English word full form

ability
способность,
inability
неспособность;
disability
нетрудоспособность able
способный, умелый
unable
неспособный
disabled
искалеченный; инвалид enable
дать возможность
disable
делать неспособным, калечить ably
умело, искусно absurdity
абсурдность absurd
абсурдный acceptability
приемлемость acceptable
приемлемый
unacceptable
неприемлемый accept
принимать, соглашаться access
доступ
accessibility
доступность accessible
доступный accessibly
доступно accident
случай, случайность accidental
случайный accidentally
нечаянно, случайно action
действие
actor
актер
actress
актриса
activity
активность
activities
деятельность
acting
представление active
активный
acting
действующий, работающей act
действовать actively
активно achievement
достижение achieve
достигать addiction
привычка, приверженность, увлеченность
addict
увлеченный человек, имеющий стойкую привычку addictive
способный вызывать привычку addict
увлекаться, предаваться admiration
восхищение admirable
восхитительный admire
восхищаться admirably
восхитительно advice
совет advisable
рекомендуемый advise
советовать affectation
притворство, искусственность
affection
привязанность, любовь affected
притворный
affectionate
любящий
affective
эмоциональный affect
воздействовать, влиять; притворяться agreement
соглашение, согласие
disagreement
разногласие, несогласие agreeable
соответствующий, приятный agree
соглашаться
disagree
не соглашаться agreeably
соответственно aggression
агрессия
aggressor
агрессору зачинщик aggressive
агрессивный aggress
нападать aggressively
агрессивно aim
цель aimless
бесцельный aim
целиться, намереваться aimlessly
бесцельно affordable
то, что может быть позволено
unaffordable
то, что невозможно себе позволить afford
позволять себе amusement
развлечение amused
приятно изумленный
amusing
забавный amuse
развлекать, забавлять amusedly
изумленно appearance
внешность; появление
disappearance
исчезновение appear
появляться
disappear
исчезать appointment
назначение; деловая встреча
disappointment
разочарование, досада appointed
назначенный
disappointed
огорченный
disappointing
разочаровывающий appoint
назначать
disappoint
разочаровывать approval
одобрение approved
одобренный
approving
одобрительный approve
одобрять approvingly
одобрительно arrangement
соглашение; расположение arranged
приведенный в порядок arrange
приводить в порядок, организовывать argument
аргумент, довод
argumentation
аргументация arguable
доказуемый (в споре)
argumentative
спорный, конфликтный argue
утверждать, спорить, ссориться argumentatively
доказательно appropriation
присвоение; ассигнование appropriate
подходящий, соответствующий
inappropriate
несоответствущий, неуместный appropriate
присваивать, предназначать appropriately
соответственно, подходяще arrival
прибытие arrive
прибывать, приезжать attraction
притяжение, привлекательность attracted
привлеченный
attractive
привлекательный attract
привлекать attractively
привлекательно avoidance
избежание, отмена avoidable
то, чего можно избежать
unavoidable
неизбежный avoid
избегать unavoidably
неизбежно beauty
красота; красавица beautiful
красивый beautify
украшать beautifully
красиво bearing
роды bearable
сносный, допустимый
unbearable
невыносимый bear
носить; терпеть unbearably
невыносимо belief
вера believable
вероятный, правдоподобный
unbelievable
невероятный believe
верить benefit
выгода beneficial
выгодный benefit
получать выгоду bore
зануда
boredom
скука bored
испытывающий скуку
boring
скучный, надоедливый bore
надоедать boringly
скучно breath
дыхание, дуновение
breathing
дыхание
breather
короткая передышка breathing
дышащий
breathless
бездыханный breathe
дышать breathlessly
затаив дыхание business
дело
businessman
деловой мужчина
businesswoman
деловая женщина busy
занятой
businesslike
деловой, практичный busy
занимать делом busily
деловито, по-деловому саrе
забота, уход careful
заботливый
careless
небрежный саrе
заботиться, любить carefully
заботливо
carelessly
небрежно celebration
празднование
celebrity
знаменитость celebrated
знаменитый, прославленный celebrate
праздновать, прославлять certainty
определенность
uncertainty
неопределенность, неуверенность certain
определенный
uncertain
неопределенный certainly
определенно, уверенно change
изменение; мелочь, сдача changeable
изменчивый
changed
изменившийся
changeless
неизменный
unchanged
не изменившийся change
менять; обменивать(ся) changelessly
неизменно character
характер characteristic
характерный, типичный characterise
характеризовать choice
выбор choosy
разборчивый choose
выбирать child
ребенок
children
дети childish
детский; ребяческий clearance
очистка; устранение препятствий clear
четкий, ясный clear
очищать, расчищать clearly
четко, ясно cloud
облако cloudy
облачный
cloudless
безоблачный collection
собрание; коллекция
collector
сборщик collective
коллективный, совокупный collect
собирать; коллекционировать colony
колония colonial
колониальный colonise / colonize
колонизировать colour
цвет colourful
цветной
colourless
бесцветный
multi-coloured
разноцветный colour
раскрашивать comfort
комфорт; утешение
discomfort
беспокойство; неудобство comfortable
удобный, комфортабельный
uncomfortable
неудобный comfort
утешать, успокаивать comfortably
удобно
uncomfortably
неудобно community
община, общество communal
общественный, коллективный communication
сообщение
communicator
коммуникатор, переговорщик communicative
использующийся в общении; коммуникативный communicate
сообщать; общаться comparison
сравнение compared
сравниваемый
comparative
сравнительный compare
сравнивать comparatively
сравнительно, относительно competition
соревнование; конкуренция
competitor
конкурент, соперник competitive
соревновательный compete
соревноваться, конкурировать competitively
в форме соревнования, конкуренции completion
завершение, окончание completed
законченный
complete
полный, завершенный
incomplete
неполный, назавершенный complete
заканчивать, завершать completely
полностью congratulation
поздравление congratulate
поздравлять connection
соединение, объединение connected
связанный, соединенный connect
соединять
disconnect
разъединять consideration
внимание; рассмотрение, обсуждение considerable
значительный
considerate
внимательный, деликатный, тактичный
inconsiderate
неосмотрительный; невнимательный к другим consider
считать, полагать; рассматривать considerably
значительно conscience
совесть conscientious
совестливый, добросовестный
conscientiousless
бессовестный conscientiously
добросовестно consciousness
сознание conscious
осознающий
unconscious
без сознания consciously
сознательно, осознанно consultation
консультация
consultant
консультант consulting
консультирующий consult
консультировать container
вместилище, контейнер containing
содержащий contain
содержать, вмещать continuity
непрерывность continuous
продолжающийся, длящийся continue
продолжать continuously
непрерывно control
управление, руководство controllable
поддающийся управлению
uncontrollable
неподдающийся управлению
controlled
управляемый
uncontrolled
неуправляемый control
управлять, регулировать uncontrollably
бесконтрольно conviction
убеждение convincing
убедительный
convinced
убежденный convince
убеждать convincingly
убедительно cook
повар
cooker
плита, духовка over-cooked
переваренный
under-cooked
недоваренный cook
готовить еду correction
исправление
corrector
корректор correct
правильный
incorrect
неправильный correct
исправлять correctly
правильно counter
прилавок
discount
скидка
accountant
бухгалтер countable
исчисляемый
uncountable
неисчисляемый count
считать uncountably
немеряно, без счета courage
храбрость courageous
храбрый
encouraged
воодушевленный
encouraging
подбадривающий
discouraged
обескураженный encourage
приободрять, поддерживать
discourage
отговаривать, обескураживать courageously
смело, храбро creation
создание
creativity
творчество
creator
творец, создатель
creature
творение; живое существо creative
творческий create
создавать, творить creatively
творчески credit
вера, доверие credible
вероятный, заслуживающий доверия
incredible
невероятный credibly
вероятно
incredibly
невероятно critic
критик
criticism
критика critical
критический; переломный; рискованный criticise
критиковать critically
критично, критически cultivation
культивация, обработка cultivated
культивированный, обработанный cultivate
обрабатывать culture
культура cultured
культурный, воспитанный
cultural
культурный (как часть культуры) culturally
культурно cure
лекарство; лечение curable
излечимый
incurable
неизлечимый cure
вылечивать, исцелять incurably
неизлечимо danger
опасность dangerous
опасный endanger
угрожать dangerously
опасно day
день daily
ежедневный daily
ежедневно deception
обман, заблуждение deceptive
обманчивый
deceitful
обманчивый, лживый deceive
обманывать deceitfully
обманчиво, предательски decision
решение decided
определенный, явный
undecided
нерешительный, неясный
decisive
решительный, убежденный, убедительный decide
решать, принимать решение decisively
решительно, определенно definition
определение definite
четкий, определенный
indefinite
неопределенный define
определять, давать определение definitely
определенно, ясно
indefinitely
нечетко, неопределенно delight
восторг, наслаждение delightful
восхитительный
delighted
польщенный delight
восхищаться delightfully
с восторгом delivery
доставка, поставка delivered
доставленный deliver
доставлять dependence
зависимость
independence
независимость dependent
зависимый
independent
независимый depend
зависеть independently
независимо depression
депрессия, подавленность depressive
депрессивный, вызывающий депрессию
depressed
подавленный depress
подавлять description
описание descriptive
описательный, наглядный describe
описывать design
проект, дизайн
designer
дизайнер, проектировщик design
проектировать desire
желание, стремление desirable
желательный, желаемый
undesirable
нежелательный desire
желать, стремиться desirably
желательно destruction
разрушение destroyed
разрушенный destroy
разрушать, уничтожать determination
решительность; определение determined
решительный determine
решать, определять development
развитие
developer
разработчик developed
развитой
developing
развивающийся
undeveloped
неразвитый develop
развивать(ся) dying
умирающий die
умирать difference
разница, различие
indifference
безразличие different
другой, отличающийся
indifferent
безразличный differ
отличаться differently
по-другому
indifferently
с безразличием disturbance
тревога, беспокойство; нарушение тишины, порядка disturbed
обеспокоенный
disturbing
беспокоящий disturb
беспокоить, мешать doubt
сомнение doubtful
сомнительный
doubtless
несомненный
undoubted
бесспорный doubt
сомневаться doubfully
с сомнением
doubtlessly
не сомневаясь
undoubtedly
без сомнения ease
легкость, свобода
disease
болезнь easy
легкий
uneasy
неловкий, тревожный ease
облегчать, ослаблять easily
легко
uneasily
неловко economy
хозяйство economic
экономический
economical
экономный economise
экономить economically
экономически; экономно educator
воспитатель, педагог
education
образование educated
образованный
uneducated
необразованный
educative
образовательный educate
воспитывать, давать образование effect
следствие, результат
effectiveness
эффективность effective
эффективный, действующий effect
производить, выполнять effectively
эффективно, действенно electricity
электричество
electrician
электрик electric
электрический electrify
электрифицировать empire
империя
empiror
император empire
имперский
empiric / empirical
исходящий из опыта, эмпирический employment
служба, работа
unemployment
безработица
employer
наниматель, работодатель
employee
работающий по найму employed
нанятый, занятый
unemployed
безработный employ
нанимать end
конец, окончание endless
бесконечный
unending
нескончаемый end
конец, окончание endlessly
бесконечно environment
окружающая среда environmental
природный entertainment
развлечение entertaining
развлекательный entertain
развлекать enthusiasm
энтузиазм, восторг
enthusiast
энтузиаст, восторженный человек enthusiastic
восторженный enthusiastically
с восторгом equipment
оборудование equipped
снаряженный, оборудованный equip
снаряжать essence
сущность essential
главный, основной essentially
главным образом examination / exam
экзамен; медосмотр examined
проэкзаменованный; осмотренный врачом examine
экзаменовать; осматривать excitement
возбуждение, волнение exciting
возбуждающий
excitable
возбудимый
excited
возбужденный, взволнованный excite
возбуждать, волновать excitedly
взволнованно, возбужденно expectation
ожидание, предчувствие expected
ожидаемый
unexpected
неожиданный expect
ожидать, предчувствовать expence(s)
расход(ы), затраты expensive
дорогой
inexpensive
недорогой expend
тратить, расходовать expensively
дорого experience
опыт, опытность
inexperience
неопытность
experiment
эксперимент experienced
опытный
inexperienced
неопытный
experimental
эспериментальный experience
испытывать explosion
взрыв
explosive
взрывчатое вещество explosive
взрывчатый explode
взрываться expression
выражение expressive
выразительный express
выражать expressively
выразительно extent
пространство, степень extended
длительный,обширный
extensive
обширный extend
простираться, тянуться extensively
обширно, протяженно extreme
крайняя степень, крайность extreme
крайний, чрезвычайный extremely
крайне fascination
очарование, обаяние fascinating
чарующий
fascinated
очарованный fascinate
очаровывать fairness
справедливость; порядочность fair
порядочный, справедливый
unfair
несправедливый fairly
справедливо, честно; довольно-таки finance
финансы financial
финансовый finance
финансировать financially
финансово firmness
твердость firm
твердый affirm
утверждать firmly
твердо fitness
физическая форма, физическое состояние fit
находящийся в хорошей форме; подходящий
unfit
неподходящий fit
подгонять, подстраивать following
следующий follow
следовать fool
глупыш, дурак foolish
глупый fool
обманывать foolishly
глупо forgettable
забываемый
unforgettable
незабываемый
forgetful
забывчивый
forgotten
забытый forget
забывать forgiveness
прощение forgiving
прощающий
forgivable
простительный
unforgivable
непростительный forgive
прощать forgivingly
с прощением fortune
судьба, счастье; богатство, состояние fortunate
счастливый
unfortunate
несчастный fortunately
к счастью
unfortunately
к сожалению freedom
свобода free
свободный; бесплатный freely
свободно frequency
частота frequent
частый frequent
часто посещать frequently
часто friend
друг
friendship
дружба
friendliness
дружелюбие friendly
дружеский, дружелюбный
unfriendly
недружеский in a friendly way / manner
дружелюбно fright
страх, испуг frightful
страшный
frightened
испуганный
frightening
пугающий frighten
пугать, устрашать frightfully
страшно; испуганно generosity
щедрость generous
щедрый generously
щедро gentleman
джентльмен gentle
мягкий, нежный gently
мягко, нежно ghost
привидение, призрак ghostly
похожий на привидение grass
трава grassy
травяной habit
привычка, обычай
habitant
обитатель
habitat
естественная среда
habitation
жилище, обиталище habitual
привычный habituate
приучать habitually
обычно hand
рука; рабочий
handful
горсть handy
удобный (для использования)
handmade
изготовленный вручную hand
вручать happiness
счастье
unhappiness
несчастье happy
счастливый
unhappy
несчастный happily
счастливо
unhappily
несчастливо harm
вред harmful
вредный
harmless
безвредный harm
повредить, навредить harmfully
вредно health
здоровье healthy
здоровый
unhealthy
нездоровый home
дом, жилище homeless
бездомный honour
честь honourable
почетный honour
почитать, чтить honourably
почетно hope
надежда
hopefulness
оптимизм, надежда hopeful
надеющийся
hopeless
безнадежный hope
надеяться hopefully
с надеждой humanity
человечество human
человеческий
humane
гуманный
inhuman
бесчеловечный
humanitarian
гуманитарный humour
юмор humorous
юмористический humorously
с юмором hurry
спешка hurrying
торопливый, спешащий
hurried
торопливый hurry
торопиться hurriedly
торопливо ice
лед icy
ледяной importance
важность important
важный
unimportant
незначительный importantly
важно impression
впечатление impressed
впечатленный
impressive
впечатляющий
unimpressed
безучастный impress
производить впечатление impressively
впечатляюще improvement
улучшение improved
улучшенный improve
улучшать impulse
толчок, побуждение impulsive
импульсивный impulsively
импульсивно incident
несчастный случай; конфликт, инцидент incidental
случайный incidentally
случайно increase
рост, увеличение increasing
растущий increase
увеличивать(ся) increasingly
с ростом industry
промышленность industrial
промышленный
industrious
трудолюбивый. усердный industrialise
индустриализовать industrially
в промышленном отношении information
сообщение, информация
informant
осведомитель
formality
формальность informed
осведомленный
well-informed
знающий, хорошо информированный
misinformed
неверно информированный
formal
формальный, официальный
informal
неофициальный inform
информировать
misinform
неверно сообщать; дезинформировать informationally
информационно intensity
интенсивность intensive
интенсивный intensify
интенсифицировать intensively
интенсивно interest
интерес interested
заинтересованный
interesting
интересный interest
интересовать inventor
изобретатель
invention
изобретение inventive
изобретательный invent
изобретать inventively
изобретательно invitation
приглашение invited
приглашенный invite
приглашать inspiration
вдохновение inspired
вдохновленный
inspiring
вдохновляющий inspire
вдохновлять knowledge
знание
acknowledgement
признание; расписка acknowledged
признанный acknowledge
признавать, подтверждать legality
законность, легальность legal
юридический, законный
illegal
незаконный, подпольный legalize
легализовать legally
законно
illegally
незаконно likeness
сходство, подобие likeable
приятный
unlike
непохожий
like
аналогичный like
относиться хорошо
dislike
относиться отрицательно likely
вероятно
unlikely
невероятно
unlike
в отличие life
жизнь
living
жизнь lively
оживленный, веселый
live
актуальный, реальный live
жить in a lively way
оживленно literature
литература literal
буквальный
literary
литературный
literate
грамотный
illiterate
неграмотный literally
буквально location
место, поселение local
местный locate
размещать locally
в определенном месте loneliness
одиночество lonely
одинокий; один luck
удача lucky
удачливый
unlucky
неудачливый, неудачный luckily
к счастью luxury
роскошь luxurious
шикарный majority
большинство major
главный, основной manager
управляющий, руководитель managerial
управленческий manage
управлять; справляться marriage
женитьба married
женатый / замужняя
unmarried
неженатый / незамужняя marry
жениться meeting
встреча; собрание meet
встречать, знакомиться memory
память
memorial
мемориал memorial
памятный memorise
заучивать наизусть misery
нищета miserable
нищенский, ничтожный month
месяц monthly
ежемесячный monthly
ежемесячно motion
движение motionless
неподвижный motion
показывать жестом mystery
тайна, загадка mysterious
таинственный, загадочный mysteriously
таинственно, загадочно necessity
необходимость necessary
необходимый
unnecessary
ненужный necessarily
необходимо nerve
нерв nervous
нервный ennerve
нервировать nervously
нервно number
число; количество numerous
многочисленный
numerate
умеющий считать
innumerate
неумеющий считать number
обозначать цифрами object
объект, предмет
objective
цель; возражение objective
объективный object
возражать objectively
объективно obstinate
упрямый obstinately
упрямо occurrence
случай, происшествие occur
происходить operation
операция; оперирование, приведение в действие operate
управлять, действовать opportunity
возможность
opportunist
оппортунист opportune
своевременный, подходящий opposition
оппозиция, противостояние
opponent
оппонент, противник opposite
напротив
opposed
противоположный oppose
противопосталять owner
владелец, хозяин own
собственный own
владеть pain
боль painful
болезненный
painless
безболезненный painfully
болезненно
painlessly
безболезненно patience
терпение
impatience
нетерпение
patient
пациент patient
терпеливый
impatient
нетерпеливый patiently
терпеливо
impatiently
нетерпеливо participant
участник
participation
участие participating
участвующий participate
принимать участие particulars
подробности particular
особенный particularly
особенно perfection
совершенство perfect
совершенный, идеальный
imperfect
несовершенный perfect
совершенствовать, улучшать perfectly
отлично, безупречно period
период, срок periodical
периодический periodically
периодически performance
представление; исполнение
performer
исполнитель perform
исполнять, выполнять, совершать peace
мир, спокойствие peaceful
мирный peacefully
мирно permission
разрешение
permissiveness
вседозволенность
permit
пропуск permissive
позволяющий permit
позволять permissively
с позволением pleasure
удовольствие pleasant
приятный
pleased
довольный
displeased
недовольный please
доставлять удовольствие pleasantly
приятно point
точка; пункт pointed
остроконечный, нацеленный
pointful
уместный, удачный
pointless
бесцельный point
указывать, направлять pointedly
остро, по существу politeness
вежливость polite
вежливый
impolite
невежливый politely
вежливо popularity
популярность popular
популярный
unpopular
непопулярный popularise
популяризировать possession
владение, собственность
possessor
обладатель, владелец possessive
собственнический possess
владеть, обладать possibility
вероятность, возможность possible
возможный
impossible
невозможный possibly
возможно power
сила, мощь powerful
мощный
powerless
бессильный empower
уполномочивать preference
предпочтение preferable
предпочтительный
preferential
пользующийся препочтением prefer
предпочитать preferably
предпочтительно preparation
подготовка prepared
подготовленный
unprepared
неподготовленный prepare
подготовить preparedly
с готовностью prestige
престиж prestigious
престижный prestigiously
престижно profession
профессия professional
профессиональный professionally
профессионально profit
выгода profitable
выгодный
unprofitable
не приносящий выгоды profit
получать выгоду profitably
выгодно progress
прогресс, продвижение progressive
прогрессивный progress
продвигаться вперед progressively
постепенно, продвигаясь вперед proposal
предложение proposed
предложенный propose
делать предложение prosperity
процветание prosperous
процветающий prosper
процветать prosperously
процветающе public
общественность public
общественный publicise
разглашать publicly
открыто, публично quickness
быстрота quick
быстрый quicken
убыстрять quickly
быстро reality
реальность
realization
реализация, осуществление real
реальный, настоящий
unreal
нереальный realize
реализовать, осуществлять really
действительно, в самом деле recognition
признание, узнавание recognised
признанный recognise
узнавать; признавать reduction
снижение, понижение reduced
уменьшенный; сниженный reduce
снижать; сбавлять relaxation
отдых, расслабление relaxed
расслабленный
relaxing
отдыхающий; расслабляющий relax
отдыхать, расслабляться relaxedly
расслабленно reliability
надежность reliable
надежный
unreliable
ненадежный rely
доверять, полагаться reliably
надежно religion
религия religious
религиозный reluctance
нежелание, неохота reluctant
неохотный reluctantly
неохотно regularity
регулярность
irregularity
нерегулярность regular
регулярный, правильный
irregular
неправильный; нестандартный regulate
регулировать regularly
регулярно remark
замечание remarkable
замечательный remark
замечать, отмечать remarkably
замечательно representation
представление
representative
представитель representative
представительный represent
представлять reproach
упрек irreproachable
безупречный reproach
упрекать reproachingly
с упреком reputation
репутация reputated
имеющий хорошую репутацию, почтенный
disreputable
имеющий плохую репутацию repute
давать репутацию
disrepute
компрометироватъ resistance
сопротивление resistible
ударопрочный;
irresistible
неотразимый
resistant
прочный resist
сопротивляться irresistibly
неотразимо respect
уважение respectful
уважительный respect
уважать respectfully
с уважением rest
отдых restless
беспокойный rest
отдыхать restlessly
беспокойно reward
награда rewarding
стоящий награды
unrewarded
невознагражденный reward
награждать riches
богатства
richness
богатство rich
богатый enrich
обогащать richly
богато risk
риск risky
рискованный risk
рисковать sadness
грусть sad
грустный sadden
огорчать sadly
грустно safe
сейф
safety
безопасность safe
безопасный
unsafe
опасный save
спасать; экономить safely
безопасно satisfaction
удовлетворение
dissatisfaction
неудовлетворенность; недовольство satisfied
довольный
dissatisfied
недовольный
satisfactory
удовлетворительный
unsatisfactory
неудовлетворительный satisfy
удовлетворять
dissatisfy
разочаровывать; огорчать research
исследование search
искать, осуществлять поиск security
безопасность secure
безопасный
insecure
находящийся в опасности secure
охранять, гарантировать securely
безопасно seriousness
серьезность serious
серьезный seriously
серьезно science
наука
scientist
ученый scientific
научный scientifically
научно sense
чувство
insensibility
отсутствие чувствительности sensitive
чувствительный
insensitive
несочувствующий
sensible
разумный
insensible
нечувствительный, неосознающий sense
ощущать sensitively
чувствительно
sensibly
разумно service
услуга, обслуживание
servant
слуга served
обслуженный; поданный на стол serve
служить, обслуживать, подавать на стол significant
значительный
insignificant
незначительный signify
иметь значение significantly
значительно similarity
сходство, похожесть similar
похожий, подобный similarly
похоже, подобно sincerity
искренность sincere
искренний
insincere
неискренний sincerely
искренне shorts
шорты short
короткий shorten
укорачивать shortly
кратко sleep
сон
sleeper
спящий; спальный вагон sleeping
спящий
sleepless
бессонный sleep
спать sleeplessly
без сна solution
решение; раствор solved
решенный; растворенный solve
решать; находить выход; растворять speciality
специальность; фирменное блюдо
specialty
особенность special
особенный; специальный
specific
специфический specify
точно определять
specialize
специализировать(ся) specially
специально
specifically
специфично strength
сила strong
сильный strengthen
укреплять strongly
сильно stress
стресс stressful
стрессовый stress
ударять, ставить ударение stressfully
в состоянии стресса success
успех successful
успешный
unsuccessful
безуспешный succeed
преуспевать successfully
успешно sufñcience
достаточность
insufñcience
недостаточность sufficient
достаточный
insufficient
недостаточный suffice
быть достаточным sufficiently
достаточно suitable
подходящий
unsuitable
неподходящий suit
подходить, устраивать suggestion
предложение suggest
предлагать suspect
подозреваемый suspicious
подозрительный suspect
подозревать suspiciously
подозрительно swimmer
пловец
swimming
плавание swimming
плавающий, плавательный swim
плавать sympathy
сочувствие, понимание sympathetic
сочувствующий sympathize
сочувствовать sympathetically
с пониманием; сочувственно sureness
уверенность sure
уверенный
unsure
неуверенный
assured
обеспеченный; уверенный
self-assured
уверенный в себе ensure
обеспечивать; гарантировать
assure
уверять, обеспечивать surely
конечно; уверенно
assuredly
с уверенностью surrounding
окружение surrounded
окруженный surround
окружать talk
беседа, разговор talkative
разговорчивый talk
беседовать taste
вкус
distaste
отсуствие вкуса tasteful
сделанный со вкусом; обладающий вкусом
tasteless
безвкусный taste
пробовать tastefully
со вкусом
tastelessly
без вкуса terror
террор
terrorist
террорист terrible
ужасный
terrific
потрясающий
terrifying
ужасающий
terrified
напуганный terrify
ужасать terribly
ужасно
terrifically
потрясающе thirst
жажда thirsty
испытывать жажду tights
колготки tight
плотный, тесный tighten
сжимать, натягивать tightly
тесно, плотно thought
мысль thoughtful
задумчивый
thoughtless
бездумный think
думать, иметь мнение thoughtfully
задумчиво tragedy
трагедия tragic
трагичный
tragical
трагический tragically
трагично travelling
путешествие
traveller
путешественник travelling
путешествующий travel
путешествовать truth
правда
untruth
неправда true
правильный; настоящий
untrue
неверный, не соответствующий действительности
truthful
правдивый truly
по-настоящему, искренне
truthfully
правдиво value
ценность valued
ценимый
valuable
ценный value
ценить, оценивать variety
разнообразие
variability
изменчивость, непостоянство variable
изменяемый
invariable
неизменный vary
менять, разнообразить invariably
неизменно year
год yearly
ежегодный yearly
ежегодно understanding
понимание
misunderstanding
непонимание; недоразумение understandable
понятный understand
понимать use
польза
misuse
неправильное использование;
usage
использование useful
полезный
useless
бесполезный
used
использованный
unused
неиспользованный use
использовать, пользоваться usefully
полезно
uselessly
бесполезно week
неделя weekly
еженедельный weekly
еженедельно width
ширина wide
широкий widen
расширять widely
широко will
воля, желание; завещание willing
жаждущий, желающий
unwilling
не желающий will
проявлять волю, желать willingly
охотно, с удовольствием
unwillingly
неохотно wind
ветер windy
ветренный
windless
безветренный wisdom
мудрость wise
мудрый
unwise
неблагоразумный wisely
мудро
unwisely
неблагоразумно worth
стоимость, ценность worthy
достойный
worthless
не имеющий ценности

The
outline of the problem discussed

1.
The main types of words in English and their morphological structure.

2.
Affixation (or derivation).

3.
Compounding.

4.
Conversion.

5.
Abbreviation (shortening).

Word-formation
is the process of creating new words from the material

available
in the language.

Before
turning to various processes of word-building in English, it would be

useful
to analyze the main types of English words and their morphological
structure.

If
viewed structurally, words appear to be divisible into smaller units
which are

called
morphemes.
Morphemes
do not occur as free forms but only as constituents of

words.
Yet they possess meanings of their own.

All
morphemes are subdivided into two large classes: roots
(or
radicals)
and

affixes.
The
latter, in their turn, fall into prefixes
which
precede the root in the

structure
of the word (as in re-real,
mis-pronounce, un-well) and
suffixes
which

follow
the root (as in teach-er,
cur-able, dict-ate).

Words
which consist of a root and an affix (or several affixes) are called

derived
words or
derivatives
and
are produced by the process of word-building

known
as affixation
(or
derivation).

Derived
words are extremely numerous in the English vocabulary.

Successfully
competing with this structural type is the so-called root
word which
has

only
a root morpheme in its structure. This type is widely represented by
a great

number
of words belonging to the original English stock or to earlier
borrowings

(house,
room, book, work, port, street, table, etc.), and,
in Modern English, has been

greatly
enlarged by the type of word-building called conversion
(e.g.
to
hand, v.

formed
from the noun hand;
to can, v.
from can,
n.;
to
pale,
v. from pale,
adj.;
a
find,

n.
from to
find, v.;
etc.).

Another
wide-spread word-structure is a compound
word consisting
of two or

more
stems (e.g. dining-room,
bluebell, mother-in-law, good-for-nothing).
Words of

this
structural type are produced by the word-building process called
composition.

The
somewhat odd-looking words like flu,
lab, M.P., V-day, H-bomb are
called

curtailed
words and
are produced by the way of word-building called shortening

(abbreviation).

The
four types (root words, derived words, compounds, shortenings)
represent

the
main structural types of Modern English words, and affixation
(derivation),

conversion,
composition and shortening (abbreviation) — the most productive ways
of

word-building.

83

The
process of affixation
consists
in coining a new word by adding an affix or

several
affixes to some root morpheme. The role of the affix in this
procedure is very

important
and therefore it is necessary to consider certain facts about the
main types

of
affixes.

From
the etymological point of view affixes are classified into the same
two

large
groups as words: native and borrowed.

Some
Native Suffixes

-er
worker,
miner,
teacher,
painter,
etc.

-ness
coldness,
loneliness,
loveliness,
etc.

-ing
feeling,
meaning,
singing,
reading,
etc.

-dom
freedom,
wisdom,
kingdom,
etc.

-hood
childhood,
manhood,
motherhood,
etc.

-ship
friendship,
companionship,
mastership,
etc.

Noun-forming

-th
length,
breadth,
health,
truth,
etc.

-ful
careful,
joyful,
wonderful,
sinful,
skilful,
etc.

-less
careless,
sleepless,
cloudless,
senseless,
etc.

-y
cozy,
tidy,
merry,
snowy,
showy,
etc.

-ish
English,
Spanish,
reddish,
childish,
etc.

-ly
lonely,
lovely,
ugly,
likely,
lordly,
etc.

-en
wooden,
woollen,
silken,
golden,
etc.

Adjective-forming

-some
handsome, quarrelsome, tiresome, etc.

Verb-

forming

-en

widen,
redden,
darken,
sadden,
etc.

Adverb-

forming

-ly

warmly,
hardly,
simply,
carefully,
coldly,
etc.

Borrowed
affixes, especially of Romance origin are numerous in the English

vocabulary.
We can recognize words of Latin and French origin by certain suffixes
or

prefixes;
e. g. Latin
affixes:
-ion,
-tion, -ate,
-ute
,
-ct,
-d(e), dis-, -able, -ate,
-ant,
—

ent,
-or, -al, -ar in
such words as opinion,
union, relation, revolution, appreciate,

congratulate,
attribute, contribute, , act, collect, applaud, divide, disable,
disagree,

detestable,
curable, accurate, desperate, arrogant, constant, absent, convenient,

major,
minor, cordial, familiar;
French
affixes –ance,
—ewe,
-ment, -age, -ess, -ous,

en-
in
such words as arrogance,
intelligence, appointment, development, courage,

marriage,
tigress, actress, curious, dangerous, enable, enslaver.

Affixation
includes a) prefixation
–
derivation of words by adding a prefix to

full
words and b) suffixation
–
derivation of words by adding suffixes to bound

stems.

Prefixes
and suffixes have their own valency, that is they may be added not to

any
stem at random, but only to a particular type of stems:

84

Prefix
un-
is
prefixed to adjectives (as: unequal,
unhealthy), or
to adjectives

derived
from verb stems and the suffix -able
(as:
unachievable,
unadvisable), or
to

participial
adjectives (as: unbecoming,
unending, unstressed, unbound); the
suffix —

er
is
added to verbal stems (as: worker,
singer, or
cutter,
lighter), and
to substantive

stems
(as: glover,
needler); the
suffix -able
is
usually tacked on to verb stems (as:

eatable,
acceptable); the
suffix -ity
in
its turn is usually added to adjective stems

with
a passive meaning (as: saleability,
workability), but
the suffix —ness
is
tacked on

to
other adjectives, having the suffix -able
(as:
agreeableness.
profitableness).

Prefixes
and suffixes are semantically distinctive, they have their own

meaning,
while the root morpheme forms the semantic centre of a word. Affixes
play

a
dependent role in the meaning of the word. Suffixes have a
grammatical meaning,

they
indicate or derive a certain part of speech, hence we distinguish:
noun-forming

suffixes,
adjective-forming suffixes, verb-forming suffixes and adverb-forming

suffixes.
Prefixes change or concretize the meaning of the word, as: to
overdo (to
do

too
much),
to underdo (to
do less than one can or is proper),
to outdo (to
do more or

better
than),
to undo (to
unfasten, loosen, destroy the result, ruin),
to misdo (to
do

wrongly
or unproperly).

A
suffix indicates to what semantic group the word belongs. The suffix
-er

shows
that the word is a noun bearing the meaning of a doer of an action,
and the

action
is denoted by the root morpheme or morphemes, as: writer,
sleeper, dancer,

wood-pecker,
bomb-thrower, the
suffix -ion/-tion,
indicates
that it is a noun

signifying
an action or the result of an action, as: translation
‘a
rendering from one

language
into another’ (an
act, process) and
translation
‘the
product of such

rendering’;
nouns with the suffix -ism
signify
a system, doctrine, theory, adherence to

a
system, as: communism,
realism; coinages
from the stem of proper names are

common,.
as Darwinism.

Affixes
can also be classified into productive
and
non-productive
types.
By

productive
affixes we
mean the ones, which take part in deriving new words in a

particular
period of language development. The best way to identify productive

affixes
is to look for them among neologisms
and
so-called nonce-words,
i.e.
words

coined
and used only for this particular occasion. The latter are usually
formed on the

level
of living speech and reflect the most productive and progressive
patterns in

word-building.
When a literary critic writes about a certain book that it is an

unputdownable
thriller, we
will seek in vain this strange and impressive adjective in

dictionaries,
for it is a nonce-word coined on the current pattern of Modern
English

and
is evidence of the high productivity of the adjective-forming
borrowed suffix –

able
and
the native prefix un-,
e.g.: Professor Pringle was a thinnish, baldish,

dyspeptic-lookingish
cove with an eye like a haddock.(From
Right-Ho, Jeeves by P.G.

Wodehouse)

The
adjectives thinnish
and
baldish
bring
to mind dozens of other adjectives

made
with the same suffix: oldish,
youngish, mannish, girlish, fattish, longish,

yellowish,
etc. But
dyspeptic-lookingish
is
the author’s creation aimed at a humorous

effect,
and, at the same time, providing beyond doubt that the suffix –ish
is
a live and

active
one.

85

The
same is well illustrated by the following popular statement: “I
don’t like

Sunday
evenings: I feel so Mondayish”. (Mondayish is
certainly a nonce-word.)

One
should not confuse the productivity of affixes with their frequency
of

occurrence
(use). There are quite a number of high-frequency affixes which,

nevertheless,
are no longer used in word-derivation (e.g. the adjective-forming
native

suffixes
–ful,
-ly; the
adjective-forming suffixes of Latin origin –ant,
-ent, -al which

are
quite frequent).

Some
Productive Affixes

Some
Non-Productive Affixes

Noun-forming

suffixes

-th,
-hood

Adjective-forming

suffixes

—ly,
-some, -en, -ous

Verb-forming
suffix -en

Compound
words are
words derived from two or more stems. It is a very old

word-formation
type and goes back to Old English. In Modern English compounds

are
coined by joining one stem to another by mere juxtaposition, as
raincoat,
keyhole,

pickpocket,
red-hot, writing-table. Each
component of a compound coincides

with
the word. Compounds are the commonest among nouns and adjectives.

Compound
verbs are few in number, as they are mostly the result of conversion
(as,

to
weekend) and
of back-formation (as, to
stagemanage).

From
the point of view of word-structure compounds consist of free stems
and

may
be of different structure: noun stems + noun stem (raincoat);
adjective
stem +

noun
stem (bluebell);
adjective
stem + adjective stem (dark-blue);
gerundial
stem +

noun
stem (writing-table);
verb
stem + post-positive stem (make-up);
adverb
stem +

adjective
stem (out-right);
two
noun stems connected by a preposition (man-of-war)

and
others. There are compounds that have a connecting vowel (as,
speedometer,

handicraft),
but
it is not characteristic of English compounds.

Compounds
may be idiomatic
and
non-idiomatic.
In idiomatic compounds the

meaning
of each component is either lost or weakened, as buttercup
(лютик),

chatter-box
(болтун).

These
are entirely
demotivated compounds. There
are also motivated

compounds,
as lifeboat
(спасательная
лодка). In non-idiomatic compounds the

Noun-forming

suffixes

—er,
-ing,
—ness,
-ism (materialism),
-ist

(impressionist),
-ance

Adjective-forming

suffixes

—y,
-ish, -ed (learned),
—able,
—less

Adverb-forming

suffix

—ly

Verb-forming

suffixes

—ize/-ise
(realize),

—ate

Prefixes
un-
(unhappy),re-
(reconstruct),
dis-
(disappoint)

86

meaning
of each component is retained, as apple-tree,
bedroom, sunlight. There
are

also
many border-line cases.

The
components of compounds may have different semantic relations; from

this
point of view we can roughly classify compounds into endocentric
and

exocentric
compounds.
In endocentric compounds the semantic centre is found

within
the compound and the first element determines the other, as
film-star,
bedroom,

writing-table.
In
exocentric compounds there is no semantic centre, as

scarecrow.
In
Modern English, however, linguists find it difficult to give criteria
for

compound
nouns; it is still a question of hot dispute. The following criteria
may be

offered.
A compound noun is characterized by a) one word or hyphenated
spelling, b)

one
stress, and by c) semantic integrity. These are the so-called
“classical

compounds”.

It
is possible that a compound has only two of these criteria, for
instance, the

compound
words headache,
railway have
one stress and hyphenated or one-word

spelling,
but do not present a semantic unity, whereas the compounds
motor-bike,

clasp-knife
have
hyphenated spelling and idiomatic meaning, but two even stresses

(‘motor-‘bike,
‘clasp-‘knife).
The word apple-tree
is
also a compound; it is spelt either

as
one word or is hyphenated, has one stress (‘apple-tree),
but it is not idiomatic. The

difficulty
of defining a compound lies in spelling which might be misleading, as
there

are
no hard and fast rules of spelling the compounds: three ways of
spelling are

possible:
(‘dockyard,
‘dock yard and
dock-yard).
The
same holds true for the stress

that
may differ from one reference-book to another.

Since
compounds may have two stresses and the stems may be written

separately,
it is difficult to draw the line between compounds proper and nominal

word-combinations
or syntactical combinations. In a combination of words each

element
is stressed and written separately. Compare the attributive
combination

‘black
‘board, a
board which is black (each element has its own meaning; the first

element
modifies the second) and the compound ‘blackboard’,
a
board or a sheet of

slate
used in schools for teaching purposes (the word has one stress and
presents a

semantic
unit). But it is not always easy as that to draw a distinction, as
there are

word-combinations
that may present a semantic unity, take for instance: green
room

(a
room in a theatre for actors and actresses).

Compound
derivatives are
words, usually nouns and adjectives, consisting of

a
compound stem and a suffix, the commonest type being such nouns as:
firstnighter,

type-writer,
bed-sitter, week-ender, house-keeping, well-wisher, threewheeler,

old-timer,
and
the adjectives: blue-eyed,
blond-haired, four-storied, mildhearted,

high-heeled.
The
structure of these nouns is the following: a compound stem

+
the suffix -er,
or
the suffix -ing.

Adjectives
have the structure: a compound stem, containing an adjective (noun,

numeral)
stem and a noun stem + the suffix -ed.
In
Modern English it is an extremely

productive
type of adjectives, e.g.: big-eyed,
long-legged, golden-haired.

In
Modern English it is common practice to distinguish also
semi-suffixes, that

is
word-formative elements that correspond to full words as to their
lexical meaning

and
spelling, as -man,
-proof, -like: seaman, railroadman, waterproof, kiss-proof,

ladylike,
businesslike. The
pronunciation may be the same (cp. proof
[pru:f]
and

87

waterproof
[‘wL:tq
pru:f],
or differ, as is the case with the morpheme -man
(cp.
man

[mxn]
and seaman
[‘si:mqn].

The
commonest is the semi-suffix -man
which
has a more general meaning —

‘a
person of trade or profession or carrying on some work’, as: airman,
radioman,

torpedoman,
postman, cameramen, chairman and
others. Many of them have

synonyms
of a different word structure, as seaman
— sailor, airman — flyer,

workman
— worker; if
not a man but a woman
of
the trade or profession, or a person

carrying
on some work is denoted by the word, the second element is woman,
as

chairwoman,
air-craftwoman, congresswoman, workwoman, airwoman.

Conversion
is
a very productive way of forming new words in English, chiefly

verbs
and not so often — nouns. This type of word formation presents one
of the

characteristic
features of Modern English. By conversion we mean derivation of a

new
word from the stem of a different part of speech without the addition
of any

formatives.
As a result the two words are homonymous, having the same

morphological
structure and belonging to different parts of speech.

Verbs
may be derived from the stem of almost any part of speech, but the

commonest
is the derivation from noun stems as: (a)
tube — (to) tube; (a) doctor —

(to)
doctor, (a) face—(to) face; (a) waltz—(to) waltz; (a) star—(to)
star; from

compound
noun stems as: (a)
buttonhole — (to) buttonhole; week-end — (to) weekend.

Derivations
from the stems of other parts of speech are less common: wrong—

(to)
wrong; up — (to) up; down — (to) down; encore — (to) encore.
Nouns
are

usually
derived from verb stems and may be instanced by such nouns as: (to)
make—

a
make; (to) cut—(a) cut; to bite — (a) bite, (to) drive — (a)
drive; to smoke — (a)

smoke;
(to) walk — (a) walk. Such
formations frequently make part of verb — noun

combinations
as: to
take a walk, to have a smoke, to have a drink, to take a drive, to

take
a bite, to give a smile and
others.

Nouns
may be also derived from verb-postpositive phrases. Such formations

are
very common in Modern English, as for instance: (to)
make up — (a) make-up;

(to)
call up — (a) call-up; (to) pull over — (a) pullover.

New
formations by conversion from simple or root stems are quite usual;

derivatives
from suffixed stems are rare. No verbal derivation from prefixed
stems is

found.

The
derived word and the deriving word are connected semantically. The

semantic
relations between the derived and the deriving word are varied and

sometimes
complicated. To mention only some of them: a) the verb signifies the
act

accomplished
by or by means of the thing denoted by the noun, as: to
finger means

‘to
touch with the finger, turn about in fingers’; to
hand means
‘to give or help with

the
hand, to deliver, transfer by hand’; b) the verb may have the meaning
‘to act as the

person
denoted by the noun does’, as: to
dog means
‘to follow closely’, to
cook — ‘to

prepare
food for the table, to do the work of a cook’; c) the derived verbs
may have

the
meaning ‘to go by’ or ‘to travel by the thing denoted by the noun’,
as, to
train

means
‘to go by train’, to
bus — ‘to
go by bus’, to
tube — ‘to
travel by tube’; d) ‘to

spend,
pass the time denoted by the noun’, as, to
winter ‘to pass
the winter’, to

weekend
— ‘to
spend the week-end’.

88

Derived
nouns denote: a) the act, as a
knock, a hiss, a smoke; or
b) the result of

an
action, as a
cut, a find, a call, a sip, a run.

A
characteristic feature of Modern English is the growing frequency of
new

formations
by conversion, especially among verbs.

Note.
A grammatical homonymy of two words of different parts of speech —
a

verb
and a noun, however, does not necessarily indicate conversion. It may
be the

result
of the loss of endings as well. For instance, if we take the
homonymic pair love

— to
love and
trace it back, we see that the noun love
comes
from Old English lufu,

whereas
the verb to
love—from
Old English lufian,
and
the noun answer
is
traced

back
to the Old English andswaru,
but
the verb to
answer to
Old English

andswarian;
so
that it is the loss of endings that gave rise to homonymy. In the
pair

bus
— (to) bus, weekend — (to) weekend homonymy
is the result of derivation by

conversion.

Shortenings
(abbreviations)
are words produced either by means of clipping

full
word or by shortening word combinations, but having the meaning of
the full

word
or combination. A distinction is to be observed between graphical
and
lexical

shortenings;
graphical abbreviations are signs or symbols that stand for the full

words
or combination of words only in written speech. The commonest form is
an

initial
letter or letters that stand for a word or combination of words. But
to prevent

ambiguity
one or two other letters may be added. For instance: p.
(page),
s.
(see),
b.

b.
(ball-bearing).
Mr
(mister),
Mrs
(missis),
MS
(manuscript),
fig.
(figure). In oral

speech
graphical abbreviations have the pronunciation of full words. To
indicate a

plural
or a superlative letters are often doubled, as: pp.
(pages). It is common practice

in
English to use graphical abbreviations of Latin words, and word
combinations, as:

e.
g. (exampli
gratia), etc.
(et cetera), i.
e. (id
est). In oral speech they are replaced by

their
English equivalents, ‘for
example’,
‘and
so on’,
‘namely‘,
‘that
is’,
‘respectively’.

Graphical
abbreviations are not words but signs or symbols that stand for the

corresponding
words. As for lexical
shortenings,
two main types of lexical

shortenings
may be distinguished: 1) abbreviations
or
clipped
words (clippings)

and
2) initial
words (initialisms).

Abbreviation
or
clipping
is
the result of reduction of a word to one of its

parts:
the meaning of the abbreviated word is that of the full word. There
are different

types
of clipping: 1) back-clipping—the
final part of the word is clipped, as: doc
—

from
doctor,
lab — from
laboratory,
mag — from
magazine,
math — from

mathematics,
prefab —
from prefabricated;
2) fore-clipping
—
the first part of the

word
is clipped as: plane
— from
aeroplane,
phone — from
telephone,
drome —

from
aerodrome.
Fore-clippings
are less numerous in Modern English; 3) the
fore

and
the back parts of the word are clipped and the middle of the word is

retained,
as: tec
— from
detective,
flu — from
influenza.
Words
of this type are few

in
Modern English. Back-clippings are most numerous in Modern English
and are

characterized
by the growing frequency. The original may be a simple word (as,

grad—from
graduate),
a
derivative (as, prep—from
preparation),
a
compound, (as,

foots
— from
footlights,
tails — from
tailcoat),
a
combination of words (as pub —

from
public
house, medico — from
medical
student). As
a result of clipping usually

nouns
are produced, as pram
— from
perambulator,
varsity — for
university.
In
some

89

rare
cases adjectives are abbreviated (as, imposs
—from
impossible,
pi — from

pious),
but
these are infrequent. Abbreviations or clippings are words of one
syllable

or
of two syllables, the final sound being a consonant or a vowel
(represented by the

letter
o), as, trig
(for
trigonometry),
Jap (for
Japanese),
demob (for
demobilized),
lino

(for
linoleum),
mo (for
moment).
Abbreviations
are made regardless of whether the

remaining
syllable bore the stress in the full word or not (cp. doc
from
doctor,
ad

from
advertisement).
The
pronunciation of abbreviations usually coincides with the

corresponding
syllable in the full word, if the syllable is stressed: as, doc
[‘dOk]
from

doctor
[‘dOktq];
if it is an unstressed syllable in the full word the pronunciation

differs,
as the abbreviation has a full pronunciation: as, ad
[xd],
but advertisement

[qd’vq:tismqnt].
There may be some differences in spelling connected with the

pronunciation
or with the rules of English orthoepy, as mike
— from
microphone,

bike
— from
bicycle,
phiz —
from physiognomy,
lube — from
lubrication.
The
plural

form
of the full word or combinations of words is retained in the
abbreviated word,

as,
pants
— from
pantaloons,
digs — from
diggings.

Abbreviations
do not differ from full words in functioning; they take the plural

ending
and that of the possessive case and make any part of a sentence.

New
words may be derived from the stems of abbreviated words by
conversion

(as
to
demob, to taxi, to perm) or
by affixation, chiefly by adding the suffix —y,
-ie,

deriving
diminutives and petnames (as, hanky
— from
handkerchief,
nighty (nightie)

— from
nightgown,
unkie — from
uncle,
baccy — from
tobacco,
aussie — from

Australians,
granny (ie)
— from grandmother).
In
this way adjectives also may be

derived
(as: comfy
— from
comfortable,
mizzy — from
miserable).
Adjectives
may be

derived
also by adding the suffix -ee,
as:
Portugee
— for
Portuguese,
Chinee — for

Chinese.

Abbreviations
do not always coincide in meaning with the original word, for

instance:
doc
and
doctor
have
the meaning ‘one who practises medicine’, but doctor
is

also
‘the highest degree given by a university to a scholar or scientist
and ‘a person

who
has received such a degree’ whereas doc
is
not used in these meanings. Among

abbreviations
there are homonyms, so that one and the same sound and graphical

complex
may represent different words, as vac
(vacation), vac (vacuum cleaner);

prep
(preparation), prep (preparatory school). Abbreviations
usually have synonyms

in
literary English, the latter being the corresponding full words. But
they are not

interchangeable,
as they are words of different styles of speech. Abbreviations are

highly
colloquial; in most cases they belong to slang. The moment the longer
word

disappears
from the language, the abbreviation loses its colloquial or slangy
character

and
becomes a literary word, for instance, the word taxi
is
the abbreviation of the

taxicab
which,
in its turn, goes back to taximeter
cab; both
words went out of use,

and
the word taxi
lost
its stylistic colouring.

Initial
abbreviations (initialisms)
are words — nouns — produced by

shortening
nominal combinations; each component of the nominal combination is

shortened
up to the initial letter and the initial letters of all the words of
the

combination
make a word, as: YCL — Young
Communist League, MP
—

Member
of Parliament. Initial
words are distinguished by their spelling in capital

letters
(often separated by full stops) and by their pronunciation — each
letter gets

90

its
full alphabetic pronunciation and a full stress, thus making a new
word as R.

A.
F. [‘a:r’ei’ef] — Royal
Air Force; TUC.
[‘ti:’ju:’si:] — Trades
Union Congress.

Some
of initial words may be pronounced in accordance with the’ rules of

orthoepy,
as N. A. T. O. [‘neitou], U. N. O. [‘ju:nou], with the stress on the
first

syllable.

The
meaning of the initial word is that of the nominal combination. In

speech
initial words function like nouns; they take the plural suffix, as
MPs, and

the
suffix of the possessive case, as MP’s, POW’s.

In
Modern English the commonest practice is to use a full combination
either

in
the heading or in the text and then quote this combination by giving
the first initial

of
each word. For instance, «Jack Bruce is giving UCS concert»
(the heading). «Jack

Bruce,
one of Britain’s leading rock-jazz musicians, will give a benefit
concert in

London
next week to raise money for the Upper Clyde shop stewards’ campaign»

(Morning
Star).

New
words may be derived from initial words by means of adding affixes,
as

YCL-er,
ex-PM, ex-POW; MP’ess, or adding the semi-suffix —man,
as
GI-man.
As

soon
as the corresponding combination goes out of use the initial word
takes its place

and
becomes fully established in the language and its spelling is in
small letters, as

radar
[‘reidq]
— radio detecting and ranging, laser
[‘leizq]
— light amplification by

stimulated
emission of radiation; maser
[‘meizq]
— microwave amplification by

stimulated
emission of radiation. There are also semi-shortenings, as, A-bomb
(atom

bomb),
H-bomber
(hydrogen
bomber), U-boat
(Untersee
boat) — German submarine.

The
first component of the nominal combination is shortened up to the
initial letter,

the
other component (or components) being full words.

4.7.
ENGLISH PHRASEOLOGY: STRUCTURAL AND SEMANTIC

PECULIARITIES
OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS, THEIR CLASSIFICATION

The
outline of the problem discussed

1.
Main approaches to the definition of a phraseological unit in
linguistics.

2.
Different classifications of phraseological units.

3.
Grammatical and lexical modifications of phraseological units in
speech.

In
linguistics there are two main theoretical schools treating the
problems of

English
phraseology — that of N.N.Amosova and that of A. V. Kunin. We shall
not

dwell
upon these theories in detail, but we shall try to give the guiding
principles of

each
of the authors. According to the theory of N.N. Amosova. A
phraseological unit

is
a unit of constant context. It is a stable combination of words in
which either one of

the
components has a phraseologically bound meaning — a phraseme: white
lie –

невинная
ложь, husband
tea —
жидкий чай), or the meaning of each component is

weakened,
or entirely lost – (an idiom: red
tape —
бюрократия, mare’s
nest —

абсурд).
A. V. Kunin’s theory is based on the concept of specific stability at
the

phraseological
level; phraseological units are crtaracterized by a certain minimum
of

phraseological
stability. A.V. Kunin distinguishes stability of usage, structural
and

semantic
stability, stability of meaning and lexical constituents,
morphological

stability
and syntactical stability. The degree of stability may vary so that
there are

91

several
‘limits’ of stability. But whatever the degree of stability might
be, it is the

idiomatic
meaning that makes the characteristic feature of a phraseological
unit.

There
is one trend more worth mentioning in the theory of English
phraseology

that
of A. I. Smirnitsky. A.I. Smirnitsky takes as his guiding principle
the equivalence

of
a phraseological unit to a word. There are two characteristic
features that make a

phraseological
unit equivalent to a word, namely, the integrity of meaning and the

fact
that both the word and the phraseological unit are ready-made units
which are

reproduced
in speech and are not organized at the speaker’s will.

Whatever
the theory the term phraseology is applied to stable combinations of

words
characterized by the integrity of meaning which is completely or
partially

transferred,
e. g.: to
lead the dance проявлять
инициативу; to
take the cake

одержать
победу. Phraseological units are not to be mixed up with stable

combinations
of words that have their literal meaning, and are of non
phraseological

character,
e.g. the
back of the head, to come to an end.

Among
the phraseological units N.N.Amosova distinguishes idioms,
i.e.

phraseological
units characterized by the integral meaning of the whole, with the

meaning
of each component weakened or entirely lost. Hence, there are
motivated

and
demotivated
idioms.
In a motivated idiom the meaning of each component is

dependent
upon the transferred meaning of the whole idiom, e. g. to
look through

one’s
fingers (смотреть
сквозь пальцы); to
show one’s cards (раскрыть
свои

карты).
Phraseological units like these are homonymous to free syntactical

combinations.
Demotivated idioms are characterized by the integrity of meaning as a

whole,
with the meaning of each of the components entirely lost, e. g. white
elephant

(обременительное
или разорительное имущество), or to
show the white feather

(cтpycить).
But there are no hard and fast boundaries between them and there may
be

many
borderline cases. The second type of phraseological units in N.N.
Amosova’s

classification
is a phraseme.
It is a combination of words one element of which has a

phraseologically
bound meaning, e. g. small
years (детские
годы); small
beer

(слабое
пиво).

According
to A.I. Smirnitsky phraseological units may be classified in respect

to
their structure into one-summit
and
many-summit
phraseological units.
Onesummit

phraseological
units are composed of a notional and a form word, as, in
the

soup
—
быть в затруднительном положении, at
hand —
рядом, under
a cloud –
в

плохом
настроении, by
heart —
наизусть,
in the pink –
в расцвете. Many-summit

phraseological
units are composed of two or more notional words and form words as,

to
take the bull by the horns —
взять быка зарога,
to wear one’s heart on one’s

sleeve
—
выставлять свои чувства на показ, to
kill the goose that laid the golden

eggs
—
уничтожить источник благосостояния;
to
know on which side one’s bread

is
buttered —
быть себе на уме.

Academician
V.V.Vinogradov’s classification is based on the degree of

idiomaticity
and distinguishes three groups of phraseological units:
phraseological

fusions,
phraseological unities, phraseological collocations.

Phraseological
fusions are
completely non-motivated word-groups, e.g.: red

tape
– ‘bureaucratic
methods’; kick
the bucket – die,
etc. Phraseological
unities are

92

partially
non-motivated as their meaning can usually be understood through the

metaphoric
meaning of the whole phraseological unit, e.g.: to
show one’s teeth –

‘take
a threatening tone’; to
wash one’s dirty linen in public – ‘discuss
or make public

one’s
quarrels’.
Phraseological
collocations are
motivated but they are made up of

words
possessing specific lexical combinability which accounts for a
strictly limited

combinability
of member-words, e.g.: to
take a liking (fancy) but
not to
take hatred

(disgust).

There
are synonyms among phraseological units, as, through
thick and thin, by

hook
or by crook, for love or money —
во что бы то ни стало; to
pull one’s leg, to

make
a fool of somebody —
дурачить;
to hit the right nail on the head, to get the

right
sow by the ear —
попасть в точку.

Some
idioms have a variable component, though this variability is.
strictly

limited
as to the number and as to words themselves. The interchangeable

components
may be either synonymous, as
to fling (or throw) one’s (or the) cap over

the
mill (or windmill), to put (or set) one’s (or the) best foot first
(foremost, foreward)

or
different words, not connected semantically,
as to be (or sound, or read) like a

fairy
tale.

Some
of the idioms are polysemantic, as, at
large —
1) на свободе, 2) в

открытом
море, на большом пространстве, 3) без
определенной цели, 4) не

попавший
в цель, 5) свободный, без определенных
занятий, 6) имеющий

широкие
полномочия, 7) подробно, во всем объеме,
в целом, 9) вообще, не

конкретно.

It
is the context or speech situation that individualizes the meaning of
the

idiom
in each case.

When
functioning in speech, phraseological units form part of a sentence
and

consequently
may undergo grammatical and lexical changes. Grammatical changes

are
connected with the grammatical system of the language as a whole,
e.g.: He
didn’t

work,
and he spent a great deal of money, and he
painted the town red.
(W. S.

Maugham)
(to
paint the town red —
предаваться веселью). Here
the infinitive is

changed
into the Past Indefinite. Components of an idiom can be used in
different

clauses,
e.g.: …I
had to put up with, the
bricks they
dropped,
and their embarassment

when
they realized what they’d done.
(W. S. Maugham) (to
drop a brick —

допустить
бестактность).

Possessive
pronouns or nouns in the possessive case may be also added, as:

…the
apple of his uncle’s eye…(A.
Christie) (the
apple of one’s eye —
зеница ока).

But
there are phraseological units that do not undergo any changes, e.
g.: She

was
the friend in adversity; other people’s business was meat
and drink to her. (W.

S.
Maugham) (be)
meat and drink (to somebody)
— необходимо как воздух.

Thus,
we distinguish changeable and unchangeable phraseological units.

Lexical
changes are much more complicated and much more various. Lexical

modifications
of idioms achieve a stylistic and expressive effect. It is an
expressive

device
at the disposal of the writer or of the speaker. It is the integrity
of meaning that

makes
any modifications in idioms possible. Whatever modifications or
changes an

idiom
might’ undergo, the integrity of meaning is never broken. Idioms may
undergo

93

various
modifications. To take only some of them: a word or more may be
inserted to

intensify
and concretize the meaning, making it applicable to this particular
situation:

I
hate the idea of Larry making such
a mess of
his life.
(W. S. Maugham) Here the

word
such
intensifies
the meaning of the idiom. I
wasn’t keen on washing
this kind of

dirty
linen in
public. (C.
P. Snow) In this case the inserted this
kind makes
the

situation
concrete.

To
make the utterance more expressive one of the components of the idiom

may
be replaced by some other. Compare: You’re
a
dog in the manger,
aren’t you,

dear?
and: It was true enough: indeed she was a
bitch in the manger.
(A.
Christie)

The
word bitch
has
its own lexical meaning, which, however, makes part of the

meaning
of the whole idiom.

One
or more components of the idiom may be left out, but the integrity of

meaning
of the whole idiom is retained, e.g.: «I’ve
never spoken to you or anyone else

about
the last election. I suppose I’ve got to now. It’s better to
let it lie,»
said Brown.

(C.
P. Snow) In the idiom let
sleeping dogs lie two
of the elements are missing and it

refers
to the preceding text.

In
the following text the idiom to
have a card up one’s sleeve is
modified:

Bundle
wondered vaguely what it was that Bill had
or thought he had-up in his

sleeve.
(A, Christie) The component card
is
dropped and the word have
realizes
its

lexical
meaning. As a result an, allusive metaphor is achieved.

The
following text presents an interesting instance of modification: She
does

not
seem to think you are a
snake in the grass,
though she sees a good deal of grass

for
a snake to be in. (E.
Bowen) In the first part of the sentence the idiom a
snake in

the
grass is
used, and in the second part the words snake
and
grass
have
their own

lexical
meanings, which are, however, connected with the integral meaning of
the

idiom.

Lexical
modifications are made for stylistic purposes so as to create an

expressive
allusive metaphor.

LITERATURE

1.
Arnold I.V. The English Word. – М., 1986.

2.
Antrushina G.B. English Lexicology. – М., 1999.

3.
Ginzburg R.Z., Khidekel S.S. A Course in Modern English
Lexicology. – М.,

1975.

4.
Kashcheyeva M.A. Potapova I.A. Practical English lexicology. – L.,
1974.

5.
Raevskaya N.N. English Lexicology. – К., 1971.

A Character Related Full Forms

Here you get all the important A Character Related Full Forms List and Acronym. also, here you find Structured Human Focused Abbreviations, Reference, and Initialism with category of different subjects.

Acronym	Full Forms	Category
ADB	Asian Development Bank	Banking
ADR	American Depository Receipt	Finance
AGM	Annual General Meeting	General
AIDWA	All India Democratic Woman’s Association	General
AITUC	All India Trade Union Congress	Political
AMFI	Association of Mutual Funds in India	Finance
AO	Additive Outliers	General
APEC	Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation	Governments
APL	Above Poverty Line	General
APM	Administered Pricing Mechanism	General
ARC	Asset Reconstruction Company	Finance
ARDR	Agricultural and Rural Debt Relief	Finance
ASBA	Application Supported by Block Amount	Finance
ASEAN	Association of South-East Asian Nations	Governments
ATM	Automated teller machine	Banking
AICC	All India Congress Committee	Governments
AIR	All India Radio	Networking
ABVP	Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad	Governments
AC	Ashoka Chakra	Governments
ADF	Asian Development Fund	Finance
ADB	Asian Development Bank	Banking
AIIMS	All India Institute of Medical Sciences	Educations
APC	Agricultural Prices Commission	Finance
APEC	Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation	Finance
AAI	Airport Authority of India	Governments
ABP	Ananda Bazaar Patrika News	Interesting
ABS	Anti-lock Braking System	General
ACC	Associated Cement Companies	Brands
AHRC	Asian Human Rights Commission	Governments
AJAX	Asynchronous JavaScript and XML	Programming
AMC	American Motors Corporation	Brands
AMUL	Anand Milk Union Limited	Interesting
API	Application Programming Interface	Programming
APK	Android Application Package	File Extensions
ASAP	As Soon As Possible	Interesting
ASP	Active Server Page	Programming
ADSL	Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line	Internet
AGP	Accelerated Graphics Port	Computers
AMD	Advanced Micro Devices	Computers
AI	Artificial Intelligence	Interesting
ASR	Automated System Recovery	Computers
ATE	Advanced Technology Extended	Technologies
ATV	Automatic Transfer Vehicle	Automobiles
ATC	Air Traffic Controller	Networking