while they are interacting with familiar adults over prolonged periods of time.

Urie BRONFENBRENNER, 1979

6

Women’s Rights, Human Rights: International Feminist …

Women’s Right, Human Rights promises to be the most important book available on the subject of women’s human rights worldwide. It includes contributions by activists, journalist, lawyers and scholars from twenty-one countries.

Julie Peters, Andrea Wolper, 1995

7

An Introduction to Human Services

The text provides a solid grounding in such fundamental concepts as serving the whole person, using an interdisciplinary approach, interacting with helper and client, preparing generalists, and empowering clients.

Marianne Woodside, Tricia McClam, 2011

8

World Poverty and Human Rights

Thomas Pogge tries to explain how most of the population of this planet can excuse world poverty.

9

An Introduction to Human Disease: Pathology and …

This Text Also Indicates How The Disturbances Cause The Clinical Manifestations Of Various Diseases And Guide Treatment.

10

Human Capital: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis, with …

This expanded edition includes four new chapters, covering recent ideas about human capital, fertility and economic growth, the division of labor, economic considerations within the family, and inequality in earnings.

10 NEWS ITEMS WHICH INCLUDE THE TERM «HUMAN»

Find out what the national and international press are talking about and how the term human is used in the context of the following news items.

Human legs, arm found in downtown New Haven … — WTNH.com

NEW HAVEN, Conn. (WTNH) — New Haven police confirm that they have located the remains of human legs near the train tracks at the corner … «WTNH Connecticut News, Jul 15»

The emerging science of human screams — Phys.org

One possible explanation, published July 16 in the journal Current Biology, is that human screams possess a unique acoustic property found to … «Phys.Org, Jul 15»

Vatican to Hold Meetings on Climate Change and Human Trafficking

The climate change meeting, which will be held July 21 and 22 alongside a meeting on human trafficking, was announced on Wednesday at a … «Newsweek, Jul 15»

Ancient owl vomit may show ‘dramatic’ human impact on ecosystem …

Now, scientists have used those remains to show that human changes to the landscape over the last 100 years may have thrown the area’s … «Science /AAAS, Jul 15»

Donald Trump ‘the most in-demand human being … on the planet …

“He is the most in-demand human being right now on the planet,” he said. Mr. Cohen also fired back at Sen. Lindsey Graham of South Carolina … «Washington Times, Jul 15»

Second Human Case Of West Nile Virus Confirmed In Oklahoma …

The first confirmed human case of the virus in Oklahoma County was announced on June 9. So far it is the sixth confirmed human case in the … «news9.com KWTV, Jul 15»

US Urged to Keep Focus on Human Rights in Iran, Cuba — VOA

Leading human rights groups told U.S. lawmakers that historic diplomatic breakthroughs with Iran and Cuba should not shield either nation … «Voice of America, Jul 15»

Exclusive: U.S. poised to upgrade Cuba in annual human trafficking …

WASHINGTON The United States is set to remove Cuba from the bottom tier on its list of worst human trafficking centers, U.S. sources said, … «Reuters, Jul 15»

Victor Davis Hanson: The danger of ignoring truths about human

Given human nature, people also like to blame their self-created dilemmas on cosmic forces not of their own making. Take Greece. The Greek … «San Jose Mercury News, Jul 15»

Dealmakers must end their silence on human rights abuses in Iran …

After an historic nuclear agreement was reached with six world powers on Tuesday, Iranian president Hassan Rouhani hailed the end of the … «Left Foot Forward, Jul 15»

REFERENCE

« EDUCALINGO. Human [online]. Available <https://educalingo.com/en/dic-en/human>. Apr 2023 ».

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Discover all that is hidden in the words on educalingo

English word human comes from Middle French humain (Human Human; human being.)

Detailed word origin of human

Dictionary entry Language Definition
humain Middle French (frm) Human Human; human being.
human English (eng) (comparable) Having the nature or attributes of a human being.. (notcomp) Of or belonging to the species Homo sapiens or its closest relatives. (rare) To behave as or become, or to cause to behave as or become, a human. A human being, whether man, woman or child.

Words with the same origin as human

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