English word borrowed from other language

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The following are lists of words in the English language that are known as «loanwords» or «borrowings,» which are derived from other languages.

For Old English-derived words, see List of English words of Old English origin.

• English words of African origin
• List of English words of Afrikaans origin
  • List of South African English regionalisms
  • List of South African slang words
• List of English words from indigenous languages of the Americas
• List of English words of Arabic origin
  • List of Arabic star names
• List of English words of Australian Aboriginal origin
• List of English words of Brittonic origin
• Lists of English words of Celtic origin
• List of English words of Chinese origin
• List of English words of Czech origin
• List of English words of Dravidian origin (Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil, Telugu)
• List of English words of Dutch origin
  • List of English words of Afrikaans origin
  • List of South African slang words
  • List of place names of Dutch origin
  • Australian places with Dutch names
• List of English words of Etruscan origin
• List of English words of Finnish origin
• List of English words of French origin
  • Glossary of ballet, mostly French words
  • List of French expressions in English
  • List of English words with dual French and Anglo-Saxon variations
  • List of pseudo-French words adapted to English
  • List of English Latinates of Germanic origin
• List of English words of Gaulish origin
• List of German expressions in English
  • List of pseudo-German words adapted to English
• English words of Greek origin (a discussion rather than a list)
  • List of Greek morphemes used in English
• List of English words of Hawaiian origin
• List of English words of Hebrew origin
• List of English words of Hindi or Urdu origin
• List of English words of Hungarian origin
• List of English words of Indian origin
• List of English words of Indonesian origin, including from Javanese, Malay (Sumatran) Sundanese, Papuan (West Papua), Balinese, Dayak and other local languages in Indonesia
• List of English words of Irish origin
  • List of Irish words used in the English language
• List of English words of Italian origin
  • List of Italian musical terms used in English
• List of English words of Japanese origin
• List of English words of Korean origin
• List of Latin words with English derivatives
• List of English words of Malay origin
• List of English words of Māori origin
• List of English words of Niger-Congo origin
• List of English words of Old Norse origin
• List of English words of Persian origin
• List of English words of Philippine origin
• List of English words of Polish origin
• List of English words of Polynesian origin
• List of English words of Portuguese origin
• List of English words of Romani origin
• List of English words of Romanian origin
• List of English words of Russian origin
• List of English words of Sami origin
• List of English words of Sanskrit origin
• List of English words of Scandinavian origin (incl. Danish, Norwegian)
• List of English words of Scots origin
• List of English words of Scottish Gaelic origin
• List of English words of Semitic origin
• List of English words of Spanish origin
• List of English words of Swedish origin
• List of English words of Turkic origin
• List of English words of Ukrainian origin
• List of English words of Welsh origin
• List of English words of Yiddish origin
• List of English words of Zulu origin

See also[edit]

• Anglicisation
• English terms with diacritical marks
• Inkhorn term
• Linguistic purism in English
• List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents in English
• List of Greek and Latin roots in English
• List of proposed etymologies of OK
• List of Latin legal terms

References[edit]

External links[edit]

• Ancient Egyptian Loan-Words in English
• List of etymologies of English words

If there’s one thing we know for sure about the English language, it’s that it has borrowed heavily and continues to do so from various languages across the world. All languages evolve and English is no exception. Modern English bears very little resemblance to Old English. Just try reading some Old English manuscripts if in doubt. Good luck with that! Nevertheless, it’s interesting to look at modern English words borrowed from other languages. Research shows us that roughly 30% of the English language have either French or Latin origins.

The English language, as spoken today, has borrowed heavily from many languages. Borrowed words, known as ‘loan words’, are part of everyday speech in the English language. Let’s take a look at a few examples:

Have you ever experienced that strange sense known as déjà vu? Most of us have at some stage in our lives. It’s the feeling of having already experienced what you’re experiencing in the present. The expression comes directly from the French, meaning ‘already seen.’ You’ve probably been invited to a party or celebration and seen the letters RSVP at the bottom. You know perfectly well that RSVP is a request for you to reply to the invite, but perhaps be less conscious that it’s loaned from the French ‘Repondez, s’il vous plaît’, meaning ‘please respond.’ Have you ever worn a beret? Drunk an aperitif? Been to the ballet? Taken a detour? Committed a faux-pas? Eaten a gateaux? Stayed in a hotel? Been shown a menu? Had a Rendez-vous with someone? Watched Television? Or sat beneath a parasol? We’re willing to bet you have, and these are just a handful of hundreds and hundreds of French loan words that have become part of everyday speech in English.

Germany has been very generous in loaning words to the English language too. For example: Kindergarten, wunderkind, angst, zeitgeist, poltergeist, kitsch, doppelganger, wanderlust, schadenfreude, diesel, ersatz, kaput, (and many, many more) all come directly from the German language. Indeed, Germany has a word in linguistics for the proliferation of its language across the world: Germanism. And ponder for a moment, where do you suppose that most staple of American foods the Hamburger originated? If you’re thinking, maybe Hamburg in Germany, odds on you’re right!

Many other words that form part and parcel of everyday speech also originated from outside the US or England. Anonymous come from the Greek Anōnumo; Algebra originated in ancient Babylonia and Egypt, who developed the positional number system that’s so familiar in schools across the world. Loot is a word of Hindi origin; Safari originates from the Arabic language, as does kismet; cigar is of Spanish origin; cartoon is derived from the Italian word carton, which described a comical picture drawn on hard paper; cookie is from the Dutch word koekie; Ketchup, believe it or not, originated in China; massage comes from the Portuguese.

One of the best stories about the origins of a loan word used in English happened in 2002, when the former President George W Bush was meeting his counterparts, French President Chirac and British Prime Minister, Tony Blair. According to British press sources, President Bush exclaimed “the problem with the French is they don’t have a word for entrepreneur.” Whether the story is true or apocryphal (a word derived from the Greek, incidentally) is in doubt. The glorious irony, if true, being that entrepreneur is an entirely unaltered French word!

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7. Wanderlust (German)

Defined as a passionate desire to travel or, quite literally, wander away, the term ‘wanderlust’ derives from the German language and was borrowed by the English language in 1902.

8. Cookie (Dutch)

Did you know this rolled, sliced and baked sweet dough is originated from the Dutch language? It’s true though, it really does.

The English language derived the word ‘cookie’ from the Dutch term ‘Koekie’, defined as akin to cake, to describe this loved sweet snack.

9. Karaoke (Japanese)

A Japanese form of entertainment that took over the Western world 20-30 years ago, Karaoke was borrowed by the English language and has continued to become an international phenomenon for entertainment.

The Japanese term stands for ‘an empty orchestra’ and is the act of amateur singing with recorded music, commonly performed in clubs or bars.

10. Metropolis (Greek)

Derived from Late Latin to Greek initially, the word ‘metropolis’ refers to the mother city of a colony.

The English derivation of the word describes the term as a big city of high importance.

11. Lemon (Arabic)

The Arabic word from which ‘lemon’ originates is called ‘Laimun’, defined simply as a yellow citrus fruit. The term became a part of the English language family post-1400 and was also influenced by another Middle Eastern language, Persian.

12. Avatar (Sanskrit)

Known as a representation of oneself in the virtual world, the word gained a whole new level of popularity after James Cameron’s 2009 science fiction film called Avatar.

13. Ketchup (Chinese)

Honestly, who would’ve guessed this!

Originating from its Chinese equal ‘Ke-stiap’, the word referred to as a concoction of pickled fish and spices in 1692.

Fast forward 100 years in the Western world, tomatoes were added to the sauce to create a very famous condiment called ‘ketchup’.

14. Entrepreneur (French)

In the 13^th century, the term ‘entrepreneur’ is derived from the French verb ‘entreprendre’ which meant to undertake or do something. History suggests that by the 16^th century, the verb had transformed to form the noun ‘entrepreneur’ which referred to someone who undertook a business venture.

15. Utensil (French) (Latin)

The Latin word ‘utensilia’ refers to things or resources for use and was adopted by the French to form the word ‘ustensile’ which describes cooking tools. By combining the Latin and French versions, the English term ‘utensil’ was then created and has been commonly used in kitchens across the English-speaking world.

16. Sushi (Japanese)

Sushi originally comes from a Japanese word for sour (Sushimeshi), and with time it turned into a term used to describe naturally fermented seafood and rice pickled with salt condoning a sour flavor. With time Sushimeshi was a recognized dish all over the world and for short they call it Sushi. 

17. Catalogue (French)

The word catalogue is a word we use frequently when we want to talk about a list of items or publication. Yet, the word has taken a long way to reach “catalogue.” The word catalogue firstly started in Greece with the word katalegien which means pick out or enroll. Later on, to Katalogos in Greek and then to Catalogos in Latin and then to late  French. 

18. Justice (French)

The word justice emerged from the old French justice or jostise, which means administration of law. The French word justice is from the form of Latin justitia. Yet the word justice when firstly used in old English it was used as justice and combined with the word just in English, the word justice was formed. 

19. Penguin (Welsh)

The origin of the word penguin is still debatable to this day, yet it is said that it comes from the Welsh “pen gwyn” which means white head. However, some say that the word penguin was used for the great auk of the seas which is now an extinct animal which used to stay around Newfoundland in Canada. 

20. Massage (Portuguese)

The word massage went through a few different meanings across its timeline, it first started as “massa” which means dough, and then changed into amassar which means to knead, then in French to masser which means to knead or to treat with massage. Now it is used in English as massage which means the rubbing and kneading of muscles and joints.

Of course, it doesn’t stop here. Asian languages have also influenced English quite a bit. We put together a list of some of the most popular words borrowed words from Japanese.

English is a more varied (and delicious) melting pot than you think …

English—is one of the most incredible, flavorfully-complex melting pots of linguistic ingredients from other countries that’s been left to simmer for (in some cases) centuries. These linguistic ingredients are called loanwords that have been borrowed and incorporated into English. The loanwords are oftentimes so common now, the foreign flavor has been completely lost on speakers.

What usually happens is that English speakers find a word in another language to describe something they don’t yet have a word for. So they “borrow” that word. Forever. That said, loanwords fall into two categories: popular loanwords and learned loanwords. Learned loanwords tend to come from scholarly or specialized fields, like medicine or law. It’s usually easier to see what language these words came from. English, for example, draws from Latin for a lot of medical and legal terms.

It’s not always that cut and dried, though. Sometimes it’s harder to see the line between popular and learned loanwords. The word ballet, for example, comes from French, and the terms for the different positions and steps in ballet have retained their original French names. In this case, ballet is a popular loanword. Most English speakers recognize the word as referring to a type of dance. However, the specialized terms in ballet could also be considered learned loanwords because they’re familiar to dancers and choreographers (who are skilled professionals), but largely unknown to people outside the field.

Loanwords make up 80% of English

What this means is that there is no such thing as pure English. English is a delectable, slow-cooked language of languages. As lexicographer Kory Stamper explains, “English has been borrowing words from other languages since its infancy.” As many as 350 other languages are represented and their linguistic contributions actually make up about 80% of English!

Ranking from most influential to least, English is composed of words from: Latin, French, German, Italian, Spanish, Dutch, Scandinavian, Japanese, Arabic, Portuguese, Sanskrit, Russian, Maori, Hindi, Hebrew, Persian, Malay, Urdu, Irish, Afrikaans, Yiddish, Chinese, Turkish, Norwegian, Zulu, and Swahili. And, that’s not even 10% of the 350 languages in the English melting pot.

Taking a less charitable tack to describe the multilingual aspect of English, the writer James Nicoll said, “English doesn’t borrow from other languages. English follows other languages down dark alleys, knocks them over and goes through their pockets for loose grammar.” That’s certainly a grimmer view, but it’s a metaphor that when looking at certain periods of the history of English, especially during episodes of colonization by English-speakers around the world, rings true.

War is actually a way a lot of loanwords have come into English. Viking invasions of England during the Old English period brought Old Norse words like war and ugly. In 1066, the Normans (basically the French), led by William the Conqueror, invaded and took over the British Isles. That made French the language of the English court for hundreds of years. As many as 10,000 loanwords resulted from that period of English history. Interestingly, a lot of war-related words are loanwords.

Looking at the sheer multilingual complexity of English gives great insight into how richly flavored and inclusive the language really is. We’re sharing just a dash of some of the international linguistic ingredients that make English so special. Just know that the true recipe for English would fill countless volumes, and what we’ve got here is a pretty flavorless oversimplification by comparison!

Borrowing & loaning—like money?

Before we divulge some of the secret global ingredients of English, though, what exactly does borrowing and loaning mean when it comes to languages? These terms make it seem like a word is taken from one language by another for only a brief time and then returned to the lender (with interest?).

Obviously, this isn’t what happens. Using banking terminology may not be the best way to describe the exchange; influencing is probably a better way to conceptualize it. Nevertheless, linguists have been employing words like borrow and loan as metaphors to describe what amounts to be a very complicated and abstract process of exchanging words across cultures.

How does loaning words work?

Borrowing and lending of words happens because of cultural contact between two communities that speak different languages. Often, the dominant culture (or the culture perceived to have more prestige) lends more words than it borrows, so the process of exchange is usually asymmetrical.

A lot of the words that end up being loaned are part of the material culture of the dominant group. Food, plants, animals, and tools migrate with the groups that use them, and, of course, so do the words that describe those things. So, when other cultures come into contact with those new people and their objects and words, it’s no surprise that physical and linguistic exchanges take place. Because those objects already have names, the borrowing culture tends to adopt those names instead of inventing their own words. 

The new loanwords that the receiving language incorporates into its lexicon usually start off sounding foreign and might only be used in certain pockets of the community until they gradually spread to more speakers over time. Pronunciation differences happen too, as the foreign word is phonologically reshaped so that it’s easier to say in the language that borrowed it through a process called naturalization or assimilation.

If a loanword is spoken by a large majority of people on a regular basis and its meaning no longer needs to be explained, then the word has been conventionalized. Loanwords can retain vestiges of their former selves (they can still be perceived as foreign in some way), or they can completely melt into the new language. Once the word no longer seems foreign, it is, in fact, a loanword.

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The yummy English melting pot (fast food version)

Popular loanwords are everyday words. You might not even realize that some of them came from another language. Most popular loanwords are the result of cultural contact. Many of them describe food, the arts, and entertainment. You probably know sushi comes from Japanese, and taco comes from Spanish, by way of Mexico. But some other food-related loanwords you might have forgotten are pizza from Italian, lemon from Arabic, and tart from French (the French spell it tarte).

There are so many ways to showcase the global ingredients of English, but to really do it justice would take as many years as it took English to get to the rich stew it is now. So, the table below is our “fast food” version of the melting pot. It’s a super-simplified ingredient list with a smattering of words in English that have been borrowed from the different languages we listed above. 

Keep in mind that because of this presentation format, we’re not able to tell the intricate stories of how and when these words were introduced into the English lexicon. That involves slow-cooking that we just don’t have time for! But, at the end, we list some great suggestions for where to find a fuller recipe.

(Following the order of most-to-least contributing languages):

Rank	Language	Examples
1	Latin	agriculture, language, justice, science, forum, circus, opium, dominatrix, religion, apostle, city, master, paper
2	French	art, dance, jewel, painting, ballet, government, salon, brigade, infantry, grenade, quiche, beef, salmon
2	Greek	phobia, academy, siren, lexicon, muse, odyssey, democracy, psyche, atlas, platonic, biology, comedy, tragedy, history, data
3	German	blitz, strudel, kindergarten, flak, schadenfreude, schnitzel, zeitgeist, poodle, noodle, pretzel, sauerkraut, lager, zeppelin, delicatessen
4	Italian	opera, soprano, piano, broccoli, fresco, spaghetti, prima donna, parmesan, pesto, viola, pizza, cappuccino, latte
5	Spanish	canyon, tornado, tortilla, barricade, guitar, alligator, burrito, coyote, junta
6	Dutch	buoy, cruise, dock, avast, freight, dyke, yacht, easel, landscape, sketch, booze, coleslaw, cookie, gin
7	Scandinavian	smorgasbord, ski, fjord, saga, sauna, maelstrom, slalom
8	Japanese	karaoke, samurai, kimono, sushi, tsunami, kamikaze, geisha, judo, jujitsu, soy
9	Arabic	alcohol, bedouin, harem, lute, algebra, zero, zenith, giraffe, gazelle, sultan, caravan, mosque
10	Portuguese	albino, dodo, emu, fetish, tempura
11	Sanskrit	avatar, karma, mahatma, swastika, yoga
12	Russian	borscht, czar/tsar, icon, vodka, glasnost (a term from the Soviet Union for “open government”)
13	Maori	kiwi, mana, moa, waka (common Maori words used in New Zealand English)
14	Hindi	bandanna, bangle, bungalow, juggernaut, jungle, loot, pajamas, punch (drink), shampoo
15	Hebrew	sapphire, babble, brouhaha, maven, abacus, behemoth, cherub, jubilee, sabbatical, sabbath, amen
16	Persian	chess, checkmate, check
17	Malay	ketchup, amok
18	Urdu	chintz, bungalow, cheroot, cot, many overlaps with Hindi
19	Irish	boycott, brogues, clock, dig (slang), hooligan
20	Afrikaans	apartheid, commando, trek, aardvark, meerkat, wildebeest
21	Yiddish	Chanukkah (Hanukkah), chutzpah, kosher, lox, pastrami, schlep, klutz, oy vey, schmuck
22	Chinese	dim sum, chow mein, tea, kowtow, tai chi, kung fu
23	Turkish	baklava, coffee, kiosk, ottoman
24	Norwegian	berserk, gun, ransack, slaughter, hell, husband, skill, bug, reindeer, dirt
25	African origins	banana, bongo, banjo, cola, jazz, chimpanzee, goober, gumbo, impala, jumbo, mamba, zebra, zombie

As you’d imagine, learning about English’s loanwords from other languages is linked with the history of the English language itself. Because of its status as a global lingua franca, English is now much more of a lender than a borrower, but the ways in which English has contributed to other languages around the world is a recipe for another day. Though at a decreasing rate, English continues to borrow words in the 21st-century. Popular recent loanwords include Sudoku (the Japanese number puzzle appearing in the daily paper), wiki (a Hawaiian word describing a user-controlled website, i.e., Wikipedia), and latte (that Italian coffee drink with frothy milk that you need every morning so you can see straight).

If you want to explore these and many other global linguistic ingredients according to roughly when they were added to the melting pot (and what condition the world ‘kitchen’ was in, so to speak), check out Philip Durkin’s detailed analysis, Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Durkin is the Deputy Chief Editor of the Oxford English Dictionary and his exploration describes the intricacies of loanwords in terms of the historical and linguistic landscape of English from its earliest stages to the present day. In a Slate article summarizing his findings, Durkin includes a fascinating timeline of all the lending-languages that have influenced English over the centuries. You can click across to view the different periods of English and the proportions of each linguistic ingredient added during that time. 

For another accessible summary of major periods of borrowing in English, take a look at Rice University’s outline on loanwords.

And, the next time you encounter someone who claims English is pure and wants to keep it that way, tell them they have absolutely no idea what they’re talking about. In fact, now you have all the ingredients to back up your observation of how “tasteless” their statement is!

Also, if you want to see how English has influenced some other languages … like French … read through this piece: France And The Battle Of Mots De Prêt (Loanwords)

While the exact number remains up for debate, many linguists estimate that there are more than a million words in the English language. An even tougher number to pin down is how many of those words we technically have the right to claim as our own. The truth is, many of the words we use on a regular basis are actually borrowed from other languages—French, Japanese, Spanish, and Yiddish, to name a few. And some of these foreign-language words—also known as «loanwords»—are so woven into our lexicons that we don’t even realize they’re actually not of English origins.

In English, we use the word «genre» to describe a work of art characterized by a particular style, like horror, romance, comedy, and so on. The word, however, comes straight to us from the French language. In French, genre literally translates to «gender,» but it also roughly translates to «type,» which explains its context in the English language.

While Americans no doubt love chocolate, the word doesn’t have origins in the English language. Instead, it was translated to English from Spanish via Nahuatl—the language spoken by the people living in central Mexico during the time of the Spanish conquest. In that language, the word chocolātl was first used to describe a «beverage made by heating cocoa with water or milk,» like hot chocolate.

If you like fumbling through embarrassing renditions 0f your favorite songs in front of friends and strangers then you have Japan to thank for the opportunity to do so. «Karaoke» combines the Japanese words kara—meaning «empty»—and okesutura, meaning «orchestra.» The polarizing pastime was a favorite among Japanese businessmen in the ’70s before gaining popularity in the U.S. in the late ’80s.

Patio is a Spanish word that refers to the courtyards within buildings, which were popular features in medieval Spanish architecture. Spelled the same in English, the word is typically used in reference to seating areas homeowners have in their backyards.

The word «klutz»—commonly used in the English language to describe a clumsy person—actually has Yiddish origins. It comes from klots, which translates to «wooden beam.»

The education class many children in the U.S. attend between preschool and first grade is called kindergarten—a German word that literally means «children’s garden.» The concept was created in Germany in 1837 by 19th century educator Friedrich Froebel.

Commonly used to describe someone who starts their own business, this word is lifted from the French term entreprendre, which means «to undertake.» As an entrepreneur, you’re literally undertaking your own enterprise.

Mosquitos may be a pests all over the world, but their name a a Spanish word that translates directly to «little fly» or «little gnat.»

While it’s used to describe those streets that are closed off at one end in suburban neighborhoods across the U.S., in France—where the term originated—cul-de-sac literally means «bottom of the bag.»

You know it’s the thing you do when responding to an invitation, but maybe not that it is actually an acronym for the French phrase, répondez s’il vous plaî, which mean «please reply.»

In English, «vigilante» describes someone who volunteers willingly to fight or suppress crime, often outside the parameters of the law. It entered our vocabulary in the 19th century and come from vigilante—the Spanish term for a «watchman and guard»— and can be traced back to the Latin word vigilare, which means «to keep awake.»

«Sofa,» another word for a «couch» in the English language is originally a Turkish word meaning «raised section of a floor, covered with carpets and cushions.» And the Turkish word sofa comes from the Arabic term suffah meaning «bench of stone or wood.»

Often used to describes feelings of anger, apprehension, and insecurity during ones teenage years, the word «angst» originated as a German word that means «distress, worry, and anxiety.»

The word «diesel,» which describes both a type of fuel and a type of engine, also has German origins—Rudolf Diesel, a German mechanical engineer in the late 1800s and the inventor of the Diesel engine.

Although a staple in most American kitchens, the name for this tomato condiment didn’t actually originate in the U.S. Instead it comes from the Hokkien Chinese word kê-tsiap, which is a sauce made from fermented fish, according to National Geographic.

The full name of this dog breed is Welsh corgi, so it’s no surprise that the name doesn’t have English origins. Instead it combines the Welsh words of cor meaning «dwarf» and ci meaning «dog.»

While cookies are beloved in the states, the word doesn’t derive from the English word «cook.» The word for these delicious treats came to us from the Dutch language—koekjes means «little cakes,» and is derived from koek, which simply means «cake.»

This shortened form of the German word delikatessen—which translates to «ready-to-eat foods»—has origins that trace back to the French word délicatesse, meaning «delicacy.»

We have the Arabic language to thank for the name of this yellow citrus fruit. In fact, the words «lemon» and «lime» come from the Arabic words laymūn and līm, respectively.

The word for that body art on your bicep is the English adaptation of the Polynesian word tatau, which means «mark made on the skin.» Makes sense to us!

The word «mammoth» is both the name a long-extinct animal and a term for anything extremely large in size. It came to us via the Dutch word mammut by way of the Russian term mammot, which means «large, terrible beast.»

In 1870s, Irish farmers faced a crisis that could result in a terrible famine similar to that of the 1840s. In order to prevent this, they formed a group that campaigned against rent increases and evictions landlords were proposing. Charles Boycott, a British army captain, was an agent for an absentee landlord at the time and was ostracized by the community when he tried to evict farmers for not paying rent. As a result, his name became the word we now use to describe that protest strategy.

Used to describe both an era and the style that is reminiscent of that era, renaissance is the French word for «rebirth.» And digging even deeper, its origins are in the Old French word renaistre, which translates to English as «to be born again.»

The word «glitch» describes a «minor malfunction,» usually in terms of electronics. And while its origins are still up for debate, many linguists believe it came from the Yiddish word glitsh—meaning «slippery place» in English.

«Defined as «praise given for achievement,» this word originates from the Greek term kydos, which translates as «fame, renown, and glory.»

«Brunette,» which is used in English to describe someone with brown hair, is directly taken from France. However, in French, brunette is a feminine word for a woman with brown hair. If you were describing a man with brown hair in French, you would use the masculine variation: brunet.

«Souvenir» is another French word—describing something kept as a reminder, it literally means «act of remembering.»

The concept of nothing in reference to an amount of something comes to us from the Arabic word ṣifr, a term that was coined by Mohammed ibn-Musa al-Khowarizmi in the ninth century. It came to us as «zero» from Medieval Latin zephirum via French and Italian.

The word «alcohol» also comes to us from the Arabic language. It was derived from al-kuhl, which in Arabic referred to a powdered antimony that was used as eye paint. So, when the word «alcohol» first entered the English language, it described powders such as «kohl,» not the liquid substance we know today.

In English, «boss» describes a person who holds authority and typically manages a group of people in a professional context. The word was directly lifted from the Dutch term baas, meaning «master,» and was first used as «boss» in the early 1800s by Washington Irving.

«Landscape» can describe many different things in the English language, from scenery to the perspective of a photograph is taken. Regardless of what context its used in, the word itself comes from the Dutch term landschap, which combines the terms land and schap, or «land-ship.»

This delicious breakfast food is also brought to us courtesy of the Dutch. Wafel comes from the Proto-Germanic word wabila, meaning «web» or «honeycomb,» which makes sense when you look at the shape and texture of the next waffle you find yourself chowing down on.

No, we’re not talking about the salad dressing, but an area of farmland used for raising horses or cattle that takes its name from the Mexican Spanish word rancho, which literally translates to «small ranch.»

New York City may be the unofficial bagel capital of the U.S., but the actual name for the doughy roll comes from the Yiddish word beygl.

«Shampoo,» which is both a noun for the hair product and a verb for washing your hair with that product, comes from the Hindi and Urdu languages. It’s from the word cā̃po, which is an imperative of the word cā̃pnā, meaning «to press» or «massage.» As in, you massage shampoo into your hair.

Содержание:

INTRODUCTION

 The subject of the  work relates to lexicology. As you know, vocabulary is the most dynamic side of the language in any period of time. It represents the smallest degree of abstraction in a language, because the word is always object-oriented; it can be borrowed, formed anew or form the elements available in the language. We consider borrowing in this work as one of the main ways of replenishing the language vocabulary.

The urgency of our work is related to the intense penetration of foreign-language borrowings in the English language and the problem of assimilation. These loans have come into English from other languages, and have been taken in the process of socio-economic and cultural relations between peoples and nations. Such words are called foreign borrowings. Many of them are widely used in various spheres of oral and written speech, others are limited in their use. [Лешева 2001: 127]

Some words were borrowed in the era of Old English and assimilated them as elements of linguistic heritage. In our time, the borrowed vocabulary is very popular and usable.

The subject of the research — methods of translation of foreign borrowings from English into Russian.

The object of the research — foreign borrowings in the system of the English language.

The purpose of the work: to consider foreign borrowings in the English language and how to translate them into Russian.

According to the subject and the object, as well as the purpose of the study the hypothesis was formulated : the main way of transfering the loans occurring in the system of the English language to the Russian language will be the formal lexical transformation.

        Based on the purpose of the subject, object and research hypothesis, the following objectives were formulated:

-to reveal the concept and essence of borrowing words in the English language;

— analyze theoretical materials related to borrowing;

-to carry out the lexical analysis of foreign borrowings in the English language on a material of English-language print media;

— draw conclusions on the topic of the work.

— trace the routes of entry and the main stages of assimilation of borrowings in the English language. [Ахманова 2004: 119]

The scientific novelty of this work lies in the study of group of words among the total number of foreign borrowings in the English language which are not fully assimilated; in determining the types of translation transformations in the system of their classification when translating foreign borrowings from English into Russian.

The theoretical significance of the work lies in an integrated approach to the coverage of the problem of the foreign-language borrowing, : first, the relationship of social and linguistic factors that affect the process of borrowing; secondly, the specific application of translational transformations in the translation of borrowings from English into Russian.

The practical value of the work lies in the fact that scientific research has foreign borrowings and their need to popularize them through a variety of media to contribute to:

-development of linguistic consciousness and culture of separate speakers of the language, and the entire collective language as a whole;

-correct (in quantitative and qualitative terms) use of «foreign» words in the language;

-elaboration of linguistic foundations of language policies, adequate as the present conditions of rapid globalization in all spheres of public life and the conditions of preservation of the identity of the English language as an important component of the national culture.

Contents:

1.Introduction. The nature of borrowings, their classification, sources of borrowing and borrowing process.

     2.The analysis of the ways of transferring borrowings.

     3.The analysis of the foreign loans on the example of the    English-language printed press.

    4.Conclusion.

  The “guests from another language” or borrowed words penetrate the English language. Through linguistic osmosis, these numerous words were taken over from one language by another during the course of the English history mainly through the constant uninvited arrival of invaders to the island.

Borrowings in the lexical system of English

The history of English language and borrowings

Otto Jespersen,(a Danish linguist) in his book “Growth and Structure of the English Language” indicates that the English language is a “chain of borrowings” that was a result of the conquests of Britain by various invaders .

First came the Romans and with their occupancy of England, they introduced Latin to some, but not all, its inhabitants. While the Celts co-existed with the Romans and “continental Germans”, only a few hundred borrowed Latin words were found in Old English, which was substantially a “self-sufficing” language, according to Jespersen. The Christianization of the country in the VI^th century forced more inhabitants to adopt Latin words and phrases through the Church. Once the Angles, Saxons and Jutes arrived in Britain, and with the Celts displaced, the language literally began revolting as the new-arrivals began settling in. The Celtic influence began quickly decreasing as the so-called “superior” borrowed words began to take hold. Yet, while the Angles, Saxons and Jutes brought us the original English language, the foundation of English as we know it today is Germanic with a solid French impact.

The history of the English language, and its borrowings, is founded on three incursions: Teutonic; Scandinavian (Vikings); and, most importantly, by the Norman conquest of England by the Duke of Normandy in 1066. The Teutonic and Scandinavian invasions apparently affected the mother language. But it was the French-speaking Normans, led by William the Conqueror (Guillaume le Conquérant), who introduced the greatest, most extensive and most constant collection of borrowed or “loan” words to the English language upon their successful 1066 invasion of the island.

According to Jespersen, many British adopted borrowed French words not only to communicate, but because they felt it was the “fashion” to imitate their “betters”. Again, while some might distinguish this as a form of snobbism, many of us do strive to improve our language skills as our knowledge of borrowed words not only expands our vocabulary but enables us to converse with one another .

This borrowing has also helped swell the size of English dictionaries. The voluminous English dictionaries, as compared to French, German or Dutch dictionaries for example, can credit their size to the borrowings of foreign words the British adopted. If the English were originally concerned that their native language was not up to snuff with the French or Latin tongues, the Britons’ borrowings might give new meaning to “size matters”.

The Renaissance brought a multitude of classical words, particularly from France and Italy, increasing the Latin influence on the language in England. But Italy, along with Spain, contributed few borrowed words because the English language was nearly completely formed by this age. The new words and phrases enriched the British language, but Jespersen believes at somewhat of a cost. Because of the various invasions, the English had, over time, begun to “shrink from consciously coining new words out of native material”. That concept brings us full circle back to the “physical mobility and mental laziness” aspect of borrowing words .

Classification of borrowings

There are the following groups of borrowings: phonetic borrowings, translation loans, semantic borrowings, and morphemic borrowings. [Ахманова 2004. 576 р]

Phonetic borrowings are most characteristic in all languages; they are called loan words proper. Words are borrowed with their spelling, pronunciation and meaning. Then they undergo assimilation, each sound of the borrowing language. In some cases the spellings changed. The structure of the word can also be changed. The position of the stress is very often influenced by the phonetic system of the borrowing language. The paradigm of the word, and sometimes the meaning of the borrowed word are also changed. Such words as labor, travel, table, chair, people are phonetic borrowings from French; apparatchik, nomenclature, sputnik are borrowings from Russian; bank, soprano, duet are phonetic borrowings from Italian, etc.

Translation loans are word-for-word (or morpheme-for-morpheme) translations of some foreign word expressions. In such cases the notion is borrowed from a foreign language but it is expressed by native lexical units, ‘to take the bull by the horns’(Latin), ‘living space’(German), etc. Some translation loans appeared in English from Latin already in the Old English period, for example Sunday (solis dies).

Semantic borrowing can appear when an English word borrowed into some other language, developed there a new meaning and this meaning was borrowed back into English, for example ‘brigade’ was borrowed into Russian and formed the meaning ‘a working collective’. This meaning was borrowed back into English as a Russian borrowing. The same is true of the English word ‘pioneer’.

Morphemic borrowings are borrowings of affixes which occur in the language when many words with identical affixes are borrowed from one language into another. So that the morphemic structure of borrowed words becomes familiar to the people speaking the borrowing language, for example we can find a lot of Romanic affixes in English word-building system, that is why there are a lot words-hybrids in English where different morphemes have different origin, for example ‘goddes’, ‘beautiful’, etc.

Accordingly borrowings are subdivided into completely assimilated, partly assimilated and non-assimilated (barbarisms).

Completely assimilated words correspond to all phonetic, morphological and semantic loans of English and are not felt as the foreign words. Many of them belong to the basic word-stock.

Partly assimilated borrowings are subdivided into the following groups:

• borrowings non-assimilated semantically, because they denote objects and notions peculiar to the country from the language of which they were borrowed, for example sari, sombrero, taiga, kvass, etc.
• borrowings non-assimilated grammatically, for example nouns borrowed from Latin and Greek retain their plural forms (bacillus-bacilli, phenomenon-phenomena, datum-data, genius-genii), etc.
• borrowings non-assimilated phonetically. Here belong words with the initial sounds /v/ and /z/, for example voice, zero. In native words these voiced consonants are used only in the intervocalic position as allophones of sounds /f/ and /s/ (loss-lose, life-live).

Borrowings can be partly assimilated graphically, for example in Greek borrowings ‘y’ can be spelled in the middle of the word (symbol, synonym), ‘ph’ denotes the sound /f/ (phoneme, morpheme), ‘ch’ denotes the sound /k/ (chemistry, chaos) and ‘ps’ denotes the sound /s/ (psychology).

The great number of borrowings brought with them new phono-morphological types, new phonetic, morphological and semantic features. On the other hand, under the influence of the borrowed element words already existing in English changed to some extent their semantic structure, frequency and derivational ability.

Through the history of the English language and the English people borrowing from different languages such as French, German, Italian, Russian considerably enlarged the English vocabulary and brought about some changes in the English synonymic groups, in the distribution of the English vocabulary through spheres of application and in the lexical divergence between the variants of the literary language and its dialects.

 Sources of borrowing in English

              Back in the Middle Ages, the English language has borrowed a lot of new words from the Scandinavian languages when  the English lived side by side with the Danish invaders in the land of England ( the X — the XI century.).

             In the 5th century Germanic tribes — the Angles, Saxons and Jutes migrated to the British Isles. There they met the aboriginal population of the islands — Celts. Celtic tribes were at a low cultural and economic level, so their language did not have a significant impact on the Anglo-Saxon language. In the modern English language preserved a few words from the Celtic languages. They are preserved mainly in dialectal vocabulary of ordinary people: farmers, ranchers, workers from provincial towns.

              For example, the British sheep farmers took advantage of the Cost Accounting numerals occurred from an ancient, long-vanished Cumbric.

              Time system Continuous is a carbon copy of the syntax of the Celtic languages. In other Germanic languages, this system is not currently available. Significantly more Celtic words penetrated into the English language in more subsequent periods of Gaelic (Ireland) and the Scots language. Here are loan words from Celtic language: dun — серовато-коричневый, bard- бард, певец, brat-ребенок, неуч,  bin -мешок, корзина (для вина, пшеницы), brock -барсук. On the same early period in the English moved from Celtic language Latin words, borrowed from the Celts to the Romans during the invasion of the British Isles. But these words are regarded as Celtic borrowing. Here are some of them: bannock-пресная лепешка, cross -крест, pillion-подушка для сидения, plaid -плед, mud-грязь . Among them some place names that are also early Celtic borrowings: Aberdeen , Ben Lomond,  Dunbar , Kildare , Dunstable , Billingshurt .

              The first group of Latin borrowing came into English through trade ties even on the continent, such as ( pepper — перец, wine-вино,  pear -груша).

              The second group of Latin borrowing came into the English language during the propagation of Christianity. ( Mass-месса, devil -дьявол, school — школа, priest -священник).

              In the 11-13 centuries, along with the Norman invasion in the English language there were a lot of Latin words. But many of these words has undergone changes in phonetics system, semantics and grammar. Since they were originally borrowed from Latin into French. A great many Latin words, caught in the English language are the book-borrowings. They were in a language not as a result of live communication, and came along with books, documents and other written sources.

              Book borrowing differ in that they have not changed. First of all, they kept their semantics. This is due to the fact that book borrowings for a long time were used mainly in the literary language. These borrowings mainly relate to abstract concepts, terminologies.

              Most of the book borrowing from Latin fell into English during the Renaissance in England, in the 15 — 16th centuries.

              The texts of the works of Chaucer, Lenglanda, Wycliffe used about a thousand of Latin words that were previously not used in the English language.

              The Renaissance enriched the English language with words from the field of theology, literature, medicine, of Technical Sciences.

              Scandinavian words entered the English language mainly as a result of oral communication. In written records of Old English culture can be found a few words of Scandinavian origin. Written sources appeared towards the end of the 12th century. They reflect dialectal forms, there is evidence of early oral borrowing of the Scandinavian languages. English and Scandinavian languages belonged to the same Germanic group. This enables the speakers at least to understand each other. In this case the mutual influence of languages was maifested. First of all borrowed nouns, adjectives and verbs. These are the words the majority of which were of great importance: the drag , husband , snare , fellow , skirt , leg  , skin , calf , cast , ill ,  low , wrong and many other words. In recent history, the Nordic loans are very rare.

              In English, there are a lot of borrowing from the Romance languages (Spanish, Italian, Portuguese) They came with the development of the history of England’s relations with these countries. From the 16th century from Italian to English penetrated many words related to the topic of culture and art. The musical terms : sonata, basso , adagio , trio , allegro , opera , in art and literature entered words: canto , cameo , studio , fresco. British travellers have described Italy, partly using Italian words that were later fixed in the English language: gondola, lava, volcano, casino , cicerone. Into the English language also penetrated and some political and commercial terms: bank , traffic. In our time, there are Italian drawings in the American version, which reflects the ethnic composition of the United States. Here are some recent borrowings: the paparazzi , the pasta , mafia .

              In the16 — 17th centuries there was the blossoming of Spanish literature, the influence of which extended to the whole Europe. At the same time, England was competing with Spain in the political arena. Spanish borrowings of this period: banana, sockets , armada , cigar , barbecue , cocoa , canyon , potato , cargo , the ranch , chocolate , hurricane .

              There are not many Portuguese words in the English language . And they came into the English language from the main languages of Africa, Indochina and India. Here are some of them: cobra , the veranda , mandarin , Madeira .

              Words penetrated into English from the Russian language can be divided into 3 groups: the early period, the Soviet period and the later period, that is the end of the 80s of the 20th century. Borrowings of the early period belong to the field of material culture, describe the nature, reflect the realities of Russian society: boyar , samovar , altyn ,  vodka , taiga , barzoi , tundra , nihilist . Drawings of the Soviet period mainly reflect characteristics of the political regime: the Soviets , artel , komsomol . At the same time from the Russian language passed words related to space issues: sputnik , cosmonavt . At the end of the 20th century English discovered such Russian words as perestroyka , glasnost .

The results of borrowing process

          The process of borrowing affects the development of the language. As a result new words and expressions appear. The borrowing language enriches the vocabulary, develops morphology.

          There appear word-hybrids. These are the words in which a root part of the word addes a borrowing. For example, artless -the root art -borrowed suffix, dislike — borrowed prefix — like .

              There are also exotisms and barbarisms.  Mixed languages like Creole, Pidgin — English appear. There are also pseudo-national and international words. These are all a result of the borrowing process.

Also as a result of borrowing, there are many doublets. Doublets — are the words with similar origin. They differ phonetically and in the meaning, as they moved from different languages.

              Doublets basically have a Latin origin. In English they penetrated through the French language. For example : canal- channel, major- mayor, liquor- liqueur, fact- feat. Doublets appear in different dialects belonging to the same language.

              Doublet steam is formed when an ambiguous word values cease to be bound. For example, from the Latin persona were formed two English words: person, parson. Also, as an exception, there are etymological triplets: cattle – chattel- Capital .

              Another result of this process are secondary loans, in this case in the language a new word appears next to the previously borrowed and already assimilated. A new word has a different meaning — homonyms. In English, there was a borrowed word pilot in the value of the pilot, that is the one who controls the aircraft. In the late 20th century, the word pilot began to be used in the sense of «an athlete, managing high-speed vehicle.» Word pilot in the second sense as well come from the French language. word pilot , Used to mean «a trial issue of the print edition,» «pilot project», «Trial TV show», that is the meaning of «trial release of something,» as well is the latest borrowing of the late 20th century.

              Sometimes borrowing in the host language takes on new meaning. Words formal fell into English from the German via French. It was used in the meaning «print sheet size». Later, word got to «a form of organization and presentation of data in the computer’s memory.» In such cases, you need to understand: these are the values of homonyms or ambiguous word. There is a principle of having common semantic components.

              Common semantic components suggest different meanings of an ambiguous word. For example, pilot within the meaning and pilot in the meaning of an athlete or pilot is a trial issue of the print edition with respect to the other meanings of the word.

              Borrowing had a very important influence on English grammar. In connection with the borrowing of the French structure of + Noun expressing relations accessories: leg of the table English lost the end.

              Part of native English words, which is about 2/3 of the language came under the influence of borrowing. There are the Anglo-Saxon word options: face, money, war. Part of ancestral words passed into conversational and colloquial, compared with borrowed. Compare the English cow, pig, calf and the corresponding words of Scandinavian origin of beef, pork, veal.

              One of the results of the borrowing process are international words. International is the word, resulting in a borrowing spread in many languages of the world. A group of international words is mainly composed of the Greek words of Latin origin: analysis, Autonomy , system , Latin: volume , Principle , progress , the nation . The group of international words are also the words of the other national languages (Italian balcony , sonata , fazade; French: Gallant , etiquette , an omelette ; Arabic coffee , alcohol , algebra , Indian the verandah , punch , the jungle , Russian nihilist , steppe .)

              In different languages internationalisms are written and pronounced differently. This should be considered when translating. For example the word Ambition. In French and English, the word has a neutral meaning of «the pursuit of goals.» In Russian, the word ambition has sharper almost a negative value.

              Another example: family (Eng), familia (Spanish), familie  (German) are used in the sense of a family. A similar Russian word in this sense is rarely used and is considered obsolete.. Such words are called pseudo-national or «false friends.» They are lexical units of two languages. They are similar in sound and spelling, but differ in meaning. Such words can be divided into groups depending on the degree of similarity:

1) The words that have the same spelling and pronunciation, but a completely different value ( accurate-точный, а не аккуратный; complexion- цвет лица, а не комплекция; magazine -журнал, а не магазин).

2) The words except spelling and pronunciation are the same in some values, but not always in the most are common ( authority-власть, реже-АВТОРИТЕТ; Pretend -притворяться, реже претендовать, solid-твердый, а не только солидный).

3) The words are close, but not identical in spelling and sound, and therefore have different values.  (Adapt — приспособить, Adopt — принимать, data -данные, date -дата, later- позже, the latter -последний из перечисленных, letter- буква, письмо).

4) Names measures consonant but not coincident number pound (англ. из лат. через нем.)  453,59 кг., г, Pfund (нем.) – 500 г,фунт (русс.) – 409,5 г,;centner(англ.из лат.через нем .) – 45,36 кг ,Zentner(нем.) – 50 кг ,центнер(русс.) – 100 кг .)

METHODS of TRANSLATION of the BORROWINGS

Latin borrowings

   Latin words appeared in English mainly in the XI — the XIII century in the period of the Norman conquest. Phonetics, grammar and semantics of these words have undergone changes in the Norman language. Most of Latin origin words in English are book borrowing. These words came to the English language, together with the written sources: books, documents. Book borrowing has its own peculiarities. Due to its limited use in literary form they are least susceptible to change, especially semantic. These loans are mostly abstract, abstract meaning or the terms.

              In Renaissance England in the XV — the XVI centuries English also included many Latin words. During this period in the English language there were the words from the area of technological disciplines, theology, literature and medicine. For example : Sanatorium, radius, intertia, genus , vacum, curriulum, datum. Latin borrowing have residues morphological features. For example, the verb suffix — ate — the infinitive, formed from the past participle of the Latin verb conjugations 1. Miditate, separate, translate, exaggerate, congratulate.

              Borrowings are verbs whose infinitive suffix is — ute -, formed from the stem of the past participle. A communion of these in turn relate to the group of Latin verbs 3 conjugation: to execute , to prosecute , the adjectives are formed from the Latin present participles with a basis on — ant -, — the ent -, such as the patient , Obedient , Evident ,  triumphant , transparent , Apparent .

               Modern English has Latin borrowing, not subjected to any assimilation. They are used as Latin quotes and rarely used .. These words and expressions are used mainly in scientific prose, in business documents, in oratory style. For example, sine qua non (обязательное условие), bona fide(подленно, добросовестно), ex officio (официальный), alma mater.

Let’s Consider some Latin borrowing and means of their translation.

              Ad hominem

              This borrowing has come into English from Latin. This term was coined by the Roman emperors, and represents an appeal to the emotions, beliefs, prejudices listener, literally, «to the man.» In modern English acts as an adjective and means «апелляция к предубеждению, эмоциям, особым интересам, касающихся личных качеств»»

1)ad personem- переход на личности,2)ad hominem circumstantiae- объяснение точки зрения оппонента его личными обстоятельствами,3)ad hominem in quique- “и ты тоже”, указание на то, что сам оппонент действует вопреки аргументу.

It is tralated in 2 variants:

1. апелляция к чувствам или предубеждениям читателя или слушателя (descrtive translation)«апелляция к предубеждению, эмоциям, особым интересам, касающихся личных качеств»

2)касающийся личных качеств, а не доводов собеседника (descriptive translation)  In the English-language newspaper The Sunday Times we find an example of the use of the loan: The Sunday Times 1 December 2013 “On Your Head: The fancy job title shows that you’re just a drone»

“My own world of academia has not been immune. Can you distinguish between the following types of professor? Adjunct, ad hominem, associate, emeritus, honorary, regius, special, visiting, titular». Furnham: The Sunday Times-Можете ли вы определить различие между следующими преподавателями относительно личных качеств: младший преподаватель, заслуженный преподаватель, почетный преподаватель, королевский профессор, частный преподаватель, репетитор, штатный преподаватель.

Type of translation transformation: descriptive translation.

Let us consider another example:

The Sunday Times “Dead bulls” Published: 29 September 2011

           «When writing about the first papal attempt to ban bullfighting, he notes that Pius V was heavily implicated in the Inquisition And he manages to combine ad hominem argument with startling arrogance when he writes of Álvaro Múnera -. A prominent bullfighter who later came to condemn the former profession that he «became an animal rights protester because other people told him to».Rowlands : the Sunday Times. -Если речь идет о первой попытке папы запретить корриду ,надо отметить , что ПийV был сторонником инквизиции. И ему удается с поразительным высокомерием выдвинуть аргумент, рассчитанный на чувства, когда он пишет об Альваро Мунера, видном тореадоре, который позже стал осуждать свою профессию, и выступать за права животных вместе с другими людьми.  Type of translation transformation: descriptive translation.

Alumnus

This word came into the English language about in the middle of the 17th century. Literally meaning «ученик», «воспитанник». In modern English plays a role of a noun in feminine. It ndicates бывшая студентка, питомица, выпускница колледжа или университета. Masculine noun «выпускник», «бывший студент», питомец» ; plural alumnae . Translated into Russian: 1) бывший студент, 2)выпускник (колледжа, университета). In the first case the descriptive translation; 2) in the second  regular lexical correspondences.

              The Independent of The Exclusive: Bullying and discrimination are serious to still Issues for women at work, study of the Cambridge FEMALE alumnae Reveals / on Thursday 06 March 2014

              «Around 1,000 alumnae of Murray Edwards college , aged from their twenties to their seventies, were asked about the biggest problems they had faced in their lifetimes. The college’s most notable graduates since it was founded 60 years ago include scientist Lizzy Hawker, BBC’s Radio 4 presenter Mishal Husain, TV’s Claudia Winkleman and pianist Joanna Macgregor «. Pagano: The Independent of The Exclusive.

             Около 1000 выпускникам колледжа Мюррей Эдвардс, за период с 20-х по 70-е годы были заданы вопросы о самых больших проблемах, с которыми они столкнулись в своей жизни. Поскольку колледж был основан 60 лет назад, то среди наиболее известных выпускников ученый Лиза Хокер, ведущая радио ВВС4 Мишель Хусейн, ведущая Клаудия Уинклман и пианистка Джоанна МакГрегор.  In this example is a regular lexical correspondences.

cum laude

              It is an Americanism of Latin origin. The English language has got it in the 90-s in the 19th century. In Latin, literally it has the meaning «to praise.» Cum- in Latin «with». Cum laude in Russian translated as «с отличием» in the diploma.

Guardan:  Barack Obama , 9 May 2007

              «At the age of 27, Obama was accepted to Harvard University’s law school, where he graduated magna cum laude — with great honours — and was elected president of the Harvard Law Review, responsible for editing US jurisprudence’s most prestigious publication». 

             В возрасте 27 лет Обама был принят на юридический факультет Гарвардского университета, который окончил с отличием — с большим отличием — и был избран президентом Гарвардского журнала Law Review, редактором наиболее престижного журнала по юриспруденции. In this example the method of translating: tracing.

a prima facie case

              The word came from Latin to English in the second half of the 15th century. Its meaning is «first appearance» in Latin. It is «at first sight» in English. In Russian it is translated as «на неопределенный срок» — in this case the method of specification is used, «без назначения новой даты».

Hollywood reporter 7/1/2013 of Edward Snowden: Hollywood Joins Asylum The Petition to Ecuador.   

               ‘The petition to Korea on  Snowden ‘s behalf, in support of which has already collected 23,000 signatures, in particular said «The charging someone of spying ,who have not committd acts of espionage, is a prima facie case vidence of political persecution.”- В прошении к Корее от имени Сноудена, в поддержку которого уже собрано 23000 подписей, в частности говорится: «Обвинение кого-то в шпионаже, кто не совершал шпионских действий, с первого взгляда является серьезным доказательством политического преследования». Here the method of translation is tracing .

Alma mater

              In Latin, the expression literally means «кормящая благодетельная

мама». It is an ancient name of the informal education institutions (universities, which initially gave mostly theological and philosophical education) as organizations that feed the spirit. In today’s lexicon means figuratively institution in which a person has received or is receiving education; the place of employment for professional scientists.

              In English it began to be used for the first time in 1710. This expression is used as a noun. It has the following values: 1) school, college or university where someone was trained, so usually talk about already finished high school, 2) the official anthem at school or college — in American values. 

In Russian it literally means, in the context of matters «university, college or any other educational institution in which someone was trained.

The Independent: Once upon a time, Stephen Hawking was just another schoolboy… the Sunday, 2 February 2014.

              «Stephen Hawking is about to speak at a fundraising event for his alma mater in St. Albans. The school is often overlooked in the formation of the famous physicist, says his former classmate Michael Church». Church: The Independent-  Стивен Хокинг собирается выступить на мероприятии по сбору средств для своей альма-матер в Сент-Олбанс . Часто не замечают, какое значение имела в формировании личности известного физика»,— говорит его бывший одноклассник Михаил Чоч.  The method of translating is semantic development.

French borrowing

               In 1066 the Normans conquered England. Normandy was a French duchy. In 912 the territory was given to Normand Vikings by the French King Charles the Simple. By 1066 the Vikings have long mixed with the local population and took over the French. In England they came as carriers of the French language and French culture.

              The Duke of Normandy, William the Conqueror dismissed all British authorities and the priests, and in their place put his. From the Norman dialect formed the Anglo-Norman language, which became the official language and lasted until the end of the 14th century. During this time, the English language has borrowed a huge number of French words. In English there are about 80000 of the most common words. About 25000 of them are the French borrowings. French borrowings reflect all aspects of life. Let us consider some of them found in the English-language print media.

A la carte

              This French phrase was adopted into the English language in 1826, a decade before it became used as an English word menu. A la carte in French meaning «on the card». In English, it serves as a:

1) The adjective «offered for selection (usually in a restaurant)

2) The role of the adverb «по выбору из меню»

3) The Russian language has the meaning of «заказ из предварительного списка».

The Hollywood Reporter Study: Only 14 Percent of Cable Customers Satisfied; 73 Percent Want a la Carte 9/25/2013.

              «A la carte restaurant television programming is a popular concept for Among Consumers the who presume for They’d the save money by ditching the channels for They do not watch, But Given That only 38 percent would be willing to pay more than $ 3 per channel each month, it’sе not likely the idea will catch on with TV providers who are not inclined to stray from bundling «Bond: the Hollywood Reporter.  -Телевизионные программы на заказ популярная услуга среди потребителей, которые могут сэкономить деньги, отказавшись от ненужных каналов. Учитывая, что только 38% были готовы платить больше, чем 3 доллара за канал в месяц, провайдерам не придется ловить потребителей, не желающих платить за весь комплект каналов.This lexical translation transformation, the principle of semantic specificity.

Bete noire

              This borrowing has come into English from French in the middle of the19th century, literally it means «черная скотина» (о человеке). In modern English, it acts as a noun meaning «a person or thing is particularly unpleasant or terrible.» Translated into Russian 1) «предмет особой ненависти или отвращения» (descriptive translation), 2) пугало (modulation).

The New York Times: June 1, 1991 «Japan’s Newest Bete Noire Is French Prime MINISTER»

              «The verdict that finally goes against libel tourism: Fatal blow for individuals with little or no link to UK trying to bring claims»

              «Browder, who runs of Hermitage Capital Management, became a hated man of the Russian leadership after the loud campaign for the officials and inspectors responsible for tax evasion in the amount of $ 140 million and as a result of the death of Magnitsky, who suffered because of the beatings in prison and died after he was denied medical treatment. Браудер, который руководит Hermitage Capital Management, стал ненавистным человеком из российского руководства после громкой кампании по проведению к ответственности чиновников и следователей за уклонение от уплаты налогов на сумму 140 миллионов долларов и в результате смерти Магницкого, который пострадал из-за избиения в тюрьме и умер после того, как ему было отказано в медицинской помощи. In this context, the English expression beter noir is translated as an adjective ненавистный. This is a replacement of parts of speech.  

Bon voyage

              This phrase comes from the French in English in the second half of the 17th century. Literally means «приятное путешествие.»  In Russian it is translated as «доброго пути» — the method of modulation.

              The Moscow News: Breaking the ice on the Moscow River 16/11/2009.

              «Could it be the perfect romantic date for breaking the ice — a winter tour on the Moscow River aboard an ice-breaking cruise ship.

              A fleet of five ships — Scarlet, Ferdinand, Bon Voyage, Celebrity and Capella — has been constructed by a Turkish dockyard over the course of 1 ½ years at a cost of $ 2 million apiece »Tohey: The Moscow News. -Это может стать идеальным романтическим свиданием- зимний тур по Москве-реке на борту ледокола. Эскадра из пяти кораблей – «Скарлет», «Фердинанд», «Бон Вояж», «Знаменитость» и «Капелла », каждый из которых стоимостью в 2 млн долларов, были построены на турецкой верфи за полтора года. In this case, the translation method is transliteration.

Deja vu

              It came into English from French in the early 20th century. Literally means «что-либо уже увиденное.» In English it is a noun having the values:

1) psychological sense- impression that this event has already happened.

2) emotionally — negative feeling of the repeated event.

              In Russian it is translated дежавю, the method of translation transliteration.

The Independent 14/03/2014 / A Lovely Way To Burn, By Louise Welsh: Book review

              «There are downsides to Welsh’s sixth novel, chiefly an inescapable sense of deja vu». Kidd: The Independent — Есть недостатки в шестом романе Уэлша, главным образом неизбежное чувство однообразия.               The method of translation is the holistic rethinking.

Express the Daily / » the Bayern Munich You take Arsenal back to the future» 1.20.2014

Nouveau riche

              It came from the French in the early 19th century. Literally means «new rich», quickly became rich people usually in times of social change, revolution. In the English language it is a noun. The meaning of the word — the rich «upstart» from the nonaristocratic surroundings.» In the Russian translation:

1) новоявленный богатый (tracing)

2) нувориш (transcription with transliteration elements).

The New York T imes: How a Nouveau Riche China Is Investing in Art Published: October 30, 2013

              «It’s apparent that we’ve» seen this movie before. «The Times is to be commended for exposing how a nouveau riche China is falling into the predictability of another boom and bust cycle of artwork speculation, monetized investment and boneheaded thinking»Это очевидно, что мы «видели этот фильм раньше . Газета Times заслуживает похвалы за разоблачение нуворишей Китая.

There a lexical transformation— transcription with elements of transliteration is used.

German borrowing

              In English, there are many German borrowings. This is mainly philosophical and socio-political concepts. Most of them are preserved in the English language in the form of tracing. This is due to the close relationship of the English and German languages. The first German words entered the English language in the 16th century. These are the words relating to trade, military affairs. For example: junker (юнкер), kreuzer (крейцер, название монеты), groschen (грош), the drilling (тренировка), plunar (грабеж), staff (штаб), fieldmarshal (фельдмаршал) and others.

              In the 16th century in England developed ore mining, iron and steel industry. During the times of the Queen Elizabeth Tudor two industrial companies, led by the Germans were organized. The new German words began to enter into the English language as a result of direct communication between people, certain terms of the mining industry are firmly entered in English written sources from the 17th century. For example, zinc, bismut, cobalt.  In the second half of the 18th century in the English language penetrated such terms of geology and mining as wolfram, iceberg, nickel.

              In the 19th century borrowing enriched English Dictionary considerably. There were the words, relating to science, art, politics, domestic sphere of life, such as: marzipan, Vermuth, Middle English (Mittelenglisch), loanword, folk the etymology of (Folksetymologie), Humoresque. Names of animal: poodle, spits.

             Words of the 20th century mainly relate to the theme of war. Here are some of them: blitzkrieg, the Third Reich (Third Reich), the Luftwaffe , bunker , Gauleiter , and so on.

              Many German borrowings occur in the English-language press. Let us consider some of them.

Kitsch

              It comes from the German word kitschen, literally meaning «мазать,пачкать.»It appeared in English in the early 20th century. It acts as a noun. It means something inartistic, cheap, tasteless in relation to works of art. Translated into Russian:

1) мазня (о картине)- reception specification

2) kitsch (о кино) — transcription elements with transliteration

3) безвкусица (о книгах, кино) — generalization

Moscow News :Moscow shop Brings back ancient jewelry Traditions

07/06/2013.  «Of The inventory a Etnicheskaya Lavka — simply» Ethnic Shop » — . Is not kitsch, HOWEVER, like much of the Soviet paraphernalia in tourist spots around Moscow» Этческая лавка− просто «Магазин народных промыслов−это вовсе не кич, как и большая часть советской атрибутики в туристических местах вокруг Москвы. In this example, the translation method is transcription.

Verboten

              From German into English this word came about in the early 20th century. In German Verboten — is the past tense of the verb «to prohibit, impede». In English, the word has an adjective meaning «something which is forbidden.» In the Russian language -запрещенный, the participle. The method of translation is a replacement of parts of speech.

  Today USA: Top 10 weird / Strange foreign laws /, May 15, 2013

              «..Run out of gas in Germany. Precisely more, IT’s verboten to the stop on the the nation’s fast-paced the autobahns, where clause German motorists to Tend to the get all Fahrvergnugen behind the wheel ».Clark: USA Today-Запрещено останавливаться в быстром потоке на федеральных трассах.

This is a grammatical replacement, as there was a replacement for a participle of the word «prohibited».

Spanish borrowing     

               Spanish borrowing in English reflect the economic and political ties. Earlier Spanish borrowing entered English through French, some of them are of Arab origin, reflecting the influence of Eastern culture. For example: cotton , zenith, lemon, tare(container).

              In the first half of the 16th century thanks to the dynastic ties to the English language there were included Spanish words associated with the traditions of the Spanish society: mulatto , duenna , dona , armada , infanta , renegade , hidalgo . In the 17th century  such words , as a toreador, castanet, matador, embargo, parade were included.

              Drawings of the 18th century were mainly related to cultural life, family life, social and political life. For example , bolero, guardille, marinade, caramel , picador, cigar, tango, rumba, alligator, banana , cargo, zenith, cotton.

There are recent and widely used borrowings: macho, amigo, dinero, gringo, of el nino.

 Let us consider some borrowings.

              Macho

              This is the Spanish word got into the English language in the early 20th century. Literally means «male animal» as an adjective to mean «manly, mature adult.»

              Translated into Russian: 1) мачо (transcription), 2) крутой парень (descriptive translation), 4) настоящий мужчина, самец (descriptive translation), 3) мужественность (modulation).

Holliwood news :   «The reaction of the fighters on the sudden death of a courageous Rendi Sevidzha»  » Macho Man Randy Savage reportedly PASSED away today as he is involved in a-car accident That may have Occurred the when of He had a heart attack».To Gazza : Holliwood news

«Реакция борцов на внезапную смерть мужественного Рэнди Сэвиджа» Настоящий мужчина Рэнди Сэвидж якобы погиб в автомобильной аварии, которая вероятно произошла в тот момент, когда у него случился сердечный приступ.

              The method of translation of the header is replacement of parts of speech, and in the text is a descriptive translation.

              Amigo

             The Spanish word amigo literally means «друг», «соратник», «единомышленник.» It was borrowed about in the 30 s of the 19th century. In the English language it is used as a noun and means «friend», «like-minded». In the Russian language it is translated — «друг.»

Moscow News of the Hangover Part II of / 28/07/2011 20:28.

              «(Originally, Stu (Ed Helms ), the groom, thought that a lackluster brunch at a mediocre diner would pass for a stag party, but his friends, Phil (Bradley Cooper), Alan (Zach Galifianakis), and Doug (Justin Bartha ) were having none of it.) So his three amigos flew to Thailand to attend the wedding and, of course, have a proper stag party «Таким образом, три его друга улетели в Таиланд, чтобы посетить свадьбу, а также устроить предназначенную только для мужчин вечеринку. Khrustaleva: Moscow news.  This example uses descriptive translation.

Portuguese borrowing

               The words that came out of the Portuguese language are basically the terms of trade.

              Trade relations developed between England and Portugal in the era of mass Discovery. But compared to the Spanish borrowings, the Portuguese take up less space in the English language.

              Portuguese borrowing mainly relate to the theme of life, manners and customs of the indigenous population of the colonies. Also, a lot of words denoting the names of plants and animals are of colonial territories trade items. Many of these loans have come through the French language. Through the Portuguese language in English penetrated the words belonging to languages ​​of the peoples of Africa, Guiana, Brazil, and India.

              Here are some borrowing from the Portuguese: marmalade, flamingo, madeira, buffalo , coco (nut), port

(Wine), guinea, caste, mandarin.

Let us consider some of them.

Flamingo

              This borrowing, which literally means, «painted in the colour of fire,» came into the English language in the mid-of16th century. In English, the word is used as a noun. This zoological term, so called large, similar in size to the stork bird with fiery plumage.

           Travel Weekly / Another Anantara in Abu Dhabi / 02 July 2013

              «The hotel has 30 villas on the eastern shore of the island with 21 on the beach and nine, including the only two bedroom villas, over look the lagoon where the flamingos hang out». Weekly the TravelВ отеле имеется 30 вилл на восточном берегу острова . 21 вилла расположена на пляже. В том числе девять вилл имеют 2 спальни с видом на лагуну , где неподалеку гуляют фламинго.               In Russian it is translated as «фламинго» — a transliteration.

Marmalade

              In Portuguese it means «варенье из айвы »In English it has come at the beginning of the 16th century. It acts as a noun with the meaning «canned jelly, which are small pieces of fruit, fruit pulp, such as that of oranges and lemons.» The method of translation into Russian is modulation.

New York Times / February 19, 2014 / of Orange Marmalade the Cake / a recipe.

              «This beautiful, tender, citrus- scented loaf cake filled with bits of candied orange peel is everything you want with your afternoon tea. The key is finding the right marmalade; it needs to be the thick-cut (also known as coarse-cut) marmalade made with bitter oranges, which will be laden with big pieces of peel «. Clarc: the New York Times — Настоящий джем должен быть густым, сделанным из апельсинов с толстыми горькими корками и содержать в себе цукаты этих корок.

When transferring the borrowing we used modulation .

Conclusion

           The vocabulary of the English language is rich and varied. It came to us from ancient times, great tales and ballads. It’s the language spoken by kings and historical figures, each of which is itself a legend. Hundreds of masterpieces of world literature were written in English . This language is one of the world’s major languages ​​of communication.

              In a rapidly changing world the vocabulary of a language reflects the historical changes. Words come out of active use with the concepts denoted by them or phenomena. And new words appeared, reflecting the peculiarities of his time.

Updating language vocabulary stock is in many ways — derivation and borrowing. Borrowing foreign words reflect not only historical processes, but also geographical location of socio-cultural country in the world.

              The process of borrowing is very diverse. This process has its own reasons, stages of development and results. The borrowings appear due to internal and external influences on the language system.

              As a result, borrowing is constantly updated dictionary of the English language. Language adapted to the realities of each new era is alive and growing with the cultural community of people.      

We have analyzed the English loan words and ways of their translation into Russian, as independent lexical units, as well as in the context of the examples of the printed English-language press.

              It may be noted that the formal lexical transformations occur more frequently than others. From formal lexical transformations often occur elements of transcription and transliteration. Thse are basically the words that have become international, such as the nouveau riche, kitsch, macho, flamingos, monsoon, the meaning of which is clear and without translation in many languages. Flamingo and monsoon are terminological tokens.

              Also, when translating frequent borrowing lexical and grammatical transformation we often use descriptive translation. Descriptive (explanatory translation) conveys the meaning of a word or phrase that is difficult to find equivalents in the target language. This can be seen in such borrowings as of ad hominem, bete noire , a pied — a — terre , Favela . These words do not fully assimilated into the English and their translation needs some clarification of the meaning.

              It should also be noted that the translation of the English language borrowing is very rarely encountered regular lexical correspondences. This is probably due to the fact that loans have their own shades of meaning, despite the presence of English words with a similar meaning.

              For example, amigo — in the sense of «cоратник» is synonymous with this borrowing friend — «friend, companion, friend, colleague, companion, friend» and others.

              We note that borrowing supplement and enrich any language. A translation task is to convey shades of meaning of a word in a particular context.

              Translation transformations- are such transformations, which allow to move from the original text units to the units of the text in another language. All translation transformation are divided into lexical, grammatical and complex, lexical and grammatical. Lexical transformations include: translator transcription and transliteration, tracing and lexicosemantic substitution (concretization, generalization, and modulation). Grammatical transformations contain a literal translation, the sentence division , the sentence union , grammatical replacement (word forms, parts of speech, of the sentence). There are also complex lexical and grammatical transformations, including antonymic translation, descriptive translation and compensation. Most often combine different types of transformations in translation.

              In this work, by analyzing the translation transformation, we came to the conclusion that in the translation of foreign borrowing from English into Russian often used formal lexical transformation. This type of transfer has been met 26 times among 65 translational transformations of all our examples Thus, the hypothesis is confirmed.

              The complex nature of translation transformations make translation difficult and interesting pastime. The process of borrowing is inevitable, it develops language.  The contacts between peoples lead to interaction between their languages. In all languages there is a expanding supply of loanwords. This is a unity of the human civilization, which is embodying the historical experience of mankind.

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