Engineering function in word

How do you abbreviate engineering? There are a few common ways to abbreviate engineering.

They are,

• Engr.
• Eng.
• Engrg.

For example,

• Engr. Manager

The most common of these three abbreviations is probably engr. The abbreviation eng. is probably best to avoid because it can be confused with English.

When to Use This Abbreviation

This abbreviation is usually found in office-wide titles for employees, industry wide and inter-departmental use on form or reports, and file folder titles. You might abbreviate the word engineering to engr. on a business card or a nameplate. It is also common to see such abbreviations in headlines or newspaper titles where space is a concern.

Outside of professional titles or headlines, the word is not abbreviated in general prose.

What Does Engineering Mean?

Definition of Engineering: Engineering is defined as the work of designing and creating large structures (such as roads and bridges) or new products or systems by using scientific methods. Also, the control or direction of something (such as behavior).

For example,

• Thanks to Tom’s engineering, we modified the engine and won the race!
• This Tiny House model is smart engineering.

The word engineering functions as a noun in the sentence.

Outside Examples of Engineering

• A lot is going to be in engineering, where we can develop a new helmet where we can protect against injury. –Minneapolis Star Tribune

• Global engineering firm AECOM unveiled the plan on Tuesday, which also includes an ambitious proposal to extend the 1 train from lower Manhattan via a new tunnel to the mass transit-starved neighborhood. –New York Post

There are three common abbreviations of engineering. They are engr., eng., and engrg. The most common of these three abbreviations is engr.

Contents

• 1 When to Use This Abbreviation
• 2 What Does Engineering Mean?
• 3 Outside Examples of Engineering
• 4 Summary: Engineering Abbreviation

Category: Engineering Functions

Excel Engineering Functions perform the most commonly used engineering calculations, many of which relate to Bessel Functions, Complex Numbers or converting between different bases

IMAGINARY function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is IMAGINARY function in Excel? IMAGINARY function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that returns the imaginary coefficient of a complex number in x + yi or x + yj text format. Syntax of IMAGINARY function IMAGINARY(inumber) The IMAGINARY function syntax has the following arguments: Inumber: A complex number for which you want …

IMSQRT function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is IMSQRT function in Excel? IMSQRT function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that returns the square root of a complex number in x + yi or x + yj text format. Syntax of IMSQRT function IMSQRT(inumber) The IMSQRT function syntax has the following arguments: Inumber:  A complex number for which you want the …

IMABS function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is IMABS function in Excel? IMABS function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that returns the absolute value (modulus) of a complex number in x + yi or x + yj text format. Syntax of IMABS function IMABS(inumber) The IMABS function syntax has the following arguments: Inumber: A complex number for which you …

IMREAL function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is IMREAL function in Excel? IMREAL function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that returns the real coefficient of a complex number in x + yi or x + yj text format. Syntax of IMREAL function IMREAL(inumber) The IMREAL function syntax has the following arguments: Inumber:  A complex number for which you want …

HEX2OCT function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is HEX2OCT function in Excel? HEX2OCT function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that converts a hexadecimal number to octal. Syntax of HEX2OCT function HEX2OCT(number, [places]) The HEX2OCT function syntax has the following arguments: Number: The hexadecimal number you want to convert. Number cannot contain more than 10 characters. The most significant bit of …

IMPRODUCT function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is IMPRODUCT function in Excel? IMPRODUCT function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that returns the product of 1 to 255 complex numbers in x + yi or x + yj text format. Syntax of IMPRODUCT function IMPRODUCT(inumber1, [inumber2], …) The IMPRODUCT function syntax has the following arguments: Inumber1, [inumber2], …     Inumber1 is …

HEX2DEC function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is HEX2DEC function in Excel? HEX2DEC function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that converts a hexadecimal number to decimal. Syntax of HEX2DEC function HEX2DEC(number) The HEX2DEC function syntax has the following arguments: Number: The hexadecimal number you want to convert. Number cannot contain more than 10 characters (40 bits). The most significant bit …

IMPOWER function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is IMPOWER function in Excel? IMPOWER function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that returns a complex number in x + yi or x + yj text format raised to a power. Syntax of IMPOWER function IMPOWER(inumber, number) The IMPOWER function syntax has the following arguments: Inumber: A complex number you want to raise to a …

ERFC function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is ERFC function in Excel? ERFC function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that returns the complementary ERF function integrated between x and infinity. Syntax of ERFC function ERFC(x) The ERFC function syntax has the following arguments: X: The lower bound for integrating ERFC. ERFC formula explanation If x is nonnumeric, ERFC returns the …

IMLOG2 function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is IMLOG2 function in Excel? IMLOG2 function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that returns the base-2 logarithm of a complex number in x + yi or x + yj text format. Syntax of IMLOG2 function IMLOG2(inumber) The IMLOG2 function syntax has the following arguments: Inumber:  A complex number for which you want the …

ERF.PRECISE function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is ERF.PRECISE function in Excel? IMCOT function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that returns the error function. Syntax of ERF.PRECISE function ERF.PRECISE(x) The ERF.PRECISE function syntax has the following argument: X:  The lower bound for integrating ERF.PRECISE. ERF.PRECISE formula expalantion If lower_limit is nonnumeric, ERF.PRECISE returns the #VALUE! error value. Example of ERF.PRECISE function …

IMLOG10 function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is IMLOG10 function in Excel? IMLOG10 function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that returns the common logarithm (base 10) of a complex number in x + yi or x + yj text format. Syntax of IMLOG10 function IMLOG10(inumber) The IMLOG10 function syntax has the following arguments: Inumber:  A complex number for which you …

ERF function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is ERF function in Excel? ERF function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that returns the error function integrated between lower_limit and upper_limit. Syntax of ERF function ERF(lower_limit,[upper_limit]) The ERF function syntax has the following arguments: Lower_limit: The lower bound for integrating ERF. Upper_limit(Optional): The upper bound for integrating ERF. If omitted, ERF integrates …

IMLN function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is IMLN function in Excel? IMLN function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that returns the natural logarithm of a complex number in x + yi or x + yj text format. Syntax of IMLN function IMLN(inumber) The IMLN function syntax has the following arguments: Inumber: A complex number for which you want the …

OCT2HEX function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is OCT2HEX function in Excel? OCT2HEX function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that converts an octal number to hexadecimal. Syntax of OCT2HEX function OCT2HEX(number, [places]) The OCT2HEX function syntax has the following arguments: Number: The octal number you want to convert. Number may not contain more than 10 octal characters (30 bits). The …

OCT2DEC function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is OCT2DEC function in Excel? OCT2DEC function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that converts an octal number to decimal. Syntax of OCT2DEC function OCT2DEC(number) The OCT2DEC function syntax has the following arguments: Number: The octal number you want to convert. Number may not contain more than 10 octal characters (30 bits). The most significant …

OCT2BIN function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is OCT2BIN function in Excel? OCT2BIN function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that converts an octal number to binary. Syntax of OCT2BIN function OCT2BIN(number, [places]) The OCT2BIN function syntax has the following arguments: Number:  The octal number you want to convert. Number may not contain more than 10 characters. The most significant bit …

IMTAN function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is IMTAN function in Excel? IMTAN function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that returns the tangent of a complex number in x+yi or x+yj text format. Syntax of IMTAN function IMTAN(inumber) The IMTAN function syntax has the following arguments. Inumber:  A complex number for which you want the tangent. IMTAN formula explanation …

DELTA function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is DELTA function in Excel? DELTA function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that tests whether two values are equal. Returns 1 if number1 = number2; returns 0 otherwise. Use this function to filter a set of values. For example, by summing several DELTA functions you calculate the count of equal pairs. …

IMSUM function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is IMSUM function in Excel? IMSUM function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that returns the sum of two or more complex numbers in x + yi or x + yj text format. Syntax of IMSUM function IMSUM(inumber1, [inumber2], …) The IMSUM function syntax has the following arguments: Inumber1, [inumber2], …    Inumber1 is required, …

IMCOSH function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is IMCOSH function in Excel? IMCOSH function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that returns the hyperbolic cosine of a complex number in x+yi or x+yj text format. Syntax of IMCOSH function IMCOSH(inumber) The IMCOSH function syntax has the following arguments. Inumber: A complex number for which you want the hyperbolic cosine. IMCOSH …

IMSUB function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is IMSUB function in Excel?IMSUB function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that returns the difference of two complex numbers in x + yi or x + yj text format. Syntax of IMSUB function IMSUB(inumber1, inumber2) The IMSUB function syntax has the following arguments: Inumber1: The complex number from which to subtract inumber2. Inumber2: The …

IMCOS function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is IMCOS function in Excel? IMCOS function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that returns the cosine of a complex number in x + yi or x + yj text format. Syntax of IMCOS function IMCOS(inumber) The IMCOS function syntax has the following arguments: Inumber: A complex number for which you want the …

IMSINH function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is IMSINH function in Excel?IMSINH function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that returns the hyperbolic sine of a complex number in x+yi or x+yj text format. Syntax of IMSINH function IMSINH(inumber) The IMSINH function syntax has the following arguments. Inumber:  A complex number for which you want the hyperbolic sine. IMSINH formula explanation …

IMCONJUGATE function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is IMCONJUGATE function in Excel? IMCONJUGATE function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that returns the complex conjugate of a complex number in x + yi or x + yj text format. Syntax of IMCONJUGATE function IMCONJUGATE(inumber) The IMCONJUGATE function syntax has the following arguments: Inumber: A complex number for which you want …

IMSIN function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is IMSIN function in Excel? IMSIN function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that returns the sine of a complex number in x + yi or x + yj text format. Syntax of IMSIN function IMSIN(inumber) The IMSIN function syntax has the following arguments: Inumber: A complex number for which you want the sine. …

IMARGUMENT function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is IMARGUMENT function in Excel? IMARGUMENT function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that returns the argument  (theta), an angle expressed in radians, such that: Syntax of IMARGUMENT function IMARGUMENT(inumber) The IMARGUMENT function syntax has the following arguments: Inumber: A complex number for which you want the argument  . IMARGUMENT formula explanation Use COMPLEX to …

IMSECH function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is IMSECH function in Excel? IMSECH function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that returns the hyperbolic secant of a complex number in x+yi or x+yj text format. Syntax of IMSECH function IMSECH(inumber) The IMSECH function syntax has the following arguments. Inumber: A complex number for which you want the hyperbolic secant. IMSECH formula …

BESSELK function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is BESSELK function in Excel? BESSELK function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that returns the modified Bessel function, which is equivalent to the Bessel functions evaluated for purely imaginary arguments. Syntax of BESSELK function BESSELK(X, N) The BESSELK function syntax has the following arguments: X: The value at which to evaluate the …

BESSELJ function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is BESSELJ function in Excel? BESSELJ function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that returns the Bessel function. Syntax of BESSELJ function BESSELJ(X, N) The BESSELJ function syntax has the following arguments: X: The value at which to evaluate the function. N: The order of the Bessel function. If n is not an …

BESSELI function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is BESSELI function in Excel? BESSELI function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that returns the modified Bessel function, which is equivalent to the Bessel function evaluated for purely imaginary arguments. Syntax of BESSELI function BESSELI(X, N) The BESSELI function syntax has the following arguments: X: The value at which to evaluate the …

HEX2BIN function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is HEX2BIN function in Excel? HEX2BIN function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that converts a hexadecimal number to binary. Syntax of HEX2BIN function HEX2BIN(number, [places]) The HEX2BIN function syntax has the following arguments: Number    Required. The hexadecimal number you want to convert. Number cannot contain more than 10 characters. The most significant bit …

GESTEP function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is GESTEP function in Excel? GESTEP function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that returns 1 if number ≥ step; returns 0 (zero) otherwise. Use this function to filter a set of values. For example, by summing several GESTEP functions you calculate the count of values that exceed a threshold. Syntax of GESTEP …

ERFC.PRECISE function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is ERFC.PRECISE function in Excel? ERFC.PRECISE function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that returns the complementary ERF function integrated between x and infinity. Syntax of ERFC.PRECISE function ERFC.PRECISE(x) The ERFC.PRECISE function syntax has the following arguments: X: The lower bound for integrating ERFC.PRECISE. ERFC.PRECISE formula explanation If x is nonnumeric, ERFC.PRECISE returns the …

DEC2OCT function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is DEC2OCT function in Excel? DEC2OCT function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that converts a decimal number to octal. Syntax of DEC2OCT function DEC2OCT(number, [places]) The DEC2OCT function syntax has the following arguments: Number: The decimal integer you want to convert. If number is negative, places is ignored and DEC2OCT returns a …

CONVERT function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is CONVERT function in Excel? CONVERT function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that converts a number from one measurement system to another. For example, CONVERT can translate a table of distances in miles to a table of distances in kilometers. Syntax of CONVERT function CONVERT(number,from_unit,to_unit) Number     is the value in from_units to …

DEC2HEX function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is DEC2HEX function in Excel? DEC2HEX function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that converts a decimal number to hexadecimal. Syntax of DEC2HEX function DEC2HEX(number, [places]) The DEC2HEX function syntax has the following arguments: Number:  The decimal integer you want to convert. If number is negative, places is ignored and DEC2HEX returns a …

IMEXP function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is IMEXP function in Excel? IMEXP function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that returns the exponential of a complex number in x + yi or x + yj text format. Syntax of IMEXP function IMEXP(inumber) The IMEXP function syntax has the following arguments: Inumber: A complex number for which you want the exponential. …

COMPLEX function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is COMPLEX function in Excel? COMPLEX function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that converts real and imaginary coefficients into a complex number of the form x + yi or x + yj. Syntax of COMPLEX function COMPLEX(real_num, i_num, [suffix]) The COMPLEX function syntax has the following arguments: Real_num: The real coefficient of the …

BITXOR function: Description, Usage, Syntax, Examples and Explanation

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What is BITXOR function in Excel? BITXOR function is one of Engineering functions in Microsoft Excel that returns a bitwise ‘XOR’ of two numbers. Syntax of BITXOR function BITXOR(number1, number2) The BITXOR function syntax has the following arguments. Number1: Must be greater than or equal to 0. Number2: Must be greater than or equal to 0. BITXOR …

Engineering is the use of scientific principles to design and build machines, structures, and other items, including bridges, tunnels, roads, vehicles, and buildings.^[1] The discipline of engineering encompasses a broad range of more specialized fields of engineering, each with a more specific emphasis on particular areas of applied mathematics, applied science, and types of application. See glossary of engineering.

The term engineering is derived from the Latin ingenium, meaning «cleverness» and ingeniare, meaning «to contrive, devise».^[2]

Definition

The American Engineers’ Council for Professional Development (ECPD, the predecessor of ABET)^[3] has defined «engineering» as:

The creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, machines, apparatus, or manufacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or to construct or operate the same with full cognizance of their design; or to forecast their behavior under specific operating conditions; all as respects an intended function, economics of operation and safety to life and property.^[4][5]

History

Engineering has existed since ancient times, when humans devised inventions such as the wedge, lever, wheel and pulley, etc.

The term engineering is derived from the word engineer, which itself dates back to the 14th century when an engine’er (literally, one who builds or operates a siege engine) referred to «a constructor of military engines.»^[6] In this context, now obsolete, an «engine» referred to a military machine, i.e., a mechanical contraption used in war (for example, a catapult). Notable examples of the obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are military engineering corps, e.g., the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

The word «engine» itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin ingenium (c. 1250), meaning «innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention.»^[7]

Later, as the design of civilian structures, such as bridges and buildings, matured as a technical discipline, the term civil engineering^[5] entered the lexicon as a way to distinguish between those specializing in the construction of such non-military projects and those involved in the discipline of military engineering.

Ancient era

The pyramids in ancient Egypt, ziggurats of Mesopotamia, the Acropolis and Parthenon in Greece, the Roman aqueducts, Via Appia and Colosseum, Teotihuacán, and the Brihadeeswarar Temple of Thanjavur, among many others, stand as a testament to the ingenuity and skill of ancient civil and military engineers. Other monuments, no longer standing, such as the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and the Pharos of Alexandria, were important engineering achievements of their time and were considered among the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

The six classic simple machines were known in the ancient Near East. The wedge and the inclined plane (ramp) were known since prehistoric times.^[8] The wheel, along with the wheel and axle mechanism, was invented in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) during the 5th millennium BC.^[9] The lever mechanism first appeared around 5,000 years ago in the Near East, where it was used in a simple balance scale,^[10] and to move large objects in ancient Egyptian technology.^[11] The lever was also used in the shadoof water-lifting device, the first crane machine, which appeared in Mesopotamia circa 3000 BC,^[10] and then in ancient Egyptian technology circa 2000 BC.^[12] The earliest evidence of pulleys date back to Mesopotamia in the early 2nd millennium BC,^[13] and ancient Egypt during the Twelfth Dynasty (1991-1802 BC).^[14] The screw, the last of the simple machines to be invented,^[15] first appeared in Mesopotamia during the Neo-Assyrian period (911-609) BC.^[13] The Egyptian pyramids were built using three of the six simple machines, the inclined plane, the wedge, and the lever, to create structures like the Great Pyramid of Giza.^[16]

The earliest civil engineer known by name is Imhotep.^[5] As one of the officials of the Pharaoh, Djosèr, he probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser (the Step Pyramid) at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630–2611 BC.^[17] The earliest practical water-powered machines, the water wheel and watermill, first appeared in the Persian Empire, in what are now Iraq and Iran, by the early 4th century BC.^[18]

Kush developed the Sakia during the 4th century BC, which relied on animal power instead of human energy.^[19]Hafirs were developed as a type of reservoir in Kush to store and contain water as well as boost irrigation.^[20] Sappers were employed to build causeways during military campaigns.^[21] Kushite ancestors built speos during the Bronze Age between 3700 and 3250 BC.^[22]Bloomeries and blast furnaces were also created during the 7th centuries BC in Kush.^{[23][24][25][26]}

Ancient Greece developed machines in both civilian and military domains. The Antikythera mechanism, an early known mechanical analog computer,^[27][28] and the mechanical inventions of Archimedes, are examples of Greek mechanical engineering. Some of Archimedes’ inventions as well as the Antikythera mechanism required sophisticated knowledge of differential gearing or epicyclic gearing, two key principles in machine theory that helped design the gear trains of the Industrial Revolution, and are still widely used today in diverse fields such as robotics and automotive engineering.^[29]

Ancient Chinese, Greek, Roman and Hunnic armies employed military machines and inventions such as artillery which was developed by the Greeks around the 4th century BC,^[30] the trireme, the ballista and the catapult. In the Middle Ages, the trebuchet was developed.

Middle Ages

The earliest practical wind-powered machines, the windmill and wind pump, first appeared in the Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age, in what are now Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, by the 9th century AD.^{[31][32][33][34]} The earliest practical steam-powered machine was a steam jack driven by a steam turbine, described in 1551 by Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma’ruf in Ottoman Egypt.^[35][36]

The cotton gin was invented in India by the 6th century AD,^[37] and the spinning wheel was invented in the Islamic world by the early 11th century,^[38] both of which were fundamental to the growth of the cotton industry. The spinning wheel was also a precursor to the spinning jenny, which was a key development during the early Industrial Revolution in the 18th century.^[39]

The earliest programmable machines were developed in the Muslim world. A music sequencer, a programmable musical instrument, was the earliest type of programmable machine. The first music sequencer was an automated flute player invented by the Banu Musa brothers, described in their Book of Ingenious Devices, in the 9th century.^[40][41] In 1206, Al-Jazari invented programmable automata/robots. He described four automaton musicians, including drummers operated by a programmable drum machine, where they could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns.^[42] The castle clock, a hydropowered mechanical astronomical clock invented by Al-Jazari, was the first programmable analog computer.^[43][44][45]

Before the development of modern engineering, mathematics was used by artisans and craftsmen, such as millwrights, clockmakers, instrument makers and surveyors. Aside from these professions, universities were not believed to have had much practical significance to technology.^[46]: 32

A standard reference for the state of mechanical arts during the Renaissance is given in the mining engineering treatise De re metallica (1556), which also contains sections on geology, mining, and chemistry. De re metallica was the standard chemistry reference for the next 180 years.^[46]

Modern era

The science of classical mechanics, sometimes called Newtonian mechanics, formed the scientific basis of much of modern engineering.^[46] With the rise of engineering as a profession in the 18th century, the term became more narrowly applied to fields in which mathematics and science were applied to these ends. Similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering, the fields then known as the mechanic arts became incorporated into engineering.

Canal building was an important engineering work during the early phases of the Industrial Revolution.^[47]

John Smeaton was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer and is often regarded as the «father» of civil engineering. He was an English civil engineer responsible for the design of bridges, canals, harbors, and lighthouses. He was also a capable mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist. Using a model water wheel, Smeaton conducted experiments for seven years, determining ways to increase efficiency.^[48]: 127 Smeaton introduced iron axles and gears to water wheels.^[46]: 69 Smeaton also made mechanical improvements to the Newcomen steam engine. Smeaton designed the third Eddystone Lighthouse (1755–59) where he pioneered the use of ‘hydraulic lime’ (a form of mortar which will set under water) and developed a technique involving dovetailed blocks of granite in the building of the lighthouse. He is important in the history, rediscovery of, and development of modern cement, because he identified the compositional requirements needed to obtain «hydraulicity» in lime; work which led ultimately to the invention of Portland cement.

Applied science lead to the development of the steam engine. The sequence of events began with the invention of the barometer and the measurement of atmospheric pressure by Evangelista Torricelli in 1643, demonstration of the force of atmospheric pressure by Otto von Guericke using the Magdeburg hemispheres in 1656, laboratory experiments by Denis Papin, who built experimental model steam engines and demonstrated the use of a piston, which he published in 1707. Edward Somerset, 2nd Marquess of Worcester published a book of 100 inventions containing a method for raising waters similar to a coffee percolator. Samuel Morland, a mathematician and inventor who worked on pumps, left notes at the Vauxhall Ordinance Office on a steam pump design that Thomas Savery read. In 1698 Savery built a steam pump called «The Miner’s Friend.» It employed both vacuum and pressure.^[49] Iron merchant Thomas Newcomen, who built the first commercial piston steam engine in 1712, was not known to have any scientific training.^[48]: 32

The application of steam-powered cast iron blowing cylinders for providing pressurized air for blast furnaces lead to a large increase in iron production in the late 18th century. The higher furnace temperatures made possible with steam-powered blast allowed for the use of more lime in blast furnaces, which enabled the transition from charcoal to coke.^[50] These innovations lowered the cost of iron, making horse railways and iron bridges practical. The puddling process, patented by Henry Cort in 1784 produced large scale quantities of wrought iron. Hot blast, patented by James Beaumont Neilson in 1828, greatly lowered the amount of fuel needed to smelt iron. With the development of the high pressure steam engine, the power to weight ratio of steam engines made practical steamboats and locomotives possible.^[51] New steel making processes, such as the Bessemer process and the open hearth furnace, ushered in an area of heavy engineering in the late 19th century.

One of the most famous engineers of the mid 19th century was Isambard Kingdom Brunel, who built railroads, dockyards and steamships.

The Industrial Revolution created a demand for machinery with metal parts, which led to the development of several machine tools. Boring cast iron cylinders with precision was not possible until John Wilkinson invented his boring machine, which is considered the first machine tool.^[52] Other machine tools included the screw cutting lathe, milling machine, turret lathe and the metal planer. Precision machining techniques were developed in the first half of the 19th century. These included the use of gigs to guide the machining tool over the work and fixtures to hold the work in the proper position. Machine tools and machining techniques capable of producing interchangeable parts lead to large scale factory production by the late 19th century.^[53]

The United States census of 1850 listed the occupation of «engineer» for the first time with a count of 2,000.^[54] There were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the U.S. before 1865. In 1870 there were a dozen U.S. mechanical engineering graduates, with that number increasing to 43 per year in 1875. In 1890, there were 6,000 engineers in civil, mining, mechanical and electrical.^[51]

There was no chair of applied mechanism and applied mechanics at Cambridge until 1875, and no chair of engineering at Oxford until 1907. Germany established technical universities earlier.^[55]

The foundations of electrical engineering in the 1800s included the experiments of Alessandro Volta, Michael Faraday, Georg Ohm and others and the invention of the electric telegraph in 1816 and the electric motor in 1872. The theoretical work of James Maxwell (see: Maxwell’s equations) and Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of electronics. The later inventions of the vacuum tube and the transistor further accelerated the development of electronics to such an extent that electrical and electronics engineers currently outnumber their colleagues of any other engineering specialty.^[5]
Chemical engineering developed in the late nineteenth century.^[5] Industrial scale manufacturing demanded new materials and new processes and by 1880 the need for large scale production of chemicals was such that a new industry was created, dedicated to the development and large scale manufacturing of chemicals in new industrial plants.^[5] The role of the chemical engineer was the design of these chemical plants and processes.^[5]

Aeronautical engineering deals with aircraft design process design while aerospace engineering is a more modern term that expands the reach of the discipline by including spacecraft design. Its origins can be traced back to the aviation pioneers around the start of the 20th century although the work of Sir George Cayley has recently been dated as being from the last decade of the 18th century. Early knowledge of aeronautical engineering was largely empirical with some concepts and skills imported from other branches of engineering.^[56]

The first PhD in engineering (technically, applied science and engineering) awarded in the United States went to Josiah Willard Gibbs at Yale University in 1863; it was also the second PhD awarded in science in the U.S.^[57]

Only a decade after the successful flights by the Wright brothers, there was extensive development of aeronautical engineering through development of military aircraft that were used in World War I. Meanwhile, research to provide fundamental background science continued by combining theoretical physics with experiments.

Main branches of engineering

Engineering is a broad discipline that is often broken down into several sub-disciplines. Although an engineer will usually be trained in a specific discipline, he or she may become multi-disciplined through experience. Engineering is often characterized as having four main branches:^[58][59][60] chemical engineering, civil engineering, electrical engineering, and mechanical engineering.

Chemical engineering

Chemical engineering is the application of physics, chemistry, biology, and engineering principles in order to carry out chemical processes on a commercial scale, such as the manufacture of commodity chemicals, specialty chemicals, petroleum refining, microfabrication, fermentation, and biomolecule production.

Civil engineering

Civil engineering is the design and construction of public and private works, such as infrastructure (airports, roads, railways, water supply, and treatment etc.), bridges, tunnels, dams, and buildings.^[61][62] Civil engineering is traditionally broken into a number of sub-disciplines, including structural engineering, environmental engineering, and surveying. It is traditionally considered to be separate from military engineering.^[63]

Electrical engineering

Electrical engineering is the design, study, and manufacture of various electrical and electronic systems, such as broadcast engineering, electrical circuits, generators, motors, electromagnetic/electromechanical devices, electronic devices, electronic circuits, optical fibers, optoelectronic devices, computer systems, telecommunications, instrumentation, control systems, and electronics.

Mechanical engineering

Mechanical engineering is the design and manufacture of physical or mechanical systems, such as power and energy systems, aerospace/aircraft products, weapon systems, transportation products, engines, compressors, powertrains, kinematic chains, vacuum technology, vibration isolation equipment, manufacturing, robotics, turbines, audio equipments, and mechatronics.

Bioengineering

Bioengineering is the engineering of biological systems for a useful purpose. Examples of bioengineering research include bacteria engineered to produce chemicals, new medical imaging technology, portable and rapid disease diagnostic devices, prosthetics, biopharmaceuticals, and tissue-engineered organs.

Interdisciplinary engineering

Interdisciplinary engineering draws from more than one of the principle branches of the practice. Historically, naval engineering and mining engineering were major branches. Other engineering fields are manufacturing engineering, acoustical engineering, corrosion engineering, instrumentation and control, aerospace, automotive, computer, electronic, information engineering, petroleum, environmental, systems, audio, software, architectural, agricultural, biosystems, biomedical,^[64] geological, textile, industrial, materials,^[65] and nuclear engineering.^[66] These and other branches of engineering are represented in the 36 licensed member institutions of the UK Engineering Council.

New specialties sometimes combine with the traditional fields and form new branches – for example, Earth systems engineering and management involves a wide range of subject areas including engineering studies, environmental science, engineering ethics and philosophy of engineering.

Other branches of engineering

Aerospace engineering

Aerospace engineering covers the design, development, manufacture and operational behaviour of aircraft, satellites and rockets.

Marine engineering

Marine engineering covers the design,development,manufacture and operational behaviour of watercraft and stationary structures like oil platforms and ports.

Computer engineering

Computer engineering (CE) is a branch of engineering that integrates several fields of computer science and electronic engineering required to develop computer hardware and software. Computer engineers usually have training in electronic engineering (or electrical engineering), software design, and hardware-software integration instead of only software engineering or electronic engineering.

Geological engineering

Geological engineering is associated with anything constructed on or within the Earth. This discipline applies geological sciences and engineering principles to direct or support the work of other disciplines such as civil engineering, environmental engineering, and mining engineering. Geological engineers are involved with impact studies for facilities and operations that affect surface and subsurface environments, such as rock excavations (e.g. tunnels), building foundation consolidation, slope and fill stabilization, landslide risk assessment, groundwater monitoring, groundwater remediation, mining excavations, and natural resource exploration.

Practice

One who practices engineering is called an engineer, and those licensed to do so may have more formal designations such as Professional Engineer, Chartered Engineer, Incorporated Engineer, Ingenieur, European Engineer, or Designated Engineering Representative.

Methodology

In the engineering design process, engineers apply mathematics and sciences such as physics to find novel solutions to problems or to improve existing solutions. Engineers need proficient knowledge of relevant sciences for their design projects. As a result, many engineers continue to learn new material throughout their careers.

If multiple solutions exist, engineers weigh each design choice based on their merit and choose the solution that best matches the requirements. The task of the engineer is to identify, understand, and interpret the constraints on a design in order to yield a successful result. It is generally insufficient to build a technically successful product, rather, it must also meet further requirements.

Constraints may include available resources, physical, imaginative or technical limitations, flexibility for future modifications and additions, and other factors, such as requirements for cost, safety, marketability, productivity, and serviceability. By understanding the constraints, engineers derive specifications for the limits within which a viable object or system may be produced and operated.

Problem solving

Engineers use their knowledge of science, mathematics, logic, economics, and appropriate experience or tacit knowledge to find suitable solutions to a particular problem. Creating an appropriate mathematical model of a problem often allows them to analyze it (sometimes definitively), and to test potential solutions.^[67]

More than one solution to a design problem usually exists so the different design choices have to be evaluated on their merits before the one judged most suitable is chosen. Genrich Altshuller, after gathering statistics on a large number of patents, suggested that compromises are at the heart of «low-level» engineering designs, while at a higher level the best design is one which eliminates the core contradiction causing the problem.^[68]

Engineers typically attempt to predict how well their designs will perform to their specifications prior to full-scale production. They use, among other things: prototypes, scale models, simulations, destructive tests, nondestructive tests, and stress tests. Testing ensures that products will perform as expected but only in so far as the testing has been representative of use in service. For products, such as aircraft, that are used differently by different users failures and unexpected shortcomings (and necessary design changes) can be expected throughout the operational life of the product.^[69]

Engineers take on the responsibility of producing designs that will perform as well as expected and, except those employed in specific areas of the arms industry, will not harm people. Engineers typically include a factor of safety in their designs to reduce the risk of unexpected failure.

The study of failed products is known as forensic engineering. It attempts to identify the cause of failure to allow a redesign of the product and so prevent a re-occurrence. Careful analysis is needed to establish the cause of failure of a product. The consequences of a failure may vary in severity from the minor cost of a machine breakdown to large loss of life in the case of accidents involving aircraft and large stationary structures like buildings and dams.^[70]

Computer use

As with all modern scientific and technological endeavors, computers and software play an increasingly important role. As well as the typical business application software there are a number of computer aided applications (computer-aided technologies) specifically for engineering. Computers can be used to generate models of fundamental physical processes, which can be solved using numerical methods.

One of the most widely used design tools in the profession is computer-aided design (CAD) software. It enables engineers to create 3D models, 2D drawings, and schematics of their designs. CAD together with digital mockup (DMU) and CAE software such as finite element method analysis or analytic element method allows engineers to create models of designs that can be analyzed without having to make expensive and time-consuming physical prototypes.

These allow products and components to be checked for flaws; assess fit and assembly; study ergonomics; and to analyze static and dynamic characteristics of systems such as stresses, temperatures, electromagnetic emissions, electrical currents and voltages, digital logic levels, fluid flows, and kinematics. Access and distribution of all this information is generally organized with the use of product data management software.^[71]

There are also many tools to support specific engineering tasks such as computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) software to generate CNC machining instructions; manufacturing process management software for production engineering; EDA for printed circuit board (PCB) and circuit schematics for electronic engineers; MRO applications for maintenance management; and Architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) software for civil engineering.

In recent years the use of computer software to aid the development of goods has collectively come to be known as product lifecycle management (PLM).^[72]

The engineering profession engages in a wide range of activities, from large collaboration at the societal level, and also smaller individual projects. Almost all engineering projects are obligated to some sort of financing agency: a company, a set of investors, or a government. The few types of engineering that are minimally constrained by such issues are pro bono engineering and open-design engineering.

By its very nature engineering has interconnections with society, culture and human behavior. Every product or construction used by modern society is influenced by engineering. The results of engineering activity influence changes to the environment, society and economies, and its application brings with it a responsibility and public safety.

Engineering projects can be subject to controversy. Examples from different engineering disciplines include the development of nuclear weapons, the Three Gorges Dam, the design and use of sport utility vehicles and the extraction of oil. In response, some western engineering companies have enacted serious corporate and social responsibility policies.

Engineering is a key driver of innovation and human development. Sub-Saharan Africa, in particular, has a very small engineering capacity which results in many African nations being unable to develop crucial infrastructure without outside aid.^{[citation needed]} The attainment of many of the Millennium Development Goals requires the achievement of sufficient engineering capacity to develop infrastructure and sustainable technological development.^[73]

All overseas development and relief NGOs make considerable use of engineers to apply solutions in disaster and development scenarios. A number of charitable organizations aim to use engineering directly for the good of mankind:

• Engineers Without Borders
• Engineers Against Poverty
• Registered Engineers for Disaster Relief
• Engineers for a Sustainable World
• Engineering for Change
• Engineering Ministries International^[74]

Engineering companies in many established economies are facing significant challenges with regard to the number of professional engineers being trained, compared with the number retiring. This problem is very prominent in the UK where engineering has a poor image and low status.^[75] There are many negative economic and political issues that this can cause, as well as ethical issues.^[76] It is widely agreed that the engineering profession faces an «image crisis»,^[77] rather than it being fundamentally an unattractive career. Much work is needed to avoid huge problems in the UK and other western economies. Still, the UK holds most engineering companies compared to other European countries, together with the United States.

Code of ethics

Many engineering societies have established codes of practice and codes of ethics to guide members and inform the public at large. The National Society of Professional Engineers code of ethics states:

Engineering is an important and learned profession. As members of this profession, engineers are expected to exhibit the highest standards of honesty and integrity. Engineering has a direct and vital impact on the quality of life for all people. Accordingly, the services provided by engineers require honesty, impartiality, fairness, and equity, and must be dedicated to the protection of the public health, safety, and welfare. Engineers must perform under a standard of professional behavior that requires adherence to the highest principles of ethical conduct.^[78]

In Canada, many engineers wear the Iron Ring as a symbol and reminder of the obligations and ethics associated with their profession.^[79]

Relationships with other disciplines

Science

Scientists study the world as it is; engineers create the world that has never been.

There exists an overlap between the sciences and engineering practice; in engineering, one applies science. Both areas of endeavor rely on accurate observation of materials and phenomena. Both use mathematics and classification criteria to analyze and communicate observations.^{[citation needed]}

Scientists may also have to complete engineering tasks, such as designing experimental apparatus or building prototypes. Conversely, in the process of developing technology, engineers sometimes find themselves exploring new phenomena, thus becoming, for the moment, scientists or more precisely «engineering scientists».^[83]

In the book What Engineers Know and How They Know It,^[84] Walter Vincenti asserts that engineering research has a character different from that of scientific research. First, it often deals with areas in which the basic physics or chemistry are well understood, but the problems themselves are too complex to solve in an exact manner.

There is a «real and important» difference between engineering and physics as similar to any science field has to do with technology.^[85][86] Physics is an exploratory science that seeks knowledge of principles while engineering uses knowledge for practical applications of principles. The former equates an understanding into a mathematical principle while the latter measures variables involved and creates technology.^[87][88][89] For technology, physics is an auxiliary and in a way technology is considered as applied physics.^[90] Though physics and engineering are interrelated, it does not mean that a physicist is trained to do an engineer’s job. A physicist would typically require additional and relevant training.^[91] Physicists and engineers engage in different lines of work.^[92] But PhD physicists who specialize in sectors of engineering physics and applied physics are titled as Technology officer, R&D Engineers and System Engineers.^[93]

An example of this is the use of numerical approximations to the Navier–Stokes equations to describe aerodynamic flow over an aircraft, or the use of the Finite element method to calculate the stresses in complex components. Second, engineering research employs many semi-empirical methods that are foreign to pure scientific research, one example being the method of parameter variation.^{[citation needed]}

As stated by Fung et al. in the revision to the classic engineering text Foundations of Solid Mechanics:

Engineering is quite different from science. Scientists try to understand nature. Engineers try to make things that do not exist in nature. Engineers stress innovation and invention. To embody an invention the engineer must put his idea in concrete terms, and design something that people can use. That something can be a complex system, device, a gadget, a material, a method, a computing program, an innovative experiment, a new solution to a problem, or an improvement on what already exists. Since a design has to be realistic and functional, it must have its geometry, dimensions, and characteristics data defined. In the past engineers working on new designs found that they did not have all the required information to make design decisions. Most often, they were limited by insufficient scientific knowledge. Thus they studied mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology and mechanics. Often they had to add to the sciences relevant to their profession. Thus engineering sciences were born.^[94]

Although engineering solutions make use of scientific principles, engineers must also take into account safety, efficiency, economy, reliability, and constructability or ease of fabrication as well as the environment, ethical and legal considerations such as patent infringement or liability in the case of failure of the solution.^[95]

Medicine and biology

The study of the human body, albeit from different directions and for different purposes, is an important common link between medicine and some engineering disciplines. Medicine aims to sustain, repair, enhance and even replace functions of the human body, if necessary, through the use of technology.

Modern medicine can replace several of the body’s functions through the use of artificial organs and can significantly alter the function of the human body through artificial devices such as, for example, brain implants and pacemakers.^[96][97] The fields of bionics and medical bionics are dedicated to the study of synthetic implants pertaining to natural systems.

Conversely, some engineering disciplines view the human body as a biological machine worth studying and are dedicated to emulating many of its functions by replacing biology with technology. This has led to fields such as artificial intelligence, neural networks, fuzzy logic, and robotics. There are also substantial interdisciplinary interactions between engineering and medicine.^[98][99]

Both fields provide solutions to real world problems. This often requires moving forward before phenomena are completely understood in a more rigorous scientific sense and therefore experimentation and empirical knowledge is an integral part of both.

Medicine, in part, studies the function of the human body. The human body, as a biological machine, has many functions that can be modeled using engineering methods.^[100]

The heart for example functions much like a pump,^[101] the skeleton is like a linked structure with levers,^[102] the brain produces electrical signals etc.^[103] These similarities as well as the increasing importance and application of engineering principles in medicine, led to the development of the field of biomedical engineering that uses concepts developed in both disciplines.

Newly emerging branches of science, such as systems biology, are adapting analytical tools traditionally used for engineering, such as systems modeling and computational analysis, to the description of biological systems.^[100]

Art

There are connections between engineering and art, for example, architecture, landscape architecture and industrial design (even to the extent that these disciplines may sometimes be included in a university’s Faculty of Engineering).^{[105][106][107]}

The Art Institute of Chicago, for instance, held an exhibition about the art of NASA’s aerospace design.^[108] Robert Maillart’s bridge design is perceived by some to have been deliberately artistic.^[109] At the University of South Florida, an engineering professor, through a grant with the National Science Foundation, has developed a course that connects art and engineering.^[105][110]

Among famous historical figures, Leonardo da Vinci is a well-known Renaissance artist and engineer, and a prime example of the nexus between art and engineering.^[104][111]

Business

Business Engineering deals with the relationship between professional engineering, IT systems, business administration and change management. Engineering management or «Management engineering» is a specialized field of management concerned with engineering practice or the engineering industry sector. The demand for management-focused engineers (or from the opposite perspective, managers with an understanding of engineering), has resulted in the development of specialized engineering management degrees that develop the knowledge and skills needed for these roles. During an engineering management course, students will develop industrial engineering skills, knowledge, and expertise, alongside knowledge of business administration, management techniques, and strategic thinking. Engineers specializing in change management must have in-depth knowledge of the application of industrial and organizational psychology principles and methods. Professional engineers often train as certified management consultants in the very specialized field of management consulting applied to engineering practice or the engineering sector. This work often deals with large scale complex business transformation or Business process management initiatives in aerospace and defence, automotive, oil and gas, machinery, pharmaceutical, food and beverage, electrical & electronics, power distribution & generation, utilities and transportation systems. This combination of technical engineering practice, management consulting practice, industry sector knowledge, and change management expertise enables professional engineers who are also qualified as management consultants to lead major business transformation initiatives. These initiatives are typically sponsored by C-level executives.

Other fields

In political science, the term engineering has been borrowed for the study of the subjects of social engineering and political engineering, which deal with forming political and social structures using engineering methodology coupled with political science principles. Marketing engineering and Financial engineering have similarly borrowed the term.

See also

Lists

Glossaries

Related subjects

References

Further reading

External links

ENGINEER – FUNCTIONS AND RESPONSIBILITIES 

By: Iftikhar Ajmal Bhopal               Year: 1984 

ENGINEERING: 

Engineering is the professional art of applying science to the optimum conversion of the resources of nature to benefit man. The words engineer and ingenious are derived from the same Latin root “ingenerare” meaning “to create”. 

Associated with engineering is a great body of special knowledge; preparation for professional practice involves extensive training in the application of that knowledge.Engineering is an art requiring the judgment necessary to adapt knowledge to practical purposes, the imagination to conceive original solutions to problems, and the ability to predict performance and cost of new devices or processes. 

The function of the scientist is to know, while that of the engineer is to do. The scientist adds to the store of verified, systematized knowledge of the physical world; the engineer brings this knowledge to bear on practical problems. Engineering is based principally on physics, chemistry & mathematics and their extensions into materials science, solid and fluid mechanics, thermodynamics, transfer and rate processes, system analysis, computer programming, electronics and optronics. 

Unlike the scientists, the engineer is not free to select the problem that interests him; he must solve problems as they arise; his solution must satisfy conflicting requirements. Usually efficiency costs money; safety adds to complexity; improved performance increases weight. The engineering solution is the optimum solution, the end result that, taking many factors into account, is most desirable. It may be the cheapest for a specified level of performance, the most reliable within a given weight limit, the simplest that will satisfy certain safety requirements, or the most efficient for a given cost. In many engineering problems, the social costs are significant. 

Engineers employ two types of natural resources – materials and energy. Since most resources are limited, the engineer must concern himself with the continual development of new resources as well as the efficient utilization of existing ones. The results of engineering activities contribute to the welfare of man by furnishing food, shelter, and comfort; by making work, transportation and communication easier and safer; and by making life pleasant and satisfying. 

ENGINEERING FUNCTIONS: 

The branches indicate what the engineer works with; the functions describe what he does. In order of decreasing emphasis on science, the major functions of all engineering branches are the following: 

Research. The research engineer seeks new principles and processes by employing mathematical and scientific concepts, experimental techniques, and inductive reasoning. 

Development. The development engineer applies the results of research to useful purposes. Ingenious and creative application of new knowledge may result in a working model of a new electronics circuit, a chemical process, an industrial machine, or a gadget of optronics. 

Design. In designing a structure or a product, the engineer selects methods, specifies materials, and determines shapes to satisfy technical requirements and to meet performance specification. 

Construction. The construction engineer is responsible for preparing the site, determining procedures that will economically and safely yield the desired quality, directing the placement of materials, and organizing the personnel and equipment. 

Production. Plant layout and equipment selection, with consideration of human and economic factors, is the responsibility of the production engineer. He chooses processes and tools, integrates the flow of materials and components, and provides for testing and inspection. 

Operation. The operating engineer controls machines, plants, and organizations providing power, transportation, and communication. He determines procedures and supervises personnel to obtain reliable and economic operation of complex equipment. 

Management and other functions. In some countries (U.S.A.,Japan, etc) and industries, engineers analyze customer requirements, recommend units to satisfy needs economically, and resolve related problems. In some industries, too, engineers decide how assets are to be used. 

ENGINEERING EDUCATION: 

An engineer must study sciences and their application, resources and their conversion, and man and his needs. The first stage of professional preparation is usually a collage degree, but in the present-day-world, where rapid change is the rules, learning must be continuous. 

Undergraduate Curriculum. The integrated undergraduate engineering program, developed primarily in Europe and the U.S. over the past century, provides the basic education for entrance into the profession. It provides opportunities for students to master important concepts; to become adept in powerful techniques; to develop creative approaches to problem solving; and to become skillful in oral, written, graphic, and mathematical communication. By integrating the study of humanities, social sciences, mathematics, physical sciences, and technology and by providing experience in analysis, synthesis, and experimentation, the undergraduate engineering program offers a modern liberal education. 

The typical curriculum leading to the bachelor’s degree is defined by series of courses.. General, education is provided by a pattern of courses selected, from the humanities and social sciences. Basic science education includes mathematics, physics, computer programming, and often statistics, chemistry, and biology. Engineering sciences include materials, mechanics, thermodynamics, transfer and rate processes, electrical science, electronics, and information processing. 

The combination of general education with basic and engineering science may provide the common preparations for all engineering students at a given institution. Specialization to meet the needs and interests of individuals is offered through majors or options — combinations of courses to provide depth in a specific branch or function. 

Graduate Study. More and more engineers in the U.S.A., U.S.S.R., Japan and other countries hold advanced degrees. In engineering, graduate study is characterized by highly sophisticated concepts, more advanced mathematics, greater depth in special topics, more opportunity for individual work, and less dependence on formal courses. 

Modern trends. Early engineers were trained by apprenticeship to a skilled practitioner. As the body of knowledge gained by observation, testing, and research increased, organized programmes of study were initiated in established institutions. Following World War—Il, new trends became apparent, the result of the rapidly growing body of theoretical knowledge. Greater emphasis was placed on mathematics, physical science, and the engineering science. The current trend is toward more basic and less applied courses, greater use of computers and probability theory, and, at least in some countries, additional humanities and social sciences. 

ENGINEERING RESPONSIBILITIES. 

One activity common to all engineering work is problem solution. The problem may involve quantitative or qualitative factors; it may be physical or economic; it may require abstract mathematics or common sense. Of great importance is the process of creative synthesis or design, putting ideas together to create a new and optimum solution of the problem. Since the engineer functions at the socio-technological “interface” (with science and technology on one side and individuals and communities on the other), he bears a unique responsibility to decide on priorities, establish performance criteria, select materials and processes, and specify evaluation procedures. 

Problem solution. Although engineering problems vary greatly in scope and complexity, the same general approach is applicable. First comes an analysis of the overall situation and a preliminary decision on a plan of attack. In line with this plan, the usually broad and vague problem is reduced to a more categorical question that can be clearly stated. The stated question is then answered by deductive reasoning from known principles or by creative synthesis, as in a new design. The answer or design is always checked for accuracy and adequacy. Finally, the results for the simplified problem as stated are interpreted in terms of the original problem and reported in an appropriate form. 

In his search for solutions to problems, especially new problems, the engineer is in conflict with a rather intractable environment and often in competition with predecessors who tried and failed and with contemporary rivals who are trying to solve the same problem. His success depends on ability to create a new idea, a new device, a new process, or a new material. 

Decision making. The engineer not only makes technological advances available to man but also may be charged with the responsibility to see that such advances do indeed enhance the welfare of man. By virtue of his knowledge, his skill, and his unique role in society, the engineer must concern himself with the results of technological progress such as its effect on the physical environment and its social and economic impact. A successful engineer is prepared for decision making on complex problems in broad areas. He is skilled in the use of sophisticated tools and creative in the development of new techniques. He has the vision to conceive vast projects, the talent to analyze them as integrated man-machine-environment systems, and the ability to predict their technical performance and their human impact.