Do you capitalize the word english

It is very important to understand the importance of capitalizing our words. They are helpful signals for the reader to know and understand what the author is referring to. For example, it’s very different to say «I used to live in a white house» vs. «I used to live in The White House.» In this article, you will be introduced to the world of capitalization of the English language, and more specifically, answering the question: When do you capitalize the word English?

When referring to the country of England, the people of England (Englishmen), or the language of English, the word English is a proper noun, and therefore should always be capitalized. This is because proper nouns refer to an individual entity, a specific person, place, or thing, like Mia, Portugal, or Prada.

The basics of capitalization and grammar are as follows:

• Capitalize the first letter of significant words when writing titles, such as «The Devil Wears Prada» or «The Polar Express.»
• Capitalize when writing the names of people, places, or things, like «Molly,» «New York,» or «Netflix.»
• Capitalize the first word of every text and the first word after punctuation.

Examples: «The school did not expect any visitors today. However, they could make an exception.», «The store closes at 3pm on weekends. We will have to wait for Monday.» and «A thief stole my purse! Help me!»

GUIDELINES FOR CAPITALIZATION.

These rules are pretty simple and commonly known. Still, in the heat of the moment, as you are typing away at your English homework or assignment, things can get quite technical and confusing as the English language is broad and complex. The following acronym MINTS can be an easily reachable tool to learn and practice the technicalities of writing and grammar:

M.I.N.T.S.:

• M is for Months, Days, and Holidays.

Ex: I visited the country of England in November of last year.

Seasons (summer, spring, fall, winter) are not capitalized, as they are considered common nouns, not proper nouns. Remember, proper nouns are always capitalized, whereas common nouns are not.

An exception to this rule would be cases where we always capitalize: Titles, names of people, places, and/or things, and the first word of a sentence.

• I is for the letter I.

Ex: I am a native English speaker.

Have you noticed that «I» is the only pronoun that we capitalize? Even in other languages, pronouns are not capitalized. Only in the English language will you find this.

The most generally accepted explanation for this phenomenon is that the letter «I,» when referring to the self and to the person speaking, could not be left to stand alone, uncapitalized, as a single letter. Also, due to its shy presentation, it is aesthetically preferable for its capitalization. «I» just looks better in writing.

Fun fact: The letter I for most of modern history did not use to be capitalized. The term «I» as a single-letter pronoun came from the Old and Middle Ages when the word for «I» came from the German «ich,» and in writings of the time was commonly spelled as «ic,» not capitalized. As time went on, the spelling and pronunciation of the word changed and lost the C consonant. The new term «i» was left lowercase until the author of «The Canterbury Tales» in the late 1300s utilized the personal pronoun «I» in uppercase. It is said that the author styled the pronoun in this way because it appeared slightly taller than its lowercase equivalent, and it is more comfortable to read, as well as casts a grandiose halo onto the protagonist of the tale.

• N is for Names, referring to proper nouns. As explained before, common nouns are the ones utilized when we are referring to a generic term, like library, police officer, house. A proper noun or proper name is specific to the individual person, place, or thing, like The Library of Santa Fe, Officer James, and The White House.
• T refers to titles. As stated before, the rule of thumb for learning to capitalize titles is to capitalize all significant words in a title. So nouns, pronouns, verbs, and adjectives should always be capitalized in a title. However, due to the artistic nature of the writing, it really is up to the author to determine the correct spelling and grammar of the title.
• S is for the start of sentences. Last but not least, the most commonly known rule of them all: always capitalize the first word of every sentence. This is used to signalize the beginning of a new sentence, and it is always helpful when reading or speaking from the written word. Like punctuation, it does not affect the language itself, but it serves to better understand and recognize the point the author is attempting to make.

Exceptions

Now, for every rule, there is an exception. And that’s no exception to capitalization rules!

So far, the capitalization rules and terms are quite easy and understandable. What do we capitalize? Every first word of every sentence, every name or pronoun, and every major word in titles.

Now, what do we not capitalize? Here are a few examples.

While we capitalize all the pretty significant words in a title, we do not capitalize short prepositions, short conjunctions, or articles: Eg, Harry Potter, and the Sorcerer’s Stone.

While we do capitalize names and other proper pronouns, we do not capitalize occupation titles when they are not used as part of the name. E.g., the young professor, Doctor Mike.

While we capitalize names of places, countries, cities, or regions, we do not capitalize on directions. E.g., North America, heading north.

While we do capitalize Days, Months, and Holidays, we do not capitalize seasons or centuries. E.g., Monday, eighteenth-century.

While we do capitalize words that show family relationships when used with a person’s name, we do not capitalize words that show a family relationship when used after a possessive pronoun. E.g., Uncle Nick, my uncle Nick.

Capitalization in poems and art

Taking into consideration all of these rules and exceptions, when it comes to art and poetry, there are even more exceptions and alternative guidelines to capitalization. It is always a discussion in regards to punctuation in poetry and the arts because we see many instances where the capitalization rules are not followed, but the grammar is still deemed correct.

For example:

From childhood’s hour, I have not been

As others were—I have not seen

As others saw—I could not bring

My passions from a common spring—

Fraction of «Alone», -Edgar Allan Poe

As we can see in this example, every first word of every phrase is capitalized, even though they are not new sentences being formed. This is because styled this way makes it more aesthetically pleasing to the reader and assists in following the melody of the poem.

In its reverse form, non-capitalization is a new approach that has been popularized in recent times. Many poets find themselves completely against this approach, opting to prefer the more visually appealing all-capitalized approach.

In this style of writing, no words are capitalized in the poem. The exceptions to this style could be when capitalizing proper nouns like names or when personifying an inanimate object or thing. Regardless, the use of capitalization would be 100% up to the author’s discretion.

So, when do you capitalize the word English?

The simple answer is: always!

The reasoning behind it: Whenever we are using the term «English,» it is referring to the language English, the people of England, or the place of England. In all of these instances, as we have learned from this article, we capitalize the word.

Next time you are pondering over if a word should be capitalized or not, remember your M.I.N.T.S.!

English is the most common language in the world so it’s likely that you’ve asked the question before. Whether you’re writing an essay, marketing materials, or email, you may ask:

Is English Capitalized?

The short answer is yes, you capitalize the word English regardless of whether you’re referring to the nationality, the school subject, or the language because all of these are proper nouns.

Normally English is a proper noun and all proper nouns in the English language are capitalized. Even when used as an adjective, such as in the “English language” or the “English curriculum,” English is capitalized because according to this Wikipedia article adjectives derived from proper nouns retain their capitalization:

In English, adjectives derived from proper nouns (except the names of characters in fictional works) usually retain their capitalization
– e.g. a Christian church, Canadian whisky, a Shakespearean sonnet, but not a quixotic mission, malapropism, holmesian nor pecksniffian.

Where the original capital is no longer at the beginning of the word, usage varies: anti-Christian, but Presocratic or Pre-Socratic or presocratic (not preSocratic).

English, and other nationalities and languages, are capitalized since they are proper nouns. Even the word “British” to describe nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, including England, is capitalized.

Asked by: Prof. Columbus Stroman

Score: 4.7/5
(69 votes)

The short answer is yes, you capitalize the word English regardless of whether you’re referring to the nationality, the school subject, or the language because all of these are proper nouns.

Should you capitalize the word English?

If you’re ever wondering when to capitalize English, when you’re talking about the language or the nationality, the answer is always “yes.” Although people writing casually online often lowercase the word, it is a proper noun and therefore requires a capital letter.

Is E in English capitalized?

In English, languages, nations and nationalities are always capitalized. Not using a capital E in the word English (or when referring to other languages in English) makes your writing seem careless.

What do you capitalize in English?

In English, a capital letter is used for the first word of a sentence and for all proper nouns (words that name a specific person, place, organization, or thing). In some cases, capitalization is also required for the first word in a quotation and the first word after a colon.

Is capitalization a part of grammar?

Capitalization is neither part of grammar nor punctuation rules and, instead, part of the overarching category of mechanics.

40 related questions found

The dictionaries and glossaries I’ve look at differ considerably in what they say about English appearing with a lower-case e when using the word for spin or side.

No Mention: (Assumed upper-case only)

Print OED: no mention
Print The New Oxford American: no mention
Online M-W: no mention
Online Lexico: no mention
Online Oxford/Google (FreeDictionary): no mention

Qualified upper- or lower-case:

Print Webster’s New World: [sometimes e-]
Print Collins: often not cap.

English: alternative form of “english.”
english: term usually used
to refer to sidespin applied to the CB, but can also be used to refer
to any type of spin applied to the CB (e.g., with draw and follow
shots).
…
english-induced throw: same as “spin-induced throw.”
english transfer: same as “spin transfer.” Billiards Terminology Glossary

Lower-case only:

Wiktionary: entry is in lower case on a page of Glossary of cue sports terms

Looking at a few pages of hits for «put/putting english on the ball» in Google Books, the lower-case e is less common, but present.

You and your opponent each have a control unit. Each unit not only
moves a square, but can put english on the ball when it hits it. Popular Science (1972)

Marie stood rigidly at a machine next to me, moving only her fingers
on the flippers as if entranced, hypnotized by the lights and the
computer gibberish, while I leaned into my machine or jolted it with
stiff arms sometimes violently trying to put english on the ball or
achieve a greater bounce off the bumpers. Blood Confessions (1992)

Studs, unconscious of everything, put the balls before him, ran the
table, feeling a sense of skill and power as he made ball after ball,
planning shots ahead, putting english on the ball to get position,
feeling a complete mastery. Studs Logan (2001)

Also, names of school subjects (math, algebra, geology, psychology) are not capitalized, with the exception of the names of languages (French, English). Names of courses are capitalized (Algebra 201, Math 001).

Should parish be capitalized?

You’re on firm ground. If “Parish Hall” is the name of the meeting room, it would be capitalized, and it would be possible (but not necessary) to capitalize the word “Church” within the document when it refers to this specific church (in order to distinguish this use of the word from its more generic use).

When referring to a department should it be capitalized?

The word department should only be capitalized when it precedes the name of the program. When used in plural form (departments), it should not be capitalized. See examples below.

If the word “team” is part of the official name of the team, then yes, it is capitalized.

Should manager have a capital M?

“Manager” when used as a title, is written with a capital “M”. When it is used as an ordinary noun, it is written with a small “m”.

Does government have a capital letter?

Government has a capital letter only when it is preceded by “the”. Ministers are always capitalised. departments and civil servants are not capitalised unless using a proper noun.

Does business need a capital letter?

The names of companies and organizations should also be capitalized, such as Nike and Stanford University. There are some exceptions: sometimes a company may choose not to use a capital letter at the beginning of its name or product as a stylistic choice.

Which business can I start with low capital?

If you want to start a low-cost business, these 25 ideas will help inspire your entrepreneurial passion.

• Content creation.
• Personal or virtual assistant.
• Event planning services.
• Errand/concierge service.
• Professional reviewer.
• Social media consultant.
• Etsy shop.
• Online courses and tutoring.

What does it mean when text is in all caps?

In typography, all caps (short for “all capitals”) refers to text or a font in which all letters are capital letters, for example: TEXT IN ALL CAPS . Short strings of words in capital letters appear bolder and “louder” than mixed case, and this is sometimes referred to as “screaming” or “shouting”.

Why is it recommended not to write a text in all uppercase?

Whether composing an email, a text, or an instant message, it’s usually best to use sentence capitalization, which means don’t use all caps. Why? Because when you write in all capital letters, recipients interpret it as the equivalent of shouting.

Why should you stay away from using all capital letters?

Writers have used capital letters to convey anger in print, too. If typing in all caps is a lazy way of yelling—a crutch for the angry and inarticulate—then the keyboard is complicit: The “caps lock” key makes it unreasonably easy for us to be rude (even, sometimes, inadvertently).

Is it okay to use all caps in writing?

Capitalizing an entire word or phrase for emphasis is rarely appropriate. If capitals are wanted–in dialogue or in representing newspaper headlines, for example–small caps rather than full capitals look more graceful. In order to show emphasis on a certain word or phrase, we recommend using italics.

What’s the problem with all caps type and why should you avoid it?

It Is More Difficult to Read a Word in All Caps It makes it more difficult to communicate a word when it is in all caps; It does not make it easier. This is the case for two main reasons. Capital letters look more similar than lower case letters. They all have the same relative height.

Why would a guy text you if he’s not interested?

He is probably insecure and wants to test where he stands. He also might be just finding out what he really wants. He keeps texting because he wants you to be interested, but he never gives too much. It’s a spider web, and if you are not careful, you could be stuck into texting for a while.

Do guys like it when girls text first?

Believe it or not, many guys really like it when girls text first. Being confident is a big turn-on, and sending the first text takes confidence! Unless you’re sending slews of unanswered messages at a time, consistently sending the first text can actually be a big turn-on for guys.

Would a guy text you if he wasn’t interested everyday?

My experience tells me that yes- they do and yes, it definitely is normal for a guy to text you, every day even, just because they are bored or because they need a boost in confidence.

Will he notice if I stop texting?

Yes, guys do notice when you stop texting them provided that they actually cared about you or have some level of interest or attachment to you. Otherwise, no, guys won’t notice when you stop texting them. Generally speaking, we only miss something or someone when they hold some position of value in our lives.

Is he interested or just being nice?

If you see he’s acting differently around you, a bit nervous or clumsy or trying too hard, then you can be positive that he has feelings for you. A guy who is just being nice will treat you like he treats everyone else around him. He won’t be clumsy or nervous, he’ll just be himself, as he always is.

This blog discusses 15 basic capitalization rules for English grammar. To give you an opportunity to practice your proofreading, we have left a few spelling, punctuation, or grammatical errors in the text. See if you can spot them! If you spot the errors correctly, you will be entitled to a 10% discount. 

Capitalization means writing a word with its first letter in uppercase while the remaining letters in lowercase. As a general rule, in English, a capital letter is used for the first word of a sentence and for all proper nouns. Although the rules of English capitalization seem simple at first glance, it might still be complicated in academic writing. You probably know you should capitalize proper nouns and the first word of every sentence. However, in some cases, capitalization is required for the first word in a quotation and the first word after a colon. Here are the details:

1. Capitalize the First Word of A Sentence

This rule is the most basic one. Always capitalize the first word of your sentence, whether it is a proper or common name.

• The baby is crawling.

• Where to find my book?

• I ordered a new laptop online.

2. Capitalize All Proper Names in A Sentence

A proper noun is the specific name of a person, place, object, or organization to make it more specific such as Alice, Chicago, Tuesday. The first letter of a person’s first, middle, and last names should also be capitalized (John Fitzgerald Kennedy, Thomas Alva Edison). All proper nouns -even adjectives derived from a proper noun- should be written with capital letters regardless of where they appear in a sentence.

• I ordered an Apple computer from BestBuy.

• George Washington was an American political leader who served as the first president of the United States.

The names of cities, towns, countries, counties, companies, religions, and political parties are also considered proper nouns and should be written with capital letters.

• Universal Orlando Resort, commonly known as Universal Orlando or simply ‘’Universal,’’ is a theme park based in Orlando, Florida.

Common nouns refer to a general, non-specific category or entity that name any person, place, object, or idea. They are not capitalized unless they come at the beginning of a sentence or a part of the title.

You should also capitalize words like mom, dad, grandma, and grandpa when you use them as a form of address.

3. How to Capitalize Titles of People

As discussed above, you should capitalize the first letter of a person’s first, middle, and last names (Thomas Alva Edison, John Fitzgerald Kennedy). However, you also need to capitalize suffixes (i.e., Sir Isac Newton., Alexander the Great, Alfred the Great) and titles.

When titles such as Mr., Mrs., or Dr. are considered a part of their name, they should be capitalized too. This rule is followed in a situation in which you address a person by his or her position as though it is a part of their name.

Capitalize	Do Not Capitalize
I completed the report on President George Washington.	George Washington was an American political leader who served as the first president of the United States.
When I started at Apple, I worked as an intern with Senior Vice President Luca Maestri for one month.	Luca Maestri is one of the senior vice presidents of the company.

a. Do not capitalize occupations and titles when they are not used as part of a name.

• The journal’s chief editor

• He was a libertarian senator. 

b. Do not capitalize titles when used descriptively.

• Dr. Lawrence, who will chair the meeting, will be here soon.

b. Titles immediately following the name do not ordinarily require capitalization. 

• Dr. Lawrence, the chairperson, will join us at the meeting.

c. When the article ‘‘the’’ appears in front of the job title, do not capitalize.

• Lawrence, the chairperson, will be here soon.

• The chairperson, Dr. Lawrence, will join us at the meeting.

• Goodman was the managing editor of the journal. 

d. Capitalize titles in signature lines.

Although there is no universal rule on writing titles in the complimentary closing of a letter, our editors recommend capitalizing a titles when they follow the name on the address or signature line. However, you can leave it in lowercase as titles are generally not capitalized when following a name in text. Both ways are acceptable. So, choose a method and be consistent.

• Mike Lawrence, Chairperson

• John Goodman, Managing Editor 

4. Capitalize Common Nouns When They Are Used to Name A Specific Entity

Common nouns are considered proper nouns when they are used to name a specific entity.

Common noun	Proper noun
The President will speak to the nation this weekend.	The action has not been approved by the United Nations.
He was a libertarian.	His nomination was forced upon the Libertarian Party.
It is a Gothic cathedral dating from the 15th century.	Florence Cathedral is considered the most beautiful building in the city.

5. Capitalization After Colons

In most cases, you do not have to capitalize a word after a colon. In British English, the first letter after a colon is capitalized only if it’s a proper noun or an acronym. However, the first word after a colon is sometimes capitalized in American English if it begins a complete sentence.

a. List of things or a phrase

When a colon introduces a list of things or a phrase that is not a complete sentence, do not capitalize the first word after the colon unless it is a proper noun or a common noun that is used to name a specific entity.

b. Complete sentence (check your style guide)

When a colon introduces a complete sentence, you need to check your style guide to see whether you capitalize the first word after the colon.

According to the APA Publication Manual, for instance, the first word after the colon is capitalized only if it begins a complete sentence. In APA style, if the clause following the colon is a complete sentence, it begins with a capital letter.

They have agreed on the outcome: informed participants perform better than do uninformed participants.	Incorrect
They have agreed on the outcome: Informed participants perform better than do uninformed participants.	Correct

However, The Chicago Manual of Style has a different perspective on it. It requires to capitalize the first word following the colon if there is more than one complete explanatory sentence following the colon.

John prefers wearing a brimmed cap: Strong light often triggers his migraine.	Incorrect
John prefers wearing a brimmed cap: strong light often triggers his migraine.	Correct
John prefers wearing a brimmed cap: strong light often triggers his migraine. He also thinks it is fashionable.	Incorrect
John prefers wearing a brimmed cap: Strong light often triggers his migraine. He also thinks it is fashionable.	Correct

c. The other basic rule of APA Style is to capitalize the first word after the colon in a title.

The Impact of Job-Related Stress on Burnout: a Florida Case Study	Incorrect
The Impact of Job-Related Stress on Burnout: A Florida Case Study	Correct

d. Never capitalize a word after a colon when introducing a list:

The variables of the study are as follows: Burnout, job-related stress, and health-related quality of life.	Incorrect
The variables of the study are as follows: burnout, job-related stress, and health-related quality of life.	Correct

6. Capitalization of the First Word of Quotations

When the quote is a complete sentence, you should capitalize the first word of the quote.

• James said, “The motorcycle slid sideways and skidded approximately 50 meters.” 

Do not capitalize the first word of partial quotes.

• “The motorcycle slid sideways,” James said, “and skidded approximately 50 meters.’’ 

7. Capitalize Days, Months, Holidays

The names of days, months, festivals, and holidays are considered proper nouns and, therefore, should be capitalized.

• Tuesday was more productive than Monday.

• I love the Fourth of July.

• Put that on your Christmas wish list.

• Do you have any plans for Valentine’s Day?

• Her death took place about the end of Ramadan. 

8. Capitalize Time Periods and Events 

Specific time periods, eras, and historical events are considered proper names and thus need to be capitalized.

• The Reformation is considered one of the major movements within Western Christianity in 16th-century Europe.

• History is commonly divided into three separate periods: the Ancient Period, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Time.

• World War I was once called the Great War.

• The American Revolution took many ideas from the early civilizations of Greece and Rome. 

9. Do Not Capitalize Centuries

Centuries—and the numbers before them—should not be capitalized.

• During the eighteenth century, slave trading and human trafficking expanded on a global scale.

10. Do Not Capitalize Seasons

However, the name of the four seasons are not proper nouns, so should not be capitalized unless they appear as part of a proper noun.

• The night is the winter, the morning and evening are the spring and fall, and noon is the summer.

• I live near Winter Park.

• The Italian city of Turin hosted the 2006 Winter Olympics.

11. Capitalize Countries, Cities, Nationalities, and Languages

The names of countries, cities, nationalities, and languages are considered proper nouns, and they should be capitalized.

• My father is Irish, and my mother is British.

• I am studying French and German and Latin and Greek.

• On their refusal, the Russians attacked them at midnight.

• Few cities in Europe can match the cultural richness of Berlin. 

12. Capitalize the Most Words in Headings and Titles

In general, you need to capitalize all major words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, and all proper nouns) in titles and headings. That means articles, conjunctions, and prepositions should not be capitalized. However, the capitalization rules for the titles and headings sometimes differ according to style guides.

For instance, APA Style has two types of capitalization for titles: Title case and sentence case. In title case, APA Style requires all major words to be capitalized, and most minor words should be in lowercase. However, in sentence case, most major and minor words are lowercase unless they are proper nouns. According to APA Style, nouns, verbs (including linking verbs), adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, and all words of four letters or more are considered major words; while short (i.e., three letters or fewer) conjunctions, short prepositions, and all articles are considered minor words (APA 6th edition).

• Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows is the seventh and final novel in the series. 

13. Capitalization of Directions and Regions

Capitalize north, south, east, and west (including derivative words) when they refer to a direction or general area or when they designate definite regions or are an integral part of a proper name.

• I live in the south of France.

• First, go north on I-94 and then east.

• The main parts of the southern region of the country were not affected by the ongoing drought. 

However, capitalization is required when these words are part of a proper name or refer to a specific region.

• Record temperatures continued to bake the Midwestern and Southern states. 

• Winds are expected to become northerly later today.

• The South Pole is claimed by seven nations.

• He’s from the Far East, not from the Middle East.

• Western Christianity has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization.

Also, you need to capitalize well-known region names such as East Coast, West Coast, and Southern California. However, a geographical area considered a distinct region might vary by country.

• The East Coast of the United States is also known as the Eastern Seaboard.

• The West Coast is the coastline along which the continental Western United States meets the North Pacific Ocean. 

14. Theories, Laws, Models, and Disciplines

In general, there is no need to capitalize the names of laws, theories, models, disciplines, statistical procedures, or hypotheses as they can be understood to serve more as common nouns as opposed to proper nouns. Note that proper nouns within these terms are capitalized.

Scientific theories and models	rational choice theory, social constructionist theory, germ theory of disease, Newton’s law of gravitation, problem solving model, crisis intervention model
Scales and inventories	Maslach Burnout Inventory, Transformational Leadership Scale
Laws and schools of though	Maslow’s law of hierarchy, behaviorism, the German historical school, French liberal school
Disciplines and subjects	economics, Mathematics, English, anthropology, chemistry

 Keep in mind that the names of inventories, questionnaires, or tests should be capitalized.

• Maslach Burnout Inventory

• Transformational Leadership Scale

15. Closing a Letter with A Valediction

When we sign off on letters or send emails, we generally close them with valediction such as «Regards», «Best», «Best wishes», «Best regards», «Sincerely», or «Cordially yours.» The first word in these farewell words or complimentary closes should be capitalized, just like the beginning of a sentence.

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When do you capitalize a word?

The capitalization of a word (meaning its first letter is in the upper case) often depends upon its context and placement within a sentence. While there are some words that are always capitalized no matter where they appear in a sentence—such as “proper” nouns and adjectives, as well as the first-person pronoun I—most words are only capitalized if they appear at the beginning of a sentence.

Determining when to capitalize words in the titles of creative or published works (such as novels, films, essays, plays, paintings, news headlines, etc.) can be very difficult because there is no single, generally accepted rule to follow. However, there are some standard conventions, which we’ll discuss a little further on.

Capitalizing the first word of a sentence

The first word of a sentence is always capitalized. This helps the reader clearly recognize that the sentence has begun, and we make it clear that the sentence has ended by using terminal punctuation marks (e.g., periods, exclamation points, or question marks).

We also capitalize the first letter of a sentence that is directly quoted within another sentence. This is known as direct speech. For example:

• John said, “You’ll never work in this city again!”
• Mary told him, “We should spend some time apart,” which took him by surprise.
• The other day, my daughter asked, “Why do I have to go to school, but you don’t?”

Sometimes, a portion of a larger statement will be quoted as a complete sentence on its own; this is especially common in journalistic writing. To preserve capitalization conventions, we still usually capitalize the first letter of the quoted speech (if it functions as a complete independent sentence), but we surround the capital letter in brackets to make it clear that the change was made by the person using the quotation. For instance:

• The president went on to say, “[W]e must be willing to help those less fortunate than ourselves.”

Note that we do not capitalize the first word in the quotation if it is a word, phrase, or sentence fragment incorporated into the natural flow of the overall sentence; we also do not set it apart with commas:

• My brother said he feels “really bad” about what happened.
• But I don’t want to just “see how things go”!

Trademarks beginning with a lowercase letter

Sometimes, a trademark or brand name will begin with a lowercase letter immediately followed by an uppercase letter, as in iPhone, eBay, eHarmony, etc. If writers decide to begin a sentence with such a trademarked word, they may be confused about whether to capitalize the first letter since it is at the beginning of a sentence, or to leave the first letter in lowercase since it is specific to the brand name. Different style guides have different requirements, but most guides recommend rewording the sentence to avoid the issue altogether:

• «iPhone sales continue to climb.» (not technically wrong, but not ideal)
• “Sales for the iPhone continue to climb.” (correct and recommended)

Proper Nouns

Proper nouns are used to identify a unique person, place, or thing (as opposed to common nouns, which identify generic or nonspecific people or things). A proper noun names someone or something that is one of a kind; this is signified by capitalizing the first letter of the word, no matter where it appears in a sentence.

The most common proper nouns are names of people, places, or events:

• “Go find Jeff and tell him that dinner is ready.”
• “I lived in Cincinnati before I moved to New York.”
• “My parents still talk about how great Woodstock was in 1969.”

Proper nouns are similarly used for items that have a commercial brand name. In this case, the object that’s being referred to is not unique in itself, but the brand it belongs to is. For example:

• “Pass me the Frisbee.”
• “I’ll have a Pepsi, please.”
• “My new MacBook is incredibly fast.”

The names of organizations, companies, agencies, etc., are all proper nouns as well, so the words that make up the name are all capitalized. However, unlike the nouns of people or places, these often contain function words (those that have only grammatical importance, such as articles, conjunctions, and prepositions), which are not capitalized. For example:

• “You’ll have to raise your query with the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade.”
• “I’ve been offered a teaching position at the University of Pennsylvania.”
• “Bay Area Rapid Transit workers continue their strike for a fifth consecutive day.”

These are often made into acronyms and initialisms, which we’ll discuss a bit later.

Appellations

Appellations are additional words added to a person’s name. These may be used to indicate respect for a person (known as honorifics) or to indicate a person’s profession, royalty, rank, etc. (known as titles). Some appellations are always abbreviated before a person’s name, such as Dr. (short for Doctor), Mr. (short for Mister), and Mrs. (originally a shortened form of Mistress), and some may be used in place of a person’s name altogether (such as Your Honor, Your Highness, or Your Majesty).

Appellations are considered a “part” of the person’s name and are also capitalized in writing as a proper noun. For example:

• “Dr. Spencer insists we perform a few more tests.”
• “I intend to ask Professor Regan about her dissertation on foreign policy.”
• “Prince William is adored by many.”
• “Please see if Mr. Parker and Mrs. Wright will be joining us this evening.”
• “I have no further questions, Your Honor.”

Normal words can also function as appellations after a person’s name to describe his or her appearance, personality, or other personal characteristics; these are formally known as epithets. They are usually accompanied by function words (especially the article the), which are not capitalized. For example:

• Alexander the Great
• Ivan the Terrible
• Charles the Bald

Proper Adjectives

Proper adjectives are formed from proper nouns, and they are also capitalized. They are often made from the names of cities, countries, or regions to describe where something comes from or to identify a trait associated with that place, but they can also be formed from the names of people. For example:

Proper Noun	Proper Adjective	Example Sentence
Italy	Italian	I love Italian food.
China	Chinese	How much does this Chinese robe cost?
Christ	Christian	In Europe, you can visit many ancient Christian churches.
Shakespeare	Shakespearean	He writes in an almost Shakespearean style.

Sometimes, a word that began as a proper adjective can lose its “proper” significance over time, especially when formed from the name of a fictional character. In these cases, the word is no longer capitalized. Take the following sentence:

• “He was making quixotic mistakes.”

The word quixotic was originally a proper adjective derived from the name “Don Quixote,” a fictional character who was prone to foolish, grandiose behavior. Through time, it has come to mean “foolish” in its own right, losing its association to the character. As such, it is no longer capitalized in modern English.

Another example is the word gargantuan. Once associated with the name of a giant in the 16th-century book Gargantua, it has come to mean “huge” in daily use. Since losing its link with the fictional monster, it is no longer capitalized:

• “The couple built a gargantuan house.”

Other capitalization conventions

While proper nouns, proper adjectives, and the first word in a sentence are always capitalized, there are other conventions for capitalization that have less concrete rules.

Reverential capitalization

Traditionally, words for or relating to the Judeo-Christian God or to Jesus Christ are capitalized, a practice known as reverential capitalization. This is especially common in pronouns, though it can occur with other nouns associated with or used as a metaphor for God. For example:

• “Our Father, who art in heaven, hallowed be thy Name.”
• “We must always model our actions on the Lord’s will, trusting in His plan and in the benevolence of the Almighty.”

However, this practice is one of style rather than grammatical correctness. It is becoming slightly less common in modern writing, especially in relation to pronouns, and many modern publications (even some editions of the Bible) tend not to capitalize pronouns associated with God or Jesus Christ (though nouns such as “the Lamb” or “the Almighty” still tend to be in uppercase).

Finally, note that when the word god is being used to describe or discuss a deity in general (i.e., not the specific God of Christian or Jewish faith), it does not need to be capitalized. Conversely, any name of a specific religious figure must be capitalized the same way as any other proper noun, as in Zeus, Buddha, Allah, Krishna, etc.

Acronyms and Initialisms

Acronyms and initialisms are abbreviations of multiple words using just their initial letters; like the initials of a person’s name, these letters are usually capitalized. Acronyms are distinguished by the fact that they are read aloud as a single word, while initialisms are spoken aloud as individual letters rather than a single word. (However, because the two are so similar in appearance and function, it is very common to simply refer to both as acronyms.)

Acronyms

Because acronyms are said as distinct words, they are usually (but not always) written without periods. In some cases, the acronym has become so common that the letters aren’t even capitalized anymore.

For example:

• “Scientists from NASA have confirmed the spacecraft’s location on Mars.” (acronym of “National Aeronautics and Space Administration”)
• “The officer went AWOL following the attack.” (acronym of “Absent Without Leave”)
• “I need those documents finished A.S.A.P.” (acronym or initialism of “As Soon As Possible”; also often written as ASAP, asap, and a.s.a.p.)
• “His scuba equipment turned out to be faulty.” (Scuba is actually an acronym of “self-contained underwater breathing apparatus,” but it is now only written as a regular word.)

It’s worth noting that in British English, it is becoming increasingly common to write acronyms of well-known organizations with only the first letter capitalized, as in Nafta (North American Free Trade Agreement) or Unicef (United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund), while initialisms, such as UN or UK, are still written in all capital letters.

Initialisms

Like acronyms, it is most common to write initialisms without periods. However, in American English, it is also common to include periods between the letters of some initialisms. This varies between style guides, and it is generally a matter of personal preference; whether you use periods in initialisms or not, be sure to be consistent.

Here are some examples of common initialisms (some with periods, some without):

• “I grew up in the US, but I’ve lived in London since my early 20s.” (initialism of “United States”)
• “It took a long time, but I’ve finally earned my Ph.D.” (initialism of “Philosophiae Doctor,” Latin for “Doctor of Philosophy”)
• “I need to go to an ATM to get some cash.” (initialism of “Automated Teller Machine”)
• “The witness claimed to have seen a U.F.O. fly over the field last night.” (initialism of “Unidentified Flying Object”)

Notice that the h in Ph.D. remains lowercase. This is because it is part of the same word as P (Philosophiae); it is spoken aloud as an individual letter to help make the initialism distinct. While this mix of uppercase and lowercase letters in an initialism is uncommon, there are other instances in which this occurs. Sometimes, as with Ph.D., the lowercase letters come from the same word as an uppercase letter; other times, the lowercase letter represents a function word (a conjunction, preposition, or article). For example:

• AmE (American English)
• BrE (British English)
• LotR (Lord of the Rings)
• DoD (Department of Defense)

Finally, there are two initialisms that are always in lowercase: i.e. (short for the Latin id est, meaning “that is”) and e.g. (short for the Latin exempli gratia, meaning “for example”). The only instance in which these initialisms might be capitalized is if they are used at the beginning of a sentence, but doing so, while not grammatically incorrect, is generally considered aesthetically unappealing and should be avoided.

Abbreviations in conversational English

In conversational writing, especially with the advent of text messages and online messaging, many phrases have become shortened into informal abbreviations (usually initialisms, but occasionally said aloud as new words). They are usually written without periods and, due to their colloquial nature, they are often left in lowercase. While there are thousands of conversational abbreviations in use today, here are just a few of the most common:

• LOL (short for “Laugh Out Loud,” said as an initialism or sometimes as a word [/lɑl/])
• OMG (short for “Oh My God.” Interestingly, the first recorded use of this initialism was in a letter from Lord John Fisher to Winston Churchill in 1917.)
• BTW (short for “By The Way”)
• BRB (short for “Be Right Back”)
• BFF (short for “Best Friend Forever”)
• IDK (short for “I Don’t Know”)
• FWIW (short for “For What It’s Worth”)
• FYI (short for “For Your Information”)
• IMHO (short for “In My Humble/Honest Opinion”)
• P2P (short for “Peer-To-Peer,” with the word To represented by the number 2, a homophone)
• TLC (short for “Tender Loving Care”)
• TL;DR (short for “Too Long; Didn’t Read”)
• TTYL (short for “Talk To You Later”)

Because these are all very informal, they should only be used in conversational writing.

What to capitalize in a title or headline

There is much less standardization regarding how to capitalize titles or article headlines; different style guides prescribe different rules and recommendations.

That said, it is generally agreed that you should capitalize the first and last word of the title, along with any words of semantic significance—that is, nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs—along with proper nouns, proper adjectives, acronyms, and initialisms. “Function words,” those that primarily add grammatical meaning rather than anything substantial (prepositions, articles, and conjunctions), are generally left in lowercase. This convention is sometimes known as title case, and some style guides recommend following it without exception, even for longer function words like between or upon.

For example:

• “New Regulations for Schools Scoring below National Averages”
• “An Analysis of the Differences between Formatting Styles”
• “President to Consider Options after Results of FBI Investigation”
• “Outrage over Prime Minister’s Response to Corruption Charges”

Some words can pose problems because they can in some instances be prepositions and in other instances be adverbs. For example, in the phrasal verb take off, off is functioning adverbially to complete the meaning of the verb, so it would be capitalized in a title:

• “Home Businesses Taking Off in Internet Age”
• “Home Businesses Taking off in Internet Age”

Another group of words that often gives writers problems is the various forms of the verb to be, which conjugates as is, am, are, was, were, been, and being. Because many of its forms are only two or three letters, writers are often inclined not to capitalize them; however, because to be is a verb, we should always capitalize it when using title case:

• “Determining Who Is Responsible for the Outcome” (correct)
• “Determining Who is Responsible for the Outcome” (incorrect)

Capitalizing words longer than three letters

Function words are usually not capitalized in title case, but longer function words (such as the conjunctions because or should or the prepositions between or above) are often considered to add more meaning than short ones like or or and. Because of this, it is a common convention is to capitalize function words that have more than three letters in addition to “major” words like nouns and verbs. Here’s how titles following this convention look:

• “New Regulations for Schools Scoring Below National Averages”
• “An Analysis of the Differences Between Formatting Styles”
• “President to Consider Options After Results of FBI Investigation”
• “Outrage Over Prime Minister’s Response to Corruption Charges”

Some style guides specify that only function words that are longer than four letters should be capitalized. Following this convention, the first three examples would remain the same, but the word over in the fourth example would remain lowercase. However, the “longer than three letters” rule is much more common.

Capitalizing hyphenated compounds

When a compound word features a hyphen, there are multiple ways to capitalize it in a title. Because compound words always serve as nouns or adjectives (or, rarely, verbs), we always capitalize the first part of the compound. What is less straightforward is whether to capitalize the word that comes after the hyphen. Some style guides recommend capitalizing both parts (so long as the second part is a “major” word), while others recommend only capitalizing the first part. For example:

• “How to Regulate Self-Driving Cars in the Near Future”
• “Eighteenth-century Warship Discovered off the Coast of Norway”

Certain style guides are very specific about how to capitalize hyphenated compounds, so if your school or employer uses a particular guide for its in-house style, be sure to follow its requirements. Otherwise, it is simply a matter of personal preference whether hyphenated compounds should be capitalized in full or in part; as always, just be consistent.

Compounds with articles, conjunctions, and prepositions

Some multiple-word compounds are formed with function words (typically the article the, the conjunction and, or the preposition in) between two other major words. While capitalizing the major words in the compound is optional and up to the writer’s personal preference, the function words will always be in lowercase:

• “Are Brick-and-Mortar Stores Becoming Obsolete?”
• “Prices of Over-the-counter Medications Set to Rise”
• “Business Tycoon Appoints Daughter-In-Law as New CEO”

The only exception to this rule is when writers choose to capitalize every word in the title.

Start case

To eliminate the possible confusion caused by short “substance” words (e.g., forms of to be), long function words (e.g., because or beneath), and hyphenated compounds, some publications choose to simply capitalize every word in a title, regardless of the “types” of words it may contain. This is sometimes known as “start case” or “initial case.” For instance:

• “New Regulations For Schools Scoring Below National Averages”
• “An Analysis Of The Differences Between Formatting Styles”
• “President To Consider Options After Results Of FBI Investigation”
• “Outrage Over Prime Minister’s Response To Corruption Charges”

This is especially common in journalism and online publications, but it is usually not recommended for academic or professional writing.

Sentence case

“Sentence case” refers to titles in which only the first word has a capital letter, the same way a sentence is capitalized. (Again, proper nouns, proper adjectives, acronyms, and initialisms remain capitalized.) As with start case, sentence case is useful because it eliminates any possible confusion over which words should be capitalized. Titles following this convention look like this:

• “New regulations for schools scoring below national averages”
• “An analysis of the differences between formatting styles”
• “President to consider options after results of FBI investigation”
• “Outrage over Prime Minister’s response to corruption charges”

Sentence case is not typically recommended by academic or professional style guides, though this is not always true. Some magazine and news publications use the style for their headlines as well, as do many websites.

Capitalizing subtitles

When a piece of work has both a main title and a secondary subtitle (separated by a colon), we apply the same capitalization rules to both—that is, the same types of words will be in uppercase or lowercase depending on which style is being used. We also capitalize the first word after the colon, treating the subtitle as its own. For example:

• The Secret Agent: A Simple Tale
• Terminator 2: Judgment Day
• Angela’s Ashes: A Memoir
• Vanity Fair: A Novel without a Hero (sometimes written as Vanity Fair: A Novel Without a Hero due to the preference of capitalizing words longer than three letters)

This convention is also true in academic essays, whose subtitles tend to be longer and more detailed, giving the reader a brief explanation of what the essay is about:

• From the Television to the Supermarket: How the Rise of Modern Advertising Shaped Consumerism in America
• True Crimes: A Look at Criminal Cases That Inspired Five Classic Films

Note that if the main title is written in sentence case, then we only capitalize the first word of the subtitle (after the colon):

• In their shoes: Women of the 1940s who shaped public policy

However, this style is generally only used when a title appears in a list of references in an essay’s bibliography (individual style guides will have specific requirements for these works cited pages).

Alternate titles

Sometimes a subtitle acts as an alternate title; in this case, the two are often separated with a semicolon or a comma, followed by a lowercase or (though the specific style is left to the writer’s or publisher’s discretion). However, the alternate title is still capitalized the same way as the main title, with the first word after or being capitalized even if it is a short function word. For example:

• Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus
• Moby-Dick; or, The Whale
• Twelfth Night, or What You Will
• Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb

Capitalizing headings

Headings are titles that identify or introduce a specific section within a larger academic essay or business document. In general, headings will be capitalized in the same manner as the document’s title, usually having the first and last word capitalized as well as any nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and verbs (and, depending on the style guide being followed, any prepositions or conjunctions longer than three letters).

Sometimes a written work will have multiple subheadings of sections that belong within a larger heading. It is common for subheadings to be written in sentence case, but most style guide have specific requirements for when this can be done (for instance, if the subheading is the third or more in a series of headings), if at all.

Deciding how to capitalize a title

Ultimately, unless your school or employer follows one specific style guide, it is a matter of preference to decide how the title is formatted. No matter which style you adopt, the most important thing is to be consistent throughout your body of writing.