Etymology interesting word histories

Etymology – the study of word origins – is a fantastically interesting discipline that yields some incredible facts about where the hugely diverse array of words that make up the English language come from.

Whether you’re a native speaker or currently learning English, you’ll be amazed at some of the stories behind words you use every day. From tales of frenzied Viking warriors to a theatre-owner’s bet to get people using a made-up word, a little-thought-about history lies waiting to be discovered. Knowing more about the words we use makes studying English even more fun, so here are fourteen of our favourite word origins – and we’ve barely scratched the surface!

1. Dunce

The origins of this derogatory word for someone considered incapable of learning (the opposite of a “bright” student) are surprisingly old, dating to the time of one John Duns Scotus, who was born around 1266 and died in 1308. Scotus was a Scottish Franciscan philosopher and theologian whose works on metaphysics, theology, grammar and logic were so popular that they earned him the honour of a papal accolade. His followers became known as ‘Duns’. So how did this word come to be associated with academic ineptitude? Well, the Renaissance came along and poor Duns’ theories and methods were widely discredited by Protestant and Humanist scholars, while Duns’ supporters clung to his ideas; subsequently, the word “Dunsman” or “Dunce” (which arises from the way in which “Duns” was pronounced in Medieval times) was used in a derogatory fashion to describe those who continued to support outdated ideas. The word gradually became used in a more general sense to refer to someone considered slow-witted. Interestingly, though his name is now used disparagingly, Duns’ teaching is still held in high regard by the Catholic Church, and he was beatified as recently as 1993.

2. Quiz

The story behind the origins of the word “quiz” is so good that we really wish it was true – but it probably isn’t. Legend has it that a Dublin theatre-owner made a bet that he could introduce a new word into the English language within a day or two (the amount of time differs in different tellings of the story), and that the people of Dublin would make up the meaning of the word themselves. So he wrote the nonsense word “quiz” on some pieces of paper and got a gang of street urchins to write it on walls across Dublin. The next day everyone was talking about it, and it wasn’t long before it became incorporated into everyday language, meaning a sort of “test”, because this is what the people thought the mysterious word was supposed to be. According to the telling of the story recorded in Gleanings and Reminiscences by F.T. Porter (written in 1875), the events of this humorous tale unfolded in 1791, and this is where the story becomes less convincing. The word “quiz” is attested earlier than this date, used to refer to someone who is eccentric or odd (hence the word “quizzical”); it was also the name of a yo-yo-like toy popular in 1790. That said, it’s still difficult to find a compelling explanation for the origins of this word, so perhaps there is an element of truth in this excellent story after all.

3. Berserk

When someone “goes berserk”, they go into a frenzy, run amok, perhaps even destroying things. Picture someone going berserk and it’s not difficult to imagine the ancient Norse warriors to whom the word “berserker” originally referred. The word “berserk” conjured up the fury of these men and the untamed ferocity with which they fought, and it’s thought that the word came from two other Old Norse words, “bjorn”, meaning “bear” and “serkr”, meaning “coat”. An alternative explanation, now widely discredited, says that rather than “bjorn”, the first part of the word comes from “berr” meaning “bare” – that is, not wearing armour. Some have said that the “berserkers” were so uncontrollably ferocious due to being in an almost trance-like state, either by working themselves up into a frenzy before battle, or by ingesting hallucinogenic drugs. So, next time you use the expression “going berserk” to describe someone acting irrationally, remember those battle-crazed Vikings and be glad that you’re not on the receiving end of the wrath of a real “berserker”!

4. Nightmare

It sounds as though it refers to a female horse, but in fact the “mare” part of the word “nightmare” (a terrifying dream) comes from Germanic folklore, in which a “mare” is an evil female spirit or goblin that sits upon a sleeper’s chest, suffocating them and/or giving them bad dreams. The same Germanic word – “marōn” – gives rise to similar words in many Scandinavian and European languages. Interestingly, in Germanic folklore, it was believed that this “mare” did more than just terrorise human sleepers. It was thought that it rode horses in the night, leaving them sweaty and exhausted next day, and it even wreaked havoc with trees, twisting their branches.

5. Sandwich

The nation’s favourite lunchtime snack gets its name from the 4th Earl of Sandwich, John Montagu. The story goes that 250 years ago, the 18th-century aristocrat requested that his valet bring him beef served between two slices of bread. He was fond of eating this meal whilst playing card games, as it meant that his hands wouldn’t get greasy from the meat and thus spoil the cards. Observing him, Montagu’s friends began asking for “the same as Sandwich”, and so the sandwich was born. Though people did eat bread with foods such as cheese and meat before this, these meals were known as “bread and cheese” or “bread and meat”. The sandwich is now the ultimate convenience food.

6. Malaria

You wouldn’t have thought that a word we primarily associate with Africa would have originated in the slightly more forgiving climate of Rome. It comes from the medieval Italian words “mal” meaning “bad” and “aria” meaning “air” – so it literally means “bad air”. The term was used to describe the unpleasant air emanating from the marshland surrounding Rome, which was believed to cause the disease we now call malaria (and we now know that it’s the mosquitoes breeding in these conditions that cause the disease, rather than the air itself).

7. Quarantine

The word “quarantine” has its origins in the devastating plague, the so-called Black Death, which swept across Europe in the 14th century, wiping out around 30% of Europe’s population. It comes from the Venetian dialect form of the Italian words “quaranta giorni”, or “forty days”, in reference to the fact that, in an effort to halt the spread of the plague, ships were put into isolation on nearby islands for a forty-day period before those on board were allowed ashore. Originally – attested by a document from 1377 – this period was thirty days and was known as a “trentine”, but this was extended to forty days to allow more time for symptoms to develop. This practice was first implemented by the Venetians controlling the movement of ships into the city of Dubrovnik, which is now part of Croatia but was then under Venetian sovereignty. We now use the word “quarantine” to refer to the practice of restricting the movements, for a period of time, of people or animals who seem healthy, but who might have been exposed to a harmful disease that could spread to others.

8. Clue

Who knew that the word “clue” derives from Greek mythology? It comes from the word “clew”, meaning a ball of yarn. In Greek mythology, Ariadne gives Theseus a ball of yarn to help him find his way out of the Minotaur’s labyrinth. Because of this, the word “clew” came to mean something that points the way. Appropriately enough, Theseus unravelled the yarn behind him as he went into the maze, so that he could work his way back out in reverse. Thus the word “clew” can be understood in this context and in the context of a detective working his way backwards to solve a crime using “clues”. The word gained its modern-day spelling in the 15th century, a time when spelling was rather more fluid than it is today.

9. Hazard

Our word for danger or risk is thought to have its origins in 13th-century Arabic, in which the word “al-zahr” referred to the dice used in various gambling games. There was a big element of risk inherent in these games, not just from the gambling itself but from the danger of dishonest folk using weighted dice. Thus the connotations of peril associated with the word, which got back to Britain because the Crusaders learnt the dice games whilst on campaign in the Holy Land.

10. Groggy

We’ve all felt “groggy” at one time or another – lethargic, sluggish, perhaps through lack of sleep. It originated in the 18th century with a British man named Admiral Vernon, whose sailors gave him the nickname “Old Grog” on account of his cloak, which was made from a material called “grogram”, a weatherproof mixture of silk and wool. In 1740, he decreed that his sailors should be served their rum diluted with water, rather than neat. This was called “grog”, and the feeling experienced by sailors when they’d drunk too much of it was thus called “groggy”.

11. Palace

The word “palace” is another English word with origins in Rome. It comes from one of Rome’s famous ‘Seven Hills’, the Palatine, upon which the Emperor resided in what grew into a sprawling and opulent home. In Latin, the Palatine Hill was called the “Palatium”, and the word “Palatine” came to refer to the Emperor’s residence, rather than the actual hill. The word has reached us via Old French, in which the word “palais” referred to the Palatine Hill. You can see the word “Palatine” more easily in the form “palatial”, meaning palace-like in size.

12. Genuine

The word “genuine” comes from the Latin word “genuinus”, meaning “innate”, “native” or “natural”, itself derived, somewhat surprisingly, from the Latin word “genu”, meaning “knee”. This unlikely origin arises from a Roman custom in which a father would place a newborn child on his knee in order to acknowledge his paternity of the child. This practice also gave rise to an association with the word “genus”, meaning “race” or “birth”. In the 16th century the word “genuine” meant “natural” or “proper”, and these days we use it to mean “authentic”.

13. Ketchup

It’s hard to believe that this British and American staple started life in 17th-century China as a sauce of pickled fish and spices. Known in the Chinese Amoy dialect as kôe-chiap or kê-chiap, its popularity spread to what is now Singapore and Malaysia in the early 18th century, where it was encountered by British explorers. In Indonesian-Malaysian the sauce was called “kecap”, the pronunciation of which, “kay-chap”, explains where we got the word “ketchup”. It wasn’t until the 19th century that tomato ketchup was invented, however; people used to think that tomatoes were poisonous, and the sauce didn’t catch on in America until later that century. One couldn’t imagine chips or burgers without it now!

14. Ostracise

The word “ostracise” and the concept of democracy were both born in Ancient Greece, where the practice of a democratic vote extended to citizens voting to decide whether there were any dangerous individuals who should be banished (because they were becoming too powerful, thus posing a threat to democracy). Those who were eligible to vote exercised this privilege by writing their vote on a sherd of broken pottery – an “ostrakon”. If the vote came back in favour of banishing the individual, they were “ostracised” (from the Ancient Greek verb “ostrakizein”, meaning “to ostracise”). The word has nothing to do with ostriches, the flightless birds – similar though the words are!

As we said at the start of this article, this selection of fascinating word origins barely even scratches the surface of the endlessly interesting world of etymology. Whether you’re a seasoned English speaker or trying to learn this challenging language for the first time, you’re bound to find out some useful facts to help you memorise new words simply by exploring their origins. What remarkable word histories will you discover the next time you find out what a word really means?

Image credits: banner; Duns; berserker; sandwich; dice game; Rome; ketchup.

Here are 25 Kickass and Interesting Origin Stories of Some English Words

1-5 Interesting Origins Stories of Some English Words

1. The word ‘muscle’ is derived from the Latin word “musculus”, which translates to “little mouse”. When physicians were first observing the musculature, it is said that they remarked that the muscles in the biceps and calves (most notably) looked like mice running under the skin.

2. The prefix ‘pen-’, comes from paene, which means almost. So a peninsula is almost an island, the penultimate thing is almost last, etc. ‘Pen’ and ‘pencil’ are actually fascinating in that they aren’t cognate. “Pen” comes from “pinna”, the Latin word for “feather”. “Pencil”, however, comes from “penis”, the Latin word for “tail”, via “peniculus”, which is Latin for “brush”.

3. The word ‘daisy’ comes from the Old English for “day’s eye”, as the flowers open during the day and shut again at night.

4. The English words ‘traitor’, ‘tradition’ and ‘trade’ have the same root word ‘trado’ (tradere, tradidi, traditum) because they all involve handing something over.

5. Ultracrepidarian is a person who gives opinions beyond his area of expertise. The story goes that in ancient Greece there was a renowned painter named Apelles who used to display his paintings and hide behind them to listen to the comments. Once a cobbler pointed out that the sole of the shoe was not painted correctly. Apelles fixed it and encouraged by this the cobbler began offering comments about other parts of the painting. At this point the painter cut him off with “Ne sutor ultra crepidam” meaning “Shoemaker, not above the sandal” or one should stick to one’s area of expertise.

6-10 Interesting Origins Stories of Some English Words

6. The word ‘scuttlebutt’ is filtered down from the age of sailing. Scuttlebutt was a cask (a butt) kept near an opening (a scuttle) to the lower decks. Sailors could grab a drink of water from it and would natural gossip around it. It’s identical to our use of the word ‘water-cooler talk’ to refer to gossip.

7. Similarly, ‘toerag’, an affectionate term a grandparent would call a misbehaving small child, originally referred to the frayed end of a rope dangling into the water at the head of the ship, used for cleaning one’s backside.

8. Similarly, ‘square meal’ too is filtered down from the age of sailing. In the age of fighting sail, sailors required up to 5000 calories a day with all the manual labor. They were given stodgy, large meals served on square wooden plates/boards for easy storage and harder to break, so the term became synonymous with a good meal.

9. Similarly the phrase, ‘the bitter end’ referred to an anchor line that was secured to bits or cleats mounted in the bow. Once all of the line was let out, the line was said to be at its bitter end, meaning no more line could be let out. So to fight to the bitter end, means until there is nothing left to give.

10. The phrase “by and large” as well came from sailing ships. You could either be sailing “by the wind,” or just “by” (with the wind afore the beam, or midpoint of the ship’s length), or sailing “large” (with the wind abaft the beam). So “by and large” means “in all situations.”

11-15 Interesting Origins Stories of Some English Words

11. Eavesdropping. Before the invention of guttering, roofs were made with wide eaves, overhangs, so that rain water would fall away from the house to stop the walls and foundations from being damaged. This area was known as ‘the eavesdrop’. The large overhang gave good cover for those who wished to lurk in shadows and listen to others’ conversations. Since the area under the eaves was considered part of the householder’s property you could be fined under Anglo-Saxon law for being under the eaves with the intention of spying.

12. This example is not of a specific word, but rather a whole group of words. Consider that we call many animals by a different name than the food from them. Cow – Beef, Pig – Pork. Chicken -Poultry. Deer – Venison. This can be traced back to the Norman Conquest of England in the 11th century, when the French came and took the crown. When the dust settled, England had French nobility ruling over peasantry with Germanic origins. As a result, the languages used were a mish-mash of French and Germanic.
What does this have to do with food? The peasantry raised the animals, so the names of the animals have Germanic origins. Cow from cou, pig from picbred, deer from dier or tier. Although they raised the animals, it was the nobility who ate the majority of them, so the words for the food come from French. Pork from Porc, Beef from Boeuf, Venison from Venesoun.
Obviously this doesn’t hold true for all foods, especially those from the New World (which was many centuries after the Norman Conquest). Modern language has begun to eliminate some of the usages (such as calling the meat chicken instead of poultry).

13. The ‘Yucatan Peninsula’ is so named because in one of the local languages, “yucatan” means something along the lines of “I can’t understand you.” Terry Pratchett’s Discworld contains a mountain named “Skund”, which translated to “Your finger you fool” in the local language. There is also Mt. Oolskunrahod, which translates to “who is this fool who does not know what a mountain is.” There’s a pond in Finland called Onpahanvaanlampi, from proper Finnish Onpahan vaan lampi, roughly translating to “well, it’s just a pond.” There are a lot of tautological place that follow similar patterns, such as the Mississippi River. “Mississippi” just means “big river” in Algonquian. ‘East Timor’ (east east) and ‘Sahara Desert’ (desert desert) are other examples.

14. The word “tuxedo” comes from the Lenape (an American Indian language) word for “crooked river”. I like this because on the surface, it seems to make no sense. It turns out that “tuxedo” as the name for a dinner jacket comes from Tuxedo Park, NY, where they became popular in the late 1800s.

15. The phrase “hands down” comes from horseracing and refers to a jockey who is so far ahead that he can afford drop his hands and loosen the reins (usually kept tight to encourage a horse to run) and still easily win.

16-20 Interesting Origins Stories of Some English Words

16. The word “sinister” comes from the Latin word (also “sinister”) meaning left, because left-handed people were blamed for being cowards, evil, demons, whatever, your typical scapegoat. Even in Italian “sinistra” still means left. Similarly the English word “left” comes from a Germanic word for “weak”. Similarly, “dexterous” for being skilled with the hands comes from the Latin “dexter” referring to right as a side or direction, i.e. a right-handed person.

17. ‘Dunce’, meaning idiot, comes from the name of Johannes Duns Scotus, a medieval philosopher and theologian who was really caught up in the battle that raged over the status of universals. He was a really good arguer (not as great as Abelard, but easily on the level of Ockham (yes, that’s the Ockham of Occam’s razor)), so spiteful in real life that trolls who couldn’t face him in the court of logic just turned his name into a pejorative and fought him in the court of public opinion.

18. ‘Dingbat’ is a word with an incredibly diverse variety of meanings and applications, dingbat first referred to an alcoholic drink in 1838. It quickly developed a meaning similar to words such as “doohickey,” “gizmo” and “thingamabob,” which supply terms for items with unknown names. Throughout the next century and a half, dingbat came to denote a vast array of other concepts, including—but not limited to—one of a broad range of typographical ornaments (à la the typeface Zapf Dingbats by Hermann Zapf), a muffin, a woman who is neither your sister nor mother, a foolish authority figure, and, in the plural, male genitalia. While the word took on its current, most common sense of “a foolish person” as early as 1905, that definition was popularized in the U.S. by the TV show ‘All in the Family’ in the 1970s.

19. The word ‘tarnation’ was widely popularized among contemporary folk by the Warner Bros. character Yosemite Sam (e.g., “What in tarnation…?!”), the term was originally an American English derivative of “darnation,” which was, predictably enough, a milder way of expressing the profanity “damnation.” The “t” in tarnation was influenced by “tarnal,” yet another mild 18th century profanity derived from the phrase “by the Eternal,” which was used as such: “Joe paid a tarnal high price for his dillydallying.”

20. ‘Peculiar’ is a deliciously self-describing word. Its origins lie in the mid-15th century, when it meant “belonging exclusively to one person” and denoted the concept of private property. The English word derived its meaning from the Latin word peculiaris, which held a similar meaning. Peculiaris, in turn, was plucked from the Latin peculium, which implied private property, but literally meant “property in cattle.” One might consider livestock to be a curious root for a term referring to private property, but in ancient times, cattle were considered the most important form of property, and wealth was measured by the number of cows one owned. The current meaning of “peculiar” (i.e. unusual) arrived in the 17th century. This definition surfaced after the term evolved to mean “distinguished, or special” in the late 16th century (because, naturally, people blessed with bovine abundance were considered distinguished and special).

21-25 Interesting Origins Stories of Some English Words

21. Utopia: You may know this word as meaning something along the lines of a perfect paradise. It actually comes from the Greek ού, meaning “not,” and τόπος, meaning “place,’ because a utopia is an impossible place – something that couldn’t exist. Along these lines, dystopia just means a bad utopia.

22. Popularized in English during the mid-18th century, the word ‘slang’ referred specifically to the lexicon of tramps and thieves. Its origin may have been Norwegian, derived from the phrase “slengja kjeften,” which literally meant “to sling the jaw,” but which carried the implication “to abuse with words.” Its current meaning—informal but vivid colloquial speech used as a deliberate substitute for other terms or concepts in the same vernacular—became common in the early 19th century. The use of “slang” was popularized around the same time as the word “slangwhanger,” an American English term meaning “one who uses abusive slang” or “a ranting partisan,” especially one with orange hair (just kidding). Tragically, slangwhanger is uncommon in our current lexicon.

23. The phrase “pull yourself up by your bootstraps” originated shortly before the turn of the 20th century. It’s attributed to a late-1800s physics schoolbook that contained the example question “Why can not a man lift himself by pulling up on his bootstraps?” So when it became a colloquial phrase referring to socioeconomic advancement shortly thereafter, it was more or less meant to be sarcastic, or to suggest that it was a nigh-impossible accomplishment. Eventually, however, the phrase’s commonly-accepted meaning evolved, and now when we tell people to “pull themselves up by their bootstraps,” it’s implying that socioeconomic advancement is something that everyone should be able to do—albeit something difficult. Also: Considering boots with bootstraps (or at least the shoe parts that are commonly called bootstraps, since boots with straps have existed for centuries) weren’t popularized until about 1870, the character called Bootstrap Bill from Pirates of the Caribbean, which took place in the late 1700s, is a bit of an anachronism. “Bootstrapping” is also the origin of “booting up” a computer. This idiom is also the root of the Bootstrap Method, a common method used in mathematics.

24. Shambles: This is a personal favorite because it’s so convoluted. The Latin word it’s derived from, scamillus just means a little stool or bench. “Shambles” originally meant a stool as well. The word then came to mean, more specifically, a stool or stall where things were sold. Then, a stall where meat was sold. Eventually, a meatmarket. Then, a slaughterhouse. Eventually, “shambles” just came to mean a bloody mess. (That was a pun – “shambles” now just means something along the lines of “a scene of destruction.”)

25. Floccinaucinihilipilification: This is another favorite word of mine because its etymology is hilarious. It basically means “the estimation of something as worthless or valueless,” but it comes from four Latin words that all mean the same thing: flocci, nauci, nihili, and pili – all meaning something like “at little value” or “for nothing.” Total absurdity.

The etymology of a word refers to its origin and historical development: that is, its earliest known use, its transmission from one language to another, and its changes in form and meaning. Etymology is also the term for the branch of linguistics that studies word histories.

What’s the Difference Between a Definition and an Etymology?

A definition tells us what a word means and how it’s used in our own time. An etymology tells us where a word came from (often, but not always, from another language) and what it used to mean.

For example, according to The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, the definition of the word disaster is «an occurrence causing widespread destruction and distress; a catastrophe» or «a grave misfortune.» But the etymology of the word disaster takes us back to a time when people commonly blamed great misfortunes on the influence of the stars.

Disaster first appeared in English in the late 16th century, just in time for Shakespeare to use the word in the play King Lear. It arrived by way of the Old Italian word disastro, which meant «unfavorable to one’s stars.»

This older, astrological sense of disaster becomes easier to understand when we study its Latin root word, astrum, which also appears in our modern «star» word astronomy. With the negative Latin prefix dis- («apart») added to astrum («star»), the word (in Latin, Old Italian, and Middle French) conveyed the idea that a catastrophe could be traced to the «evil influence of a star or planet» (a definition that the dictionary tells us is now «obsolete»).

Is the Etymology of a Word Its True Definition?

Not at all, though people sometimes try to make this argument. The word etymology is derived from the Greek word etymon, which means «the true sense of a word.» But in fact the original meaning of a word is often different from its contemporary definition.

The meanings of many words have changed over time, and older senses of a word may grow uncommon or disappear entirely from everyday use. Disaster, for instance, no longer means the «evil influence of a star or planet,» just as consider no longer means «to observe the stars.»

Let’s look at another example. Our English word salary is defined by The American Heritage Dictionary as «fixed compensation for services, paid to a person on a regular basis.» Its etymology can be traced back 2,000 years to sal, the Latin word for salt. So what’s the connection between salt and salary?

The Roman historian Pliny the Elder tells us that «in Rome, a soldier was paid in salt,» which back then was widely used as a food preservative. Eventually, this salarium came to signify a stipend paid in any form, usually money. Even today the expression «worth your salt» indicates that you’re working hard and earning your salary. However, this doesn’t mean that salt is the true definition of salary.

Where Do Words Come From?

New words have entered (and continue to enter) the English language in many different ways. Here are some of the most common methods.

• Borrowing
  The majority of the words used in modern English have been borrowed from other languages. Although most of our vocabulary comes from Latin and Greek (often by way of other European languages), English has borrowed words from more than 300 different languages around the world. Here are just a few examples:
  futon (from the Japanese word for «bedclothes, bedding»)
• hamster (Middle High German hamastra)
• kangaroo (Aboriginal language of Guugu Yimidhirr, gangurru , referring to a species of kangaroo)
• kink (Dutch, «twist in a rope»)
• moccasin (Native American Indian, Virginia Algonquian, akin to Powhatan mäkäsn and Ojibwa makisin)
• molasses (Portuguese melaços, from Late Latin mellceum, from Latin mel, «honey»)
• muscle (Latin musculus, «mouse»)
• slogan (alteration of Scots slogorne, «battle cry»)
• smorgasbord (Swedish, literally «bread and butter table»)
• whiskey (Old Irish uisce, «water,» and bethad, «of life»)
• Clipping or Shortening
  Some new words are simply shortened forms of existing words, for instance indie from independent; exam from examination; flu from influenza, and fax from facsimile.
• Compounding
  A new word may also be created by combining two or more existing words: fire engine, for example, and babysitter.
• Blends
  A blend, also called a portmanteau word, is a word formed by merging the sounds and meanings of two or more other words. Examples include moped, from mo(tor) + ped(al), and brunch, from br(eakfast) + (l)unch.
• Conversion or Functional Shift
  New words are often formed by changing an existing word from one part of speech to another. For example, innovations in technology have encouraged the transformation of the nouns network, Google, and microwave into verbs.
• Transfer of Proper Nouns
  Sometimes the names of people, places, and things become generalized vocabulary words. For instance, the noun maverick was derived from the name of an American cattleman, Samuel Augustus Maverick. The saxophone was named after Sax, the surname of a 19th-century Belgian family that made musical instruments.
• Neologisms or Creative Coinages
  Now and then, new products or processes inspire the creation of entirely new words. Such neologisms are usually short lived, never even making it into a dictionary. Nevertheless, some have endured, for example quark (coined by novelist James Joyce), galumph (Lewis Carroll), aspirin (originally a trademark), grok (Robert A. Heinlein).
• Imitation of Sounds
  Words are also created by onomatopoeia, naming things by imitating the sounds that are associated with them: boo, bow-wow, tinkle, click.

Why Should We Care About Word Histories?

If a word’s etymology is not the same as its definition, why should we care at all about word histories? Well, for one thing, understanding how words have developed can teach us a great deal about our cultural history. In addition, studying the histories of familiar words can help us deduce the meanings of unfamiliar words, thereby enriching our vocabularies. Finally, word stories are often both entertaining and thought provoking. In short, as any youngster can tell you, words are fun.

flickr/j_silla

Between George Bush and the Internet, the English language is changing at an alarming rate.

You won’t believe how far some words have come.

We researched nine modern words and the strange histories that accompany them, also known as etymologies.

1. Avocado

(noun): a pear-shaped fruit with a rough leathery skin, smooth oily edible flesh, and a large stone

The word for avocado comes from the Aztec word, «ahuacatl,» which means testicle. Aside from the similar shape, avocados also act as aphrodisiacs, foods that stimulate sex drive. I propose we un-complicate the story and rename them «testicle fruit.»

2. Jumbo

(adjective): very large, unusually for it’s type

In 1880, P.T. Barnum bought an elephant, named «Jumbo,» from the Royal Zoological Society in London. By age 7, this pachyderm consumed 200 pounds of hay, one barrel of potatoes, two bushels of oats, 15 loaves of bread, a slew of onions, and several pails of water every day. His caretaker at the zoo also gave him a gallon or two of whiskey every now and then.

At full size, Jumbo stood at 11-and-a-half feet tall and weighed six-and-half tons.

His name likely stems from two Swahili words: «jambo,» meaning hello and «jumbe,» or chief. Although, «Hey chief» seems a little informal for a creature who could crush your organs with its trunk.

3. Clue

(noun): a fact or idea that serves as a guide or aid in a task or problem

According to Greek mythology, when Theseus entered the Labyrinth to kill the minotaur (a half-man, half-bull), he unraveled a «clew» — a ball of string — behind him, so he could find his way back.

The word «clue» didn’t even exist until the mid-1500s when people started to vary the spelling of «clew.»

4. Robot

(noun): a machine capable of carrying out a complex series of actions automatically, especially one programmable by a computer

The word «robot» comes from the Czech word «robota,» meaning «forced labor» — which sounds strangely like slavery. Remember iRobot?

5. Sycophant

(noun): a person who acts obsequiously toward someone important in order to gain advantage

Technically, sycophant means someone who denounces someone else as a «fig-smuggler,» according to Charlotte Higgins, culture-blogger at The Guardian. Since the beginning of the sixth century, Athens outlawed transporting food, except olives, outside the city-state’s borders. People mostly broke the law by smuggling figs.

Back then, Athenian law permitted blackmailing (for profit). These blackmailers, or sykophantes in Greek, wanted to earn some extra cash and threatened to tell the courts about others’ fig-smuggling habits.

6. Assassin

(noun): a person who murders an important person for political or religious reasons

Members of a fanatical Muslim sect during the Crusades used to smoke hashish and then murder leaders on the opposing side. They started going by the name «hashishiyyin,» meaning hashish-users in Arabic.

Through centuries of mispronunciation, English arrived at «assassin.»

7. Phony

(adjective): not genuine, fraudulent

Back in day, pirates used to sell «fawney,» basically British slang for fake gold rings. Anything can happen when you add a buccaneer’s accent.

8. Nimrod

(noun): an inept person

Nimrod actually means a «skillful hunter.» The word comes from Nimrod, the great-grandson of Noah, one of the most powerful biblical kings. It sounds like a compliment, right?

During the golden age of American animation, Bugs Bunny called Elmer fud a nimrod in an episode of Looney Tunes. As Cracked puts it, that’s kind of like calling your friend «Einstein» after he makes a really dumb statement. Bugs’ sarcasm just stuck.

9. Whiskey

(noun): a spirit distilled from malted grain, especially barley or rye

Whiskey is the shortened form of whiskeybae, which comes from the Old English «usquebae,» derived from two Gaelic words: uisce (water) and bethu (life). Thus, whiskey literally means «water of life.» Accurate.

BONUS: OMG

(slang interjection): Oh my God!

The Oxford English Dictionary claims this word predates the Internet (although not teenage girls).

Apparently, a sassy British admiral John Arbuthnot «Jacky» Fisher wrote in his memoir, » I hear that a new order of Knighthood is on the tapis—O.M.G. (Oh! My God!)—Shower it on the Admiralty!!» No, we don’t know what that means either.

He was later reincarnated as Cher from «Clueless.»

After numerous twists and turns (and loaning) for over 1400-years, English is without a doubt the global lingua franca of our modern era. In fact, it is easily the most widely spoken Germanic language, and as such an astronomical 359 million people spoke English as their first language – according to 2010 statistical figures.

And these numbers only include native English speakers, with English estimated to be the most commonly spoken language in the world including non-native (second language) speakers. Given such fascinating credentials, it is not surprising that the history of English is laden with unique cultural connections from all across the world. To that end, let us take a gander at the interesting historical origins of commonly used English words.

The word algorithm has its origins in al-khwārizmī, which was the short name for the noted mathematician Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī. In fact, the appellation of al-Khwārizmī means – ‘from Khwarizm’ (a region in western Central Asia, north of Persia). The Latinization of this name came to Algorismi, from which the term ‘algorismus‘ was finally derived by the 13th century, and continued in usage till the 19th century. The English variant ‘algorithm’ came into more popular usage after the 19th century, and it still denoted the Arabic decimal system in its earlier usage patterns.

On an interesting note, the word ‘algebra’ also relates to Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī. The 9th-century mathematician wrote the compilation known as ‘al-mukhtaṣar fī ḥisāb al-jabr wa al-muqābala‘ (in English, it can be translated as – “The Compendium on Calculation by Restoring and Balancing”). The phrase ‘al-jabr‘ pertained to equations, and hence its ultimate Latinization to ‘algebra’.

‘Cereal’ – Derived From A Roman Goddess Of Agriculture

Perhaps one of the most commonly uttered words by parents in the mornings of the Western Hemisphere, the term ‘Cereal’, originally meaning ‘edible grain’ (as used in the early 19th century) comes from French céréale. The French word, in turn, originates from Ceres, the Roman counterpart to the Greek goddess Demeter. However, Ceres was not only the Roman goddess of agriculture but was also associated with grain crops, fertility, and the general sense of ‘motherliness’. And what’s more, there was an ancient Roman festival of ‘Cerealia‘ that was held for 7 days in April in honor of Ceres. 

And on the occasion (according to Ovid’s Fasti), people used to tie blazing torches to the tails of foxes, who were then ceremoniously let loose into the expansive space later known as Circus Maximus – as a symbolic punishment for the creatures’ yearly forays into Roman croplands that were sacred to Ceres. (*also check this citation). The festival was also marked by what can be termed as collective cos-play with Roman women dressing in white attires to mimic Ceres, who supposedly wandered through the earth in lamentation for her abducted daughter Proserpine.

‘Check’ – Derived From A Persian Term For King

Our familiarity with the word ‘check’ generally pertains to the usage of the phrase ‘checking out’ something. However, the origin of the word is intrinsically tied to the game of chess. For example, ‘check’ in chess means “the act of directly attacking the other player’s king” (according to Cambridge Dictionary), and it originated from circa the early 14th century. The English word, taken from Old French eschequier, is derived from Vulgar Latin *scaccus, which, in turn, comes from Arabic shah, or Persian shah, meaning the king piece (shah means ruler). 

Quite intriguingly, to check oneself, suggesting the act of restraining oneself, probably also comes from the extended meaning of the check move in chess. To that end, the act of checking also alludes to the ‘means of detecting or preventing error’, thus making sense in the case of checking against forgery. Interestingly enough, it is widely believed that the word ‘cheque’ (as in bank cheques) was probably influenced by the Old French eschequier (or its English variant exchequer), thereby also suggesting its origin ties to the game of chess. In fact, a cheque (meaning a ‘bill’) refers to a token that determines or prevents or ‘checks against’ loss or theft.

‘Climate’ – Derived From Slope of Earth

Climate change is a hot topic in the modern era. And while the English word ‘climate’, first used in circa 14th century, pertains to the ‘general weather conditions of a specific place or region’ (over a certain time interval), the origin of the term comes from Latin clima and Greek klima – that refers to the ‘slope or inclination of the earth’, ultimately derived from the PIE (Proto-Indo-European language) root *klei – ‘to lean’.

According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, in the historical context, ancient geographers put forth the notion of the Earth’s division into specific zones depending on the angle of the sunlight falling on that slope and the daylight that the region received. In that regard, they considered that were at least 24 to 30 ‘climates’ that existed between the Upper Nile in Sudan to the mythical Riphaean Mountains of the north (possibly entailing the Arctic).

Over the passage of centuries, temperature, or rather the change in temperature was perceived as a more important parameter. Consequently, by circa 14th century, the word ‘climate’ was associated more with the prevailing weather conditions of a region rather than the region or slope of the region itself.

‘Curry’ – Derived From A Tamil Spicy Concoction

Curry is most likely an anglicized form of kari or kaṟi, which is a Tamil term for ‘sauce or relish for rice’. Interestingly enough, kari might have come from the fragrant kari leaves of a particular plant related to the lemon family; and as such, the leaves are still used in many traditional Indian curries.

As for the historical side affairs, the first mention of kari in European circles came from a mid-17th-century Portuguese cookbook – possibly authored by members of the British East India Company who traded with the Tamil merchants of the southeast Indian coasts. The term was also used for a spice blend known as ‘kari podi’, which possibly ultimately morphed into what we know as the curry powder.

The very term Diehard, made popular by the franchise of action films, has a rather grim origin. Initially, it was used in the 1700s as an expression to describe the condemned men who struggled the longest when they were being hanged as a form of execution – thus basically pertaining to the verbal phrase die-hard, meaning ‘struggle, or resist in dying’. 

However, quite incredibly enough, Die Hards, as a moniker, was earned by the 57th Regiment of Foot in the British Army after it suffered enormous casualties and yet carried on at the Battle of Albuera in 1811 during the Napoleonic Wars.

According to one version, the noteworthy nickname came from the commanding officer of the battalion Colonel William Inglis, who in spite of being severely wounded from a canister shot, continued to order his troops from the front position by crying aloud “Die hard the 57th, die hard!”. The brave soldiers supposedly maintained their cohesive line even after suffering brutal losses – in the form of 422 out of the 570 men in the ranks and 20 out of the 30 officers.

‘Father’ – Derived From A Common Indo-European Term

Perhaps one of the oldest words in existence, the common English term ‘father‘ is directly derived from Old English ‘fæder’. This, in turn, comes from Proto-Germanic fader, which is ultimately borrowed from the term pəter that meant ‘father’ in PIE (Proto-Indo-European language). Unsurprisingly, the cognates of this word come from various geographical locations of the world – like, Sanskrit pitar-, Greek pater, Latin pater, Old Persian pita, and even Old Irish athir “father”.

And, the now question remains – where did this ‘original’ PIE term come from? Well, most linguists have an easy hypothesis for the answer; the word simply came from ‘pa’, which was most probably how a baby (irrespective of nationality or race) uttered the sound when addressing his/her father.

While guns relate to a rather controversial topic in modern times, we have many powerful weapons names identified with women, with examples like Big Bertha, Mons Meg, and Brown Bess. And, as it turns out, the derivation of the common weapon term ‘gun‘ also comes from a woman’s name Gunilda! Often known as Lady Gunilda (which probably comes from Middle English gonnilde), this particular contraption of war was a part of the arsenal of the Windsor Castle from at least 1330 AD. The weapon was basically a very powerful and big crossbow mechanism that was capable of hurling rocks, arrows and other missiles.

As for the term gonnilde, it came from Old Norse Gunnhildr – which was also a woman’s name, while alluding to the combination of both war and battle. This ultimately had its origin in *gwhen-, which in PIE language meant ‘to strike, kill’.

The Japanese term ‘kamikaze‘ came into popular usage after World War II when the desperate Japanese forces adopted the audacious tactic of suicide attacks on American warships. This frenzied tactical scope was officially known as Tokubetsu Kōgekitai (which translates to ‘Special Attack Unit’), and by the end of the war, more than 3,860 pilots were killed with the hit rate of a mere 19 percent.

However, beyond saddening figures and statistics, the term kamikaze literally translates to ‘divine wind’ (kami means god or divine, while kaze means wind). Quite fascinatingly, this was the folkloric name given to the chance typhoons that severely afflicted Kublai’s Khan’s huge Mongol fleet, when they tried to attack the Japanese mainland in both 1274 AD and 1281 AD.

From the perspective of history, the second (and larger) fleet of 1281 AD supposedly contained more than 3,000 vessels; and though this number was depleted during the said event (at Kyushu), the Japanese Samurai were still badly outnumbered for the ensuing battle.

In spite of this numerical disadvantage, it was ‘divine’ nature that came through for the Japanese forces when a massive typhoon damaged the Kyushu coastline for two days – that ultimately helped in destroying the majority of the Mongol ships. So, in other words, the historical episode served as the symbolic veneer for the Japanese pilots who went on suicide missions during the ‘kamikaze‘ attacks.

The Laconic phrase implies a concise statement that still manages to drive home its point; and as such the scope entails the use of very few words (by a person or speech). This term itself comes from the geographical region of Laconia, which is comprised of the city-state of Sparta. In fact, the Spartans were known for their terse replies and pithy remarks, alongside their austerely disciplined lifestyles.

Many of such concise yet blunt retorts can be seen in the otherwise historically inaccurate movie 300, with the notable example being when Xerxes offered to spare 7,000 Greek soldiers who were defending the strategic mountain pass. However, the emperor’s condition was that Leonidas’ men had to willingly lay down their arms. In reply, Leonidas simply uttered ‘Molon labe‘ which translates to ‘come and get them’.

In another interesting example, Philip II of Macedon (father of Alexander the Great) sent a message to Sparta that read – “If I invade Laconia you will be destroyed, never to rise again.”. The Spartan leader (ephor) replied – “If”.

‘Loot’ – Originates From A Indo-European Word For ‘Snatching’

A rather controversial term in the current video game industry, the word ‘loot’, in its noun form meaning ‘goods taken from an enemy’, comes from Hindi lut. It is derived from Sanskrit loptram or lotram, meaning ‘stolen property’, and the Sanskrit term, in turn, is influenced by the PIE *roup-tro-, from root *reup meaning ‘to snatch’. Incredibly enough, the English word ‘rip’ – meaning ‘tear apart’, of the Germanic origin or influenced by Scandinavian, is ultimately derived from Proto-Germanic *rupjan-. This also comes from the same PIE root *reup-, *reub- ‘to snatch’.

A word often used to describe the news, journalism, and entertainment-oriented establishments, ‘media’ is actually an abstracted form of mass media, which was a technical term for advertising in the 1920s. Media is also the plural of ‘medium’, as denoted at least since the 1600s. And it is the historical origin of the word ‘medium’ that might tickle one’s fancy. As the Online Etymology Dictionary states – medium, directly derived from Latin medium, pertained to ‘a middle ground, quality, or degree; that which holds a middle place or position’, by the 1580s.

The Latin medium does convey the PIE root *medhyo- ‘middle’. Interestingly enough, considering the Indo-European connection, one of India’s current states is called Madhya Pradesh (meaning Central Province). Now as with earlier mentioned English words, over time, the extended meaning of ‘medium’ evolved into an ‘agency of communication’ or ‘substance through which qualities are conveyed’ – thereby suggesting a strong link with the modern usage of the word ‘media’.

Originating from circa early 14th century, the term ‘nightmare’ used to mean ‘an evil spirit, sometimes female (incubus), that afflicted men in their sleep’. Interestingly enough, it’s a simple compound of two words night and mare, with the latter NOT denoting a female horse (mare). Instead, it refers to a goblin or incubus that causes the affliction. By the turn of the 16th century, the focus of the ‘nightmare’ meaning shifted from the goblin to the ‘sensation of suffocation during our sleep’, thereby alluding to the modern connotation of a ‘frightening dream’. 

The Old English word mare means ‘monster’ or ‘goblin’. It is derived from mære, ultimately coming from Proto-Germanic *maron meaning ‘goblin’ (its PIE root is *mora- ‘incubus’). Quite incredibly, the first element of the name of Celtic Irish goddess Morrigain (Morrigan) is possibly also derived from maron. To that end, in modern Irish, her name Mór-Ríoghain roughly translates to the ‘phantom queen’. Befitting this cryptic epithet, in the mythical narrative, Morrigan was capable of shapeshifting (who usually transformed into a crow – the badb) and foretelling doom, while also inciting men into a war frenzy.

‘Renegade’ – Derived From The Moors Of Spain

Renegade roughly translates to ‘apostate’ in English, while the term is derived from Spanish renegado, which originally applied to ‘Christians who had turned Muslims’. This was a pretty common occurrence during the times of Islamic Moorish kingdoms which held sway over much of Spain from late antiquity to the 12th century AD. The Moors themselves were ruled by an Arab minority, while their thriving (and relatively tolerant) society was an assortment of local Iberians (Spaniards), Berbers from North Africa, and a sizable minority of Jewish people. 

The Moors also continued with their traditional recruitment of slave soldiers, from both captured young Christian prisoners and Berber tribesmen. And, as we mentioned in our previous articles, the ‘slaves’ (ghulam or mamluks) of medieval Muslim societies had a far more honorable status and an even higher standard of living than that of ordinary folk. Continuing with this societal trend, the renegados (and their descendants) gradually formed the military elite of Granada, which was the last surviving Moorish kingdom in the Spanish mainland by the 15th century.

However, the burgeoning and religiously-motivated Christian kingdoms from North were not fond of such renegados – so much so that during the latter part of the Reconquista, the captured Muslim converts were treated with a barbarity that was seldom seen in the history of ‘civilized’ Spanish middle ages before this epoch. One brutal example during the early part of Inquisition epitomized this cruel side of war when the prisoner renegados were used en-masse as acanaveados, or live targets for practicing the art of throwing cane-spears from horses.

While the word ‘salary’ is fairly innocuous (although sometimes stressful) for the office-goers, its origins are draped in myths and anecdotal evidence. To that end, ‘salary’ comes from Old French salaire, ultimately derived from Latin salarium. And while salarium also refers to a ‘stipend’, it has the root sal, which means ‘salt’ in Latin. 

This latter part has fueled many conjectural notions as to how the Roman soldiers were paid in salt (or salt-money) – since salt was a highly prized commodity in the ancient world. In fact, The Romans took particular interest in the supply of salt – so much so that many of their early road systems, including the famed Via Salaria, were developed for the efficient transportation of salt. Salt was even used for political machinations, with Roman leaders sometimes desperately reducing the price of this product to appease the masses.

However, in spite of the seemingly alluring nature of the scope, there is NO evidence to suggest that the Roman soldiers were paid directly in salt. On the contrary, there is documented evidence for how the legionaries were paid in coins (sesterces). So why is the word salarium related to salt? Well, the simple answer is – we still don’t know the reason. One lingering hypothesis suggests how salarium denoted compensation because salt was perceived as a valuable commodity. Another one suggests how the soldiers were paid compensations for their guarding duties along the salt roads.

The very term ‘scapegoat’ was coined by 16th-century English scholar and Protestant figure William Tyndale. Originally referring to the ‘goat sent into the wilderness on the Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement)’ that symbolically bears our sins, the term was translated from Vulgate Latin caper emissarius. As the Online Etymology Dictionary states, the Latin term was a further translation of Hebrew ‘azazel – which either meant a ‘goat that departs’ (when read as ‘ez ozel) or a demon in Jewish myths (possibly associated with the Canaanite deity Aziz). 

Suffice it to say, the modern meaning of the scapegoat (possibly first attested in 1843) – ‘one who is punished for the mistakes of others does have a semblance of the original term referring to a ‘goat that bears our sins’. On an interesting note, the rarely-used term ‘scape-gallows’ refers to a person ‘who deserves hanging’.

‘Slogan’ – Derived From A Celtic War-Cry

The very word ‘slogan’ is derived from the late-Medieval term slogorne, which in turn originates from Gaelic sluagh-ghairm (sluagh meaning ‘army’; gairm pertaining to ‘cry’), the battle-cry used by the Scottish and Irish Celts. The Celtic warbands were sometimes also accompanied by Druids and ‘banshee’ women who made their presence known by shouting and screeching curses directed at their foes.

Apart from psychologically afflicting the enemy, the ‘auditory accompaniment’ significantly drummed up the courage and furor of the Celtic warriors. By this time (in the beginning phase of the battle), the challenge was issued – when their champions emerged forth to duel with their opponents.

And once the single combats were performed, the Celts were driven into their battle-frenzy – and thus they charged at the enemy lines with fury. As Julius Caesar himself described one of the frenzied charges made by the Nervii at the Battle of the Sambre (in Gallic War Book II)-

…they suddenly dashed out in full force and charged our cavalry, easily driving them back and throwing them into confusion. They then ran down to the river with such incredible speed that it seemed to us as if they were at the edge of the wood, in the river, and on top of us almost all in the same moment. Then with the same speed they swarmed up the opposite hill towards our camp and attacked the men who were busy fortifying it.

‘Sugar’ – Derived From Sanskrit For ‘Candy’ Or ‘Sand’

The word ‘sugar’, in usage since the 13th century, is derived from Old French sucre, which, in turn, comes from the Arabic sukkar. Interestingly enough, the Arabic term is derived from Persian shakar, which ultimately originates from Sanskrit sharkara – possibly referring to ‘ground candy or sugar’ or even ‘gravel or sand’. Now according to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the product similar to sugar (‘honey without bees’) had already impressed the hetairoi (companions) of Alexander the Great in India. Some later Greek (like Dioscorides) and Roman sources perceived sugar as a form of medicine rather than a sweetener. 

Delving deeper into the realm of history, sugarcane originates from the tropical parts of India and Southeast Asia. Moreover, there is a hypothesis that sugar as a product, due to the crystallization of sugarcane juice, was possibly made during the glorious Gupta period of India, circa 350 AD. Other ancient Indian sources, like Tamil Sangam literature, also mention the process of extracting sugarcane juice with some form of machinery – thereby alluding to the early manufacturing of sugar (albeit still on a relatively smaller scale, since sugar was seen as a luxury item). 

The making of sugar (possibly having a more gravelly texture) spread to China (by the 7th century) and the Islamic world, including Spain and Sicily (by 9th-10th century) through the Silk Route and Indian envoys, and ultimately to Europe via the Crusader states of the Levant.

The word ‘war’ comes from (Late) Old English werre (or wyrre), which, in turn, is ultimately derived from Proto-Germanic *werz-a-. Incredibly enough, while war, in both historical and modern context, suggests an ‘armed conflict over a passage of time’, the High German term ‘werran’ (PIE *wers-) indicated ‘to confuse, or mix up’.

In essence, the origins of the word ‘war’ possibly relate to ‘discord’ rather than ‘fighting’, thus alluding to the psychological impact of human conflicts. To that end, some academicians believe that there was no specific German word for ‘war’ during ancient times.

Moreover, Romanic languages, like Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese, also derive their word for ‘war’, known as guerra, from Germanic, instead of Latin. The reason might have to do with the Latin term for war – bellum. This is close to bello, the word for ‘beautiful’ – as is derived by many of these languages.

Honorable Mention – ‘Goodbye’

An apt word to finish off our article, ‘goodbye’ might seem to be a simple compound of the words ‘good’ and ‘bye’. However, from the etymological perspective, it is actually a contraction of the phrase ‘God be with ye’, from circa 14th century.

As can be discerned from the opening letters of the phrase after God, the words were condensed to form “God b’w’y,” which was then shortened to ‘Godbwye’, possibly by the late 16th century. And finally, influenced by similar phrases like ‘good day’ and ‘good evening’, ‘Godbwye’ was ultimately transformed into the more secular sounding ‘Goodbye’.