English word meaning and synonyms

I. Synonyms and
synonymic sets

Synonyms are usually defined as words similar in meaning; as words
that express the same idea but it is wrong to say that synonyms are
identical in meaning since the range of the idea they express may be
very wide. In comparing synonyms we are mostly interested in their
difference than in their similarity, although the latter is also of
importance.

English is very rich in synonyms. There are about
8000 synonymic groups in English. A group of synonyms is called a
synonymic set, e.g. famous, celebrated,
renowned, illustrious may make a
synonymic set.

A polysemantic word may enter as many synonymic groups as it has
lexical semantic variants, e.g. the word “fresh” goes into 5
synonymic sets:

Fresh – original – novel – striking – up-to-date

Fresh – another – different – new

Fresh – invigorating – pure

Fresh – inexperienced – green- raw

Fresh – impertinent – rude

Each synonymic set has a word, which expresses the
most general idea and holds a commanding position over other words –
it is called the synonymic dominant. For instance in the series to
leave – to depart – to quit – to retire – to clear out
the word “to leave” is general and neutral and can stand for each
of the other four terms being the synonymic dominant of this group.
Thus the synonymic dominant is the most general word belonging to the
general stock of words stylistically neutral, of greater frequency
and of widest colloqability.

Synonyms are grouped according to their similarity
in their meaning and are contrasted within a group on a principle of
dissimilation, e.g. weak, feeble,
powerless.

In traditional linguistics synonyms are defined on basis of the
notional criteria; according to it synonyms are words of the same
category of parts of speech conveying the same notion but differing
either in shades of meaning or in stylistic characteristics. This
definition was given by Russian academician Vinogradov.

The definition of synonyms based on the semantic criteria runs as
follows: “Lexical synonyms are different words of the same part of
speech (having the same grammatical distribution) which have some
common denotational components in their semantic structure but differ
either in some denotational components and/or in some connotational
components and thus usually have different lexical colloqability.”
This definition was given by Pr. Elena Borisovna Cherkasskaya.

In modern research of synonyms the criteria of interchangeability is
sometimes applied. According to this, synonyms are defined as words,
which are interchangeable at least in some context without any
considerable alteration in denotational meaning. The application of
these criteria is limited due to the differences in the semantic
components of meanings of synonyms leading to the differences in
their colloqability.

In fact all the definitions of synonyms are opened criticism and
further perfection.

1. Functions of synonyms in speech

Synonyms have 3 main functions in speech:

• The function of substitution in order to avoid repetition and
  monotony

• The function of précising in meaning in order to reach a greater
  accuracy and avoid vagueness.

• The expressive stylistic function, e.g.
  clean (free from dirt) – neat (clean and tidy) – trim (in good
  order, neat and spruce) – spruce (neat, trim and smart)

1. Types of synonyms

According to the classification of synonyms developed by academician
Vinogradov, there are 3 types of synonyms:

• Idiographic synonyms. He describes idiographic
  synonyms as words conveying the same notion but differing in
  meaning. Idiographic synonyms refer to the same general concept but
  they differ sometimes in the denotational meaning, e.g.
  a look (a conscious and direct in devour to see) – a glance (a
  look, which is quick and sudden) – a glimpse (a look implying
  only momentary sights). These
  idiographic synonyms differ in quickness of the action and the time
  of duration.

• Stylistic synonyms are words of the same
  denotational meaning used in different speech styles. They have the
  same denotational components but differ in stylistic components of
  their semantic structure, e.g.
  enemy/farter (neutral) – foe/sire (poetical) – adversary/parent
  (bookish) – opponent (official) / Dad (coloq.).

• Absolute synonyms in English are words of
  exactly the same meaning, words identical in meanings, e.g.
  fricatives and spirants; fatherland and motherland.
  Absolute synonyms are very rare. According to F.R. Palmer it would
  seem unlikely, “that two words with exactly the same meaning
  would both survive in a language”.

1. Sources of synonyms in English

The following points are usually considered as sources of synonyms:

• Borrowings.

Borrowings from French, Latin and Greek are the
most numerous ones in English. They often express an idea or name a
thing for which they already exist in a native word. That’s how
synonyms appear in the vocabulary. In most cases the native word is
more ordinary tan its foreign counterpart, e.g.
to buy – to purchase, brotherly – fraternal, world – universe.

But there exit plenty of cases of all borrowings
having become thoroughly assimilated. Some of them even express the
most general idea in synonymic sets and serve as synonymic dominants:
valley – dale, piece – lump/cake, to
decide – to settle, action – did…

There are examples of triplets: one native – one
from French – one directly from Latin, e.g.
ask–question-interrogate; teaching-guidance-instruction; to
gather-to assemble-to collect; kingly-royal-regal.

• Dialectisms.

Dialectisms are words from local dialects, which
have entered the English vocabulary as regular words creating
synonyms to the words of Standard English, e.g. Scotch
synonyms: lass – girl, bonny – pretty, daft –
crazy/foolish/wild.

• Word-building processes.

Word-building processes, which are at work in the English Language,
create synonyms to words already in use. The following cases are to
be considered here:

• composite or phrasal verbs (составные
  глаголы), e.g.
  to choose – to pick out; to abandon – to give up; to enter –
  to come in; to descend – to go down; to ascend – to go up;

• compounding which comprises composition and
  conversion working simultaneously,
  e.g. fight-back – resistance; precipitation – fall-out;
  conscription – a call up;

• conversion, e.g.
  to verbalize – to word; laughter – a laugh; to moisten – to
  wet;

• shortening, e.g.
  microphone – mike; popular – pop; examinations – exams;

• affixation or loss of affixes, e.g.
  anxiety – anxiousness; affectivity – affectiveness; amongst –
  among; await – wait;

• set expressions,
  e.g.
  to laugh – to give a laugh; to walk – to take a walk;

In this connection the problem of synonyms and lexical variants
arises: should these cases be regarded as synonyms or lexical
variants.

1. Euphemisms as a specific type of synonyms

Euphemism is a Greek word (EU means “well” and
PHEMOS means “speaking” thus “Euphemism” means speaking
well). A euphemism is a substitution of a harsh, obscene, indelicate
or otherwise unpleasant word by a less offensive word or periphrastic
expression, e.g. quieer
is a euphemism for mad;
intoxicated
is a euphemism for drunk;
in one’s birthday suit = naked.

Euphemisms are divided into 2 main groups according to the character
of words they subdtitute:

• Religious and superstitious taboos are
  words and set phrases which are avoided in speech for religious
  reasons or because of superstition,
  e.g. God – goodness, gracious, gosh; Devil – deuce, Dickens,
  Nicolas, old Nick, Darwin; to die – to pass away, to go to one’s
  last home, to go to the way of all flash, to join the majority, to
  kick the bucket;

• Social and moral taboos
  are words and idioms which are avoided in speech as not acceptable
  in the polite conversation, e.g.
  trousers – unmentionables; toilet – powder-room, retiring-room,
  wash-room, restroom, lady’s room, public comfort station, WC
  (Windsor Castle), public conveniences;
  pregnant – in an interesting/delicate
  condition; in a family way, with the baby coming, pig with child;
  drunk – intoxicated, tipsy, under the influence, mellow, fresh,
  high, merry, flustered, overcome, full, to be drunk as a lord/owl,
  boiled, fried, tanked, tight, stiff, pickled, soaked;

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Synonyms are words that are similar in meaning but different in spelling.

The English language (like many other languages) has both synonyms and antonyms. There are many more
synonyms than antonyms, as many things do not have the opposite word (for example, the word sandwich
has a synonym for sandwich, hamburger and many other words, but here is the antonym to the word no
sandwich). Antonym is also much newer. addition to the English language than a synonym. is he first
appeared in the 1870s, while the synonym is used more than 500 years ago.

In our database of more than 1,000,000 (million) words, enter a word in the search field and click
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