Distribution of the word это

Structurally
word-groups may be approached in various ways. We know that
word-groups may be described through the order and arrangement of the
component members. The word-group to
see something can
be classified as a verbal — nominal group, to
see to smth as
verbal
— prepositional
— nominal,
etc.

All
word-groups may be also analysed by the criterion of distribution
into two big classes. If the word-group has the same linguistic
distribution as one of its members, it is described as endocentric,
i.e. having one central member functionally equivalent to the whole
word-group. The word-groups, e.g., red
flower, bravery of all kinds, are
distributionally identical with their central components flower
and
bravery
(cf., e.g.,-I saw a red flower
— I
saw a flower).

If
the distribution of the word-group is different from either of its
members, it is regarded as exocentric, i.e. as having no such central
member, for instance side
by side or
grow
smaller and
others where the component words are not syntactically substitutable
for the whole word-group.

In
endocentric word-groups the central component that has the same
distribution as the whole group is clearly the dominant member or the
head to which all other members of the group are subordinated. In the
word-group red
flower, e.g.,
the head is the noun flower
and
in the word-group kind
to people the
head is the adjective kind,
etc.

It
follows that word-groups may be classified according to their
headwords into nominal
groups or phrases (e.g. red
flower), adjectival,
groups (e.g. kind
to people), verbal
groups (e.g. to
speak well), etc.
The head is not necessarily the component that occurs first in the
word-group. In such nominal word-groups as, e.g., very
great bravery, bravery in the struggle the
noun bravery
is
the head whether followed or preceded by other words.

Word-groups
are also classified according to their syntactic pattern into
predicative and non-predicative groups. Such word-groups as, e.g.,
John
works, he went that
have a syntactic structure similar to that of a sentence, are
classified as predicative, and all others as non-predicative.¹
Non-predicative
word-groups may be subdivided according to the type

¹
This
classification was the issue of heated discussion in Soviet
linguistics. It was argued that the so-called predicative word-groups
actually comprise the subject and the predicate, i.e’, the main
components of the sentence and should be regarded as syntactical
rather than lexical units. Here we are concerned only with
non-predicative word-groups.

67

of
syntactic relations between the components into subordinative and
coordinative. Such word-groups as red
flower, a man of wisdom and
the like are termed subordinative
because the words red
and
of
wisdom are
subordinated to flower
and
man
respectively
and function as their attributes. Such phrases as women
and children, day and night, do or die are
classified as coordinative.

MEANING OF WORD-GROUPS

As
with word-meaning, the meaning of word-groups may be analysed into
lexical
and grammatical
components.

Distributional refers to the distribution of words in utterances. Where they go, where they don’t.

Different types of word is what syntactic categories means. You may have learned the concept as «parts of speech». The list you give is different from the list in the article, so let’s ignore that.

The point is that whether a word is called a noun or a complementizer or a preposition depends not on what it means (that’s semantic, i.e, meaning), but on how it’s used (that’s syntactic, i.e, grammar). For instance, rock is a noun in the first sentence below, but a verb in the second:

• An earthquake could shift the rock down the hill.
• An earthquake could rock the stone down the hill.

Very few words in English are intrinsically only one part of speech, and those that are are mostly function words like the and not, which are part of the machinery of grammar, and don’t really have lexical meanings like rock or shift.

Definitions of noun like ‘person, place, or thing’ are not distributional, but semantic, because they refer to what a noun can mean. And semantic definitions of grammatical terms are unsatisfactory; they don’t work — truth and liberty are clearly nouns, but are they people, places, or things?

Distributionally, if a word in English can be modified by an article, for instance, it’s a noun;
if it can be put in the past tense, it’s a verb. And so on. There are tests you can make.
That’s all, really.

1. МОРФОЛОГИЯ английского языка

2.

Морфология — раздел грамматики, изучающий
форму слова. Слово является основной единицей
морфологии, и, следовательно, необходимо начать с его
определения.
Известный лингвист Юрий Сергеевич Маслов определил
слово как минимальную единицу языка, обладающую
позиционной
самостоятельностью.
Это
определение
подчеркивает, с одной стороны, подвижность слова в
предложении (в различных предложениях одно и то же слово
может занимать различные позиции) и, с другой стороны, тот
факт, что слово — наименьшая дискретная (т. е. существующая
раздельно) единица языка.
Слово
—
наименьшая
единица,
способная
к
синтаксическому функционированию, и самая крупная единица
морфологии.
Наименьшая единица морфологии — морфема – это
наименьшая значащая единица, не имеющая позиционной
самостоятельности, но имеющая звуковое выражение. Морфемы
включают корень и аффиксы — префиксы и суффиксы.

3.

Аффиксы имеют двоякое назначение в языке: одни используются в словообразовании, т.
е. при образовании новых слов от производящих основ той или другой части речи;
другие служат для образования различных форм одного и того же слова, т. е.
словоизменения. Словообразование и словоизменение имеют каждое свой
собственный набор аффиксов: совпадение их может быть только случайной
омонимией (ср. -еr в агентивных существительных — writer и -еr в форме
сравнительной степени прилагательных — longer).
Префиксы в английском имеют только словообразовательные функции.
Суффиксы же подразделяются на словообразовательные и словоизменительные;
последние имеют прямое отношение к грамматическому строю.
Корневая морфема, по определению Виктории Николаевны Ярцевой, — это то, что едино
в словах, принадлежащих к различным лексико-грамматическим разрядам (black,
blackish, blacken). В этом ряду выделяется корневая морфема black-.
Морфема реально представлена в языке своими вариантами, называемыми
алломорфами, имеющими определённую звуковую и смысловую общность
(морфема множественного числа в английском языке, которую мы можем обозначить как s, бывает регулярно представлена алломорфами /s/ — cats, bets, /iz/ — buses, sizes, /z/ dogs, knives.

4. Служебные морфемы

Служебные морфемы, т. е. словоизменительные
аффиксы, отличаются в английском от того, что обычно
понимается под термином «флексия». В языках
флективных флексия передает несколько
грамматических значений в одном и том же аффиксе.
Английские словоизменительные аффиксы
передают только одно значение.
Набор словоизменительных морфем весьма скуден;
он ограничивается аффиксами , -s, -ed, -ing , -еп —
показатель некоторых причастий вторых от
нестандартных глаголов и множественного числа
существительных ox-en, childr-en.

5.

Morphemes
Free
Morphemes that can stand alone as
words are called free morphemes –
nouns, verbs, adjectives
(boy, food, in, on)
Bound
The morphemes that occur only in
combination are called
bound morphemes
(-ed, -s, -ing).
lexical
grammatical
inflectional
Words that have
meaning by
themselves: boy,
food, door
Words that function (-s, -est, -ing)
to specify the
relationship
between one
lexical morpheme
and another
(prepositions,
articles,
conjunctions):
at, in, on
derivational
(ful, -like, -ly, un-,
dis-).

6. Bound morpheme

Bound
morpheme
Root (-ceive,
Affix
Derivational
Prefix (pre-, un-,
-con)
Suffix (-ly, -ist, ment)
-fere, -mit)
Inflectional
Suffix (-ing, -est,
-en, -ed, -er, est, -s, -’s)

7. Дистрибутивный анализ

• На первом этапе этого метода
синтагматическая цепь лингвистических
единиц делится на значащие отрезки –
морфы:
• He/start/ed/laugh/ing
• Затем повторяющиеся сегменты
анализируются в различных текстовых
окружениях (распределениях) и
устанавливается три типа дистрибуции:

8. Три типа дистрибуции

CONTRASTIVE
(КОНТРАСТНАЯ)
NON-CONTRASTIVE
(НЕКОНТРАСТНАЯ)
COMPLIMENTARY
(ДОПОЛНИТЕЛЬНАЯ)
ОДНО И ТО ЖЕ
ОКРУЖЕНИЕ, НО РАЗНЫЕ
МОРФЕМЫ:
He started laughing –
He starts laughing
ОДНО И ТО ЖЕ
ОКРУЖЕНИЕ И
ОДИНАКОВЫЕ ЗНАЧЕНИЯ:
learned- learnt
РАЗЛИЧНОЕ ОКРУЖЕНИЕ,
НО ОДИНАКОВЫЕ
ЗНАЧЕНИЯ:
He started laughing
He stopped laughing
Разные морфемы
Свободные варианты
морфемы
Варианты/алломорфы
одной морфемы

9. Попарно противопоставляемые дистрибутивные типы морфем

Free (свободные)
Bound (связные)
1
Образуют отдельные слова
hands
Используются в качестве частей слова
hands
2
Overt (oткрытые)
hands
Covert (закрытые)
Показывают значимое отсутствие морфем, выявляемое в
оппозициях противопоставляемых грамматических форм в
парадигмах: «нулевые морфемы (zero morpheme)»
Hand *
3
Full (значимые)
Empty (пустые)
Не обладают значением и выделяются в виде остатка после
вычленения значимых морфем
Child-r-en
Child-r-en
4
Segmental (сегментные)
Состоят из фонем
Suprasegmental (сверхсегментные)
Оставляют фонемный облик слова неизменным, но
изменяют его значение с помощью разнообразных
сверхсегментных единиц
‘convert (N)
con’vert (V)

10. Попарно противопоставляемые дистрибутивные типы морфем

5
Additive (аддитивные)
Свободно объединяющиеся в слова
Look/ed
Small/er
Replacive (субституционные)
Корневые морфемы, замещающие
друг друга в рамках морфологической
парадигмы:
Sing-sang-sung
6
Сontinuous (непрерывные)
Морфемы, объединяющиеся друг с
другом в рамках одного слова
Discontinuous (разрывные)
Состоят из двух компонентов,
совместно используемых при
построении аналитических форм
слов:
Have work/ed
Is work/ing
Work/ed

11.

Unmistakably
Disfigured
Children’s
underspecified

12. The longest English words

Word
Let
ters
Characteristics
Dispute
Methionylthreonylthreonylglutaminylar
ginyl…isoleucine
189,819
Chemical name of titin, the largest known
protein
Technical; not in dictionary;
disputed whether it is a word
Methionylglutaminylarginyltyrosylgluta
myl…serine
1,909
Longest published word[1]
Technical
Lopadotemachoselachogaleokranioleips
ano…pterygon
183
Longest word coined by a major
author,[2] the longest word ever to appear
in literature.[3]
Coined; not in
dictionary; Ancient
Greektransliteration
Pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcan
oconiosis
45
Longest word in a major dictionary[4]
Technical; coined to be the
longest word
Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious
34
Famous for being created for the Mary
Poppins film and musical
Coined
Pseudopseudohypoparathyroidism
30
Longest non-coined word in a major
dictionary[5]
Technical
Floccinaucinihilipilification
29
Longest unchallenged nontechnical word
Coined
Antidisestablishmentarianism
28
Longest non-coined and nontechnical
word[6]
27
Longest word in Shakespeare’s works;
longest word in the English language
featuring alternating consonants and
vowels.[7]
Honorificabilitudinitatibus
Latin

13. I. Do the morphemic analysis of the words on the lines of the traditional and distributional classifications.

MODEL: Do the morphemic analysis of the word «inseparable».
On the lines of the traditional classification the word «inseparable» is treated as a
three-morpheme word consisting of the root «-separ-«, the prefix «in-» and the
lexical suffix «-able».
On the lines of the distributional analysis the root «-separ-» is a bound, overt,
continuous, additive morpheme; the prefix «in-» is bound, overt, continuous,
additive; the suffix «-able» is bound, overt, continuous, additive.
• a) unmistakably, children’s (books), disfigured, underspecified, surroundings,
presume, kingdom, brotherhood, plentiful, imperishable, unprecedented,
oxen, embodiment, outlandish;
• b) hammer, students’ (papers), sing — sang — singing — singer, really, proficient deficient — efficient, gooseberry, unreproved, incomparable;
• c) quiet, perceptions, wheaterina, bell, unbelievably, glassy,
uncommunicative, inexplicable, infamy, strenuousness;
• d) inconceivable, prefigurations, southernism, semidarkness, adventuresses,
insurmountable, susceptibility, ineptitude, unfathomable, insufficiency, to
prejudge, cranberry.

14. II. Define the type of the morphemic distribution according to which the given words are grouped.

• MODEL: insensible — incapable
The morphs «-ible» and «-able» are in
complementary distribution, as they have the same
meaning but are different in their form which is
explained by their different environments.
a) impeccable, indelicate, illiterate, irrelevant;
b) undisputable, indisputable;
c) published, rimmed;
d) seams, seamless, seamy.

15. III. Group the words according to a particular type of morphemic distribution.

MODEL: worked — bells — tells -fells — telling — spells — spelled spelt -felled — bell.
• spells — spelled: the allomorphs «-s» and «-ed» are in contrastive
distribution (= fells — felled);
• bell — bells: the allomorph «-s» and the zero allomorph are in
contrastive distribution;
• spelt — spelled: the allomorphs «-t» and «-ed» are in non-contrastive
distribution;
• worked — spelled: the allomorphs «-ed» [t] and «-ed» [d] are in com-,
plementary distribution, etc.
a) burning — burns — burned — burnt;
b) dig — digs — digging — digged — dug — digger;
c) light — lit — lighted — lighting — lighter;
d) worked — working — worker — workable — workoholic.

16. IV. Group the words according to a particular type of morphemic distribution:

1. mice, leapt, appendices, kittens, cats, witches,
leaping, children, leaped, leaps, formulae, stimuli,
matrices, sanatoria;
2. geese, dogs, chickens, deer, mats, bade, bid,
phenomena, formulae, formulas, genii, geniuses, scissors;
3. genera, brethren, brothers, trout, gestures, blessed,
blest, tins, pots, matches, antennae, antennas;
4. anthems, classes, lice, handkerchiefs, handkerchieves,
bereft, bereaved, grouse, cleaved, cleft, clove.

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Семинар 6 Combinability. Word Groups

KEY TERMS

Syntagmatics — linear (simultaneous) relationship of words in speech as distinct from associative (non-simultaneous) relationship of words in language (paradigmatics). Syntagmatic relations specify the combination of elements into complex forms and sentences.

Distribution — The set of elements with which an item can cooccur

Combinability — the ability of linguistic elements to combine in speech.

Valency — the potential ability of words to occur with other words

Context — the semantically complete passage of written speech sufficient to establish the meaning of a given word (phrase).

Clichе´ — an overused expression that is considered trite, boring

Word combination — a combination of two or more notional words serving to express one concept. It is produced, not reproduced in speech.

Collocation — such a combination of words which conditions the realization of a certain meaning
TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND EXERCISES
1. Syntagmatic relations and the concept of combinability of words. Define combinability.
Syntagmatic relation defines the relationship between words that co-occur in the same sentence. It focuses on two main parts: how the position and the word order affect the meaning of a sentence.

The syntagmatic relation explains:

• The word position and order.

• The relationship between words gives a particular meaning to the sentence.

The syntagmatic relation can also explain why specific words are often paired together (collocations)

Syntagmatic relations are linear relations between words

The adjective yellow:

1. color: a yellow dress;

2. envious, suspicious: a yellow look;

3. corrupt: the yellow press
TYPES OF SEMANTIC RELATIONS

Because syntagmatic relations have to do with the relationship between words, the syntagms can result in collocations and idioms.
Collocations
Collocations are word combinations that frequently occur together.

Some examples of collocations:

• Verb + noun: do homework, take a risk, catch a cold.
• Noun + noun: office hours, interest group, kitchen cabinet.
• Adjective + adverb: good enough, close together, crystal clear.
• Verb + preposition: protect from, angry at, advantage of.
• Adverb + verb: strongly suggest, deeply sorry, highly successful.
• Adjective + noun: handsome man, quick shower, fast food.

Idioms

Idioms are expressions that have a meaning other than their literal one.

Idioms are distinct from collocations:

• The word combination is not interchangeable (fixed expressions).
• The meaning of each component is not equal to the meaning of the idiom

It is difficult to find the meaning of an idiom based on the definition of the words alone. For example, red herring. If you define the idiom word by word, it means ‘red fish’, not ‘something that misleads’, which is the real meaning.

Because of this, idioms can’t be translated to or from another language because the word definition isn’t equivalent to the idiom interpretation.
Some examples of popular idioms:

• Break a leg.
• Miss the boat.
• Call it a day.
• It’s raining cats and dogs.
• Kill two birds with one stone.

Combinability (occurrence-range) — the ability of linguistic elements to combine in speech.

The combinability of words is as a rule determined by their meanings, not their forms. Therefore not every sequence of words may be regarded as a combination of words.
In the sentence Frankly, father, I have been a fool neither frankly, father nor father, I … are combinations of words since their meanings are detached and do not unite them, which is marked orally by intonation and often graphically by punctuation marks.
On the other hand, some words may be inserted between the components of a word-combination without breaking it.

Compare,

a) read books

b) read many books

c) read very many books.

In case (a) the combination read books is uninterrupted.In cases (b) and (c) it is interrupted, or discontinuous(read… books).

The combinability of words depends on their lexical, grammatical and lexico-grammatical meanings. It is owing to the lexical meanings of the corresponding lexemes that the word wise can be combined with the words man, act, saying and is hardly combinable with the words milk, area, outline.

The lexico-grammatical meanings of -er in singer (a noun) and -ly in beautifully (an adverb) do not go together and prevent these words from forming a combination, whereas beautiful singer and sing beautifully are regular word-combinations.

The combination * students sings is impossible owing to the grammatical meanings of the corresponding grammemes.

Thus one may speak of lexical, grammatical and lexico-grammatical combinability, or the combinability of lexemes, grammemes and parts of speech.
The mechanism of combinability is very complicated. One has to take into consideration not only the combinability of homogeneous units, e. g. the words of one lexeme with those of another lexeme. A lexeme is often not combinable with a whole class of lexemes or with certain grammemes.
For instance, the lexeme few, fewer, fewest is not combinable with a class of nouns called uncountables, such as milk, information, hatred, etc., or with members of ‘singular’ grammemes (i. e. grammemes containing the meaning of ‘singularity’, such as book, table, man, boy, etc.).
The ‘possessive case’ grammemes are rarely combined with verbs, barring the gerund. Some words are regularly combined with sentences, others are not.

It is convenient to distinguish right-hand and left-hand connections. In the combination my hand (when written down) the word my has a right-hand connection with the word hand and the latter has a left-hand connection with the word my.

With analytical forms inside and outside connections are also possible. In the combination has often written the verb has an inside connection with the adverb and the latter has an outside connection with the verb.

It will also be expedient to distinguish unilateral, bilateral and multilateral connections. By way of illustration we may say that the articles in English have unilateral right-hand connections with nouns: a book, the child. Such linking words as prepositions, conjunctions, link-verbs, and modal verbs are characterized by bilateral connections: love of life, John and Mary, this is John, he must come. Most verbs may have zero

(Come!), unilateral (birds fly), bilateral (I saw him) and multilateral (Yesterday I saw him there) connections. In other words, the combinability of verbs is variable.

One should also distinguish direct and indirect connections. In the combination Look at John the connection between look and at, between at and John are direct, whereas the connection between look and John is indirect, through the preposition at.
2. Lexical and grammatical valency. Valency and collocability. Relationships between valency and collocability. Distribution.
The appearance of words in a certain syntagmatic succession with particular logical, semantic, morphological and syntactic relations is called collocability or valency.

Valency is viewed as an aptness or potential of a word to have relations with other words in language. Valency can be grammatical and lexical.

Collocability is an actual use of words in particular word-groups in communication.
The range of the Lexical valency of words is linguistically restricted by the inner structure of the English word-stock. Though the verbs ‘lift’ and ‘raise’ are synonyms, only ‘to raise’ is collocated with the noun ‘question’.

The lexical valency of correlated words in different languages is different, cf. English ‘pot plants’ vs. Russian ‘комнатные цветы’.
The interrelation of lexical valency and polysemy:

• the restrictions of lexical valency of words may manifest themselves in the lexical meanings of the polysemantic members of word-groups, e.g. heavy, adj. in the meaning ‘rich and difficult to digest’ is combined with the words food, meals, supper, etc., but one cannot say *heavy cheese or *heavy sausage;

• different meanings of a word may be described through its lexical valency, e.g. the different meanings of heavy, adj. may be described through the word-groups heavy weight / book / table; heavy snow / storm / rain; heavy drinker / eater; heavy sleep / disappointment / sorrow; heavy industry / tanks, and so on.

From this point of view word-groups may be regarded as the characteristic minimal lexical sets that operate as distinguishing clues for each of the multiple meanings of the word.
Grammatical valency is the aptness of a word to appear in specific grammatical (or rather syntactic) structures. Its range is delimited by the part of speech the word belongs to. This is not to imply that grammatical valency of words belonging to the same part of speech is necessarily identical, e.g.:

• the verbs suggest and propose can be followed by a noun (to propose or suggest a plan / a resolution); however, it is only propose that can be followed by the infinitive of a verb (to propose to do smth.);

• the adjectives clever and intelligent are seen to possess different grammatical valency as clever can be used in word-groups having the pattern: Adj. + Prep. at +Noun(clever at mathematics), whereas intelligent can never be found in exactly the same word-group pattern.

• The individual meanings of a polysemantic word may be described through its grammatical valency, e.g. keen + Nas in keen sight ‘sharp’; keen + on + Nas in keen on sports ‘fond of’; keen + V(inf)as in keen to know ‘eager’.
Lexical context determines lexically bound meaning; collocations with the polysemantic words are of primary importance, e.g. a dramatic change / increase / fall / improvement; dramatic events / scenery; dramatic society; a dramatic gesture.
In grammatical context the grammatical (syntactic) structure of the context serves to determine the meanings of a polysemantic word, e.g. 1) She will make a good teacher. 2) She will make some tea. 3) She will make him obey.
Distribution is understood as the whole complex of contexts in which the given lexical unit(word) can be used. Есть даже словари, по которым можно найти валентные слова для нужного нам слова — так и называются дистрибьюшн дикшенери
3. What is a word combination? Types of word combinations. Classifications of word-groups.
Word combination — a combination of two or more notional words serving to express one concept. It is produced, not reproduced in speech.

Types of word combinations:

1. Semantically:
   1. free word groups (collocations) — a year ago, a girl of beauty, take lessons;
   2. set expressions (at last, point of view, take part).
2. Morphologically (L.S. Barkhudarov):
   1. noun word combinations, e.g.: nice apples (BBC London Course);
   2. verb word combinations, e.g.: saw him (E. Blyton);
   3. adjective word combinations, e.g.: perfectly delightful (O. Wilde);
   4. adverb word combinations, e.g.: perfectly well (O, Wilde);
   5. pronoun word combinations, e.g.: something nice (BBC London Course).
3. According to the number of the components:
   1. simple — the head and an adjunct, e.g.: told me (A. Ayckbourn)
   2. Complex, e.g.: terribly cold weather (O. Jespersen), where the adjunct cold is expanded by means of terribly.

Classifications of word-groups:

1. through the order and arrangement of the components:

• a verbal — nominal group (to sew a dress);

• a verbal — prepositional — nominal group (look at something);

1. by the criterion of distribution, which is the sum of contexts of the language unit usage:

• endocentric, i.e. having one central member functionally equivalent to the whole word-group (blue sky);

• exocentric, i.e. having no central member (become older, side by side);

1. according to the headword:

• nominal (beautiful garden);

• verbal (to fly high);

• adjectival (lucky from birth);

1. according to the syntactic pattern:

• predicative (Russian linguists do not consider them to be word-groups);

• non-predicative — according to the type of syntactic relations between the components:

(a) subordinative (modern technology);

(b) coordinative (husband and wife).

4. What is “a free word combination”? To what extent is what we call a free word combination actually free? What are the restrictions imposed on it?
A free word combination is a combination in which any element can be substituted by another.

The general meaning of an ordinary free word combination is derived from the conjoined meanings of its elements

Ex. To come to one’s sense –to change one’s mind;

To fall into a rage – to get angry.

Free word-combinations are word-groups that have a greater semantic and structural independence and freely composed by the speaker in his speech according to his purpose.

A free word combination or a free phrase permits substitution of any of its elements without any semantic change in the other components.
5. Clichе´s (traditional word combinations).
A cliché is an expression that is trite, worn-out, and overused. As a result, clichés have lost their original vitality, freshness, and significance in expressing meaning. A cliché is a phrase or idea that has become a “universal” device to describe abstract concepts such as time (Better Late Than Never), anger (madder than a wet hen), love (love is blind), and even hope (Tomorrow is Another Day). However, such expressions are too commonplace and unoriginal to leave any significant impression.

Of course, any expression that has become a cliché was original and innovative at one time. However, overuse of such an expression results in a loss of novelty, significance, and even original meaning. For example, the proverbial phrase “when it rains it pours” indicates the idea that difficult or inconvenient circumstances closely follow each other or take place all at the same time. This phrase originally referred to a weather pattern in which a dry spell would be followed by heavy, prolonged rain. However, the original meaning is distanced from the overuse of the phrase, making it a cliché.

Some common examples of cliché in everyday speech:

• My dog is dumb as a doorknob. (тупой как пробка)
• The laundry came out as fresh as a daisy.
• If you hide the toy it will be out of sight, out of mind. (с глаз долой, из сердца вон)

Examples of Movie Lines that Have Become Cliché:

• Luke, I am your father. (Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back)
• i am Groot. (Guardians of the Galaxy)
• I’ll be back. (The Terminator)
• Houston, we have a problem. (Apollo 13)

Some famous examples of cliché in creative writing:

• It was a dark and stormy night
• Once upon a time
• There I was
• All’s well that ends well
• They lived happily ever after

6. The sociolinguistic aspect of word combinations.
Lexical valency is the possibility of lexicosemantic connections of a word with other word

Some researchers suggested that the functioning of a word in speech is determined by the environment in which it occurs, by its grammatical peculiarities (part of speech it belongs to, categories, functions in the sentence, etc.), and by the type and character of meaning included into the semantic structure of a word.

Words are used in certain lexical contexts, i.e. in combinations with other words. The words that surround a particular word in a sentence or paragraph are called the verbal context of that word.
7. Norms of lexical valency and collocability in different languages.
The aptness of a word to appear in various combinations is described as its lexical valency or collocability. The lexical valency of correlated words in different languages is not identical. This is only natural since every language has its syntagmatic norms and patterns of lexical valency. Words, habitually collocated, tend to constitute a cliché, e.g. bad mistake, high hopes, heavy sea (rain, snow), etc. The translator is obliged to seek similar cliches, traditional collocations in the target-language: грубая ошибка, большие надежды, бурное море, сильный дождь /снег/.

The key word in such collocations is usually preserved but the collocated one is rendered by a word of a somewhat different referential meaning in accordance with the valency norms of the target-language:

• trains run — поезда ходят;
• a fly stands on the ceiling — на потолке сидит муха;
• It was the worst earthquake on the African continent (D.W.) — Это было самое сильное землетрясение в Африке.
• Labour Party pretest followed sharply on the Tory deal with Spain (M.S.1973) — За сообщением о сделке консервативного правительства с Испанией немедленно последовал протест лейбористской партии.

Different collocability often calls for lexical and grammatical transformations in translation though each component of the collocation may have its equivalent in Russian, e.g. the collocation «the most controversial Prime Minister» cannot be translated as «самый противоречивый премьер-министр».

«Britain will tomorrow be welcoming on an official visit one of the most controversial and youngest Prime Ministers in Europe» (The Times, 1970). «Завтра в Англию прибывает с официальным визитом один из самых молодых премьер-министров Европы, который вызывает самые противоречивые мнения».

«Sweden’s neutral faith ought not to be in doubt» (Ib.) «Верность Швеции нейтралитету не подлежит сомнению».

The collocation «documentary bombshell» is rather uncommon and individual, but evidently it does not violate English collocational patterns, while the corresponding Russian collocation — документальная бомба — impossible. Therefore its translation requires a number of transformations:

«A teacher who leaves a documentary bombshell lying around by negligence is as culpable as the top civil servant who leaves his classified secrets in a taxi» (The Daily Mirror, 1950) «Преподаватель, по небрежности оставивший на столе бумаги, которые могут вызвать большой скандал, не менее виновен, чем ответственный государственный служащий, забывший секретные документы в такси».
8. Using the data of various dictionaries compare the grammatical valency of the words worth and worthy; ensure, insure, assure; observance and observation; go and walk; influence and влияние; hold and держать.

Worth & Worthy
Worth is used to say that something has a value: • Something that is worth a certain amount of money has that value; • Something that is worth doing or worth an effort, a visit, etc. is so attractive or rewarding that the effort etc. should be made. Valency: Worth + N: worth a lot of money; Worth + Ving: worth making; [it] + V-ing: it would be worth asking him [it] + Ν V-ing: it’s not really worth me voting Worth + N + to N: worth money to me [it] + Ν + for Ν to-INF (rare): it would be worth for you to know	Worthy: • If someone or something is worthv of something, they deserve it because they have the qualities required; • If you say that a person is worthy of another person you are saying that you approve of them as a partner for that person. Valency: Attributive: worthy candidate, worthy cause; Predicative: equally worthy + to-INF: worthy to be + of N/V-ing: worthy of closer examination.

Ensure, insure, assure
Ensure means ‘make certain that something happens’. Valency: + Np: ensure fairness + (that)-CLp.it: Ensure that there is adequate humidity in heated rooms + Np + Ν: does not ensure women a place at center stage + Np + for Ν: to ensure good fishing for everyone.	Insure — make sure Valency: + Np: insure continuation; + (that)-CLp.it: insure that future generations; + Np + Νp: They will not insure us victory; + Np + for Ν: insure items for replacement.	Assure: • to tell someone confidently that something is true, especially so that they do not worry; • to cause something to be certain. Valency: +N: assure the owner; + (that)-CL: assure him (that) the car will be ready; + by N: has been assured by the reviews

Observance & Observation
Observance: • the act of obeying a law or following a religious custom: religious observances such as fasting • a ceremony or action to celebrate a holiday or a religious or other important event: [ C ] Memorial Day observances [ U ] Financial markets will be closed Monday in observance of Labor Day.	Observation: • the act of observing something or someone; • the fact that you notice or see something; • a remark about something that you have noticed. Valency: + of: observation of human behaviour; Under +: keeping under observation; For +: to be admitted for observation; + on/about: interesting observations on the nature; to make +: may I make an observation.

Go & Walk
	Walk can mean ‘move along on foot’: • A person can walk an animal, i.e. exercise them by walking. • A person can walk another person somewhere , i.e. take them there, • A person can walk a particular distance or walk the streets. Valency: + Np: walk the dog; +ADJ: made us walk tall again; + into Np: to walk into a controversy; +over Np: to walk over me; ADVP-prep: to walk away/through/away N + ADV: We had to walk three kilometers to the river. Np + ADV: Can I walk you home? ADJ + ADV: it was like walking barefoot in the sand

Influence & Влияние
Influence: • A person can have influence (a) over another person or a group, i.e. be able to directly guide the way they behave, (b) with a person, i.e. be able to influence them because they know them well. • Someone or something can have or be an influence on or upon something or someone, i.e. be able to affect their character or behaviour in some way Valency: the UN is having difficulty exerting its influence; [the] + to-INF: the influence to lead the world + on N/wh-CL: influence on the work of the late 19th-century French avant-garde. + over Ν: Union influence over Labour + upon Ν: Its influence upon female physiology + with Ν: to use their influence with the PLO leadership	Влияние — Действие, оказываемое кем-, чем-либо на кого-, что-либо. Сочетаемость: Прил +: значительное влияние + сущ: влияние среды Сущ +: сферы влияния; Гл +: оказывать влияние.

Hold & Держать
Hold: • to take and keep something in your hand or arms; • to support something; • to contain or be able to contain something; • to keep someone in a place so that they cannot leave. Valency: ADJ +: tight hold; V +: take/keep hold; + on: his hold on her; + OBJ + ADJ: hold the door open; + OBJ + N: hold him hostage	Держать — взять в руки/рот/зубы и т.д. и не давать выпасть Сочетаемость: Сущ +: ноги держат + сущ: держать себя в руках, держать дистанцию.

1. Contrastive Analysis. Give words of the same root in Russian; compare their valency:

Chance	Шанс
+ to-INF: a chance to win; + (that)-CL: a chance that BA might co-operate; + for N/V-ing: chance for peace/regaining; + of N/V-ing /of Ν V-ing: no chance of her accepting; + for Ν + to-INF: a chance for me to show	Прил +: большой шанс; + сущ: шанс спасения; Сущ +: множество шансов; + гл: шанс даётся Гл +: дать шанс, оценить свой шанс
Situation	Ситуация
As a noun: bland situation, sort of situation; + that-CL: the situation that I was pregnant; + wh-CL: the situation when you open the door; + of N/V-ing: a situation of anarchy; + with Ν: situation with your husband.	Прил +: чрезвычайная ситуация; + сущ: ситуация общения; Сущ +: изменение ситуации; Гл +: оценить ситуацию; + гл: ситуация повторилась.
Partner	Партнёр
с глаголом be, become, create: to become a partner существительным live, business: business partner	Прил +: деловой партнёр; + сущ: партнёр фирмы; Сущ +: смена партнёра; Гл +: найти партнёра; + гл: партнёр решает.
Surprise	Сюрприз
to experience surprise (сочетаемость существительных:) to show surprise (сочетаемость существительных:) to cause no surprise (сочетаемость существительных:) to surprise smb (Глагольные словосочетания) to take smb by surprise (Глагольные словосочетания)	Прил +: небольшой сюрприз; Сущ +: масса сюрпризов; Гл +: сделать сюрприз; + гл: сюрприз удался.
Risk	Риск
As a noun: good risk; + that-CL: the risk that goods go; + for Ν/[at] + for N/V-ing: the risk for the investor; + from N/V-ing: risk from pets; + in N/V-ing: risk in flying south; + of N/V-ing / of Ν V-ing: the risk of crushing; + to Ν: a risk to our health; +for N + to-INF: a risk for Jim to bury Mary there.	Прил +: большой риск; + сущ: риск заражения; Сущ +: группа риска; Гл +: учитывать риск; + гл: риск возрастает.
Instruction	Инструкция
on the instruction of smb (сочетаемость существительных:) сочетаемость глаголов to make, to create.	Прил +: подробная инструкция; + сущ: инструкция пользователя; Сущ +: получение инструкции; Гл +: следовать инструкции; + гл: инструкция требовала.
Satisfaction	Сатисфакция
with satisfaction (сочетаемость существительных:) to cause satisfaction (сочетаемость существительных:) unique satisfaction (сочетаемость существительных:) total satisfaction (сочетаемость существительных:) personal satisfaction (сочетаемость существительных:)	Прил +: полная сатисфакция; Гл +: получить сатисфакцию;
Business	Бизнес
[it/no] + to-INF: He’ll make it his business to find out; [it/no] + V-ing: no business poking their noses; + of N/V-ing: the business of intervention; + with Ν: business with the players	Прил +: семейный бизнес; + сущ: бизнес отца; Сущ +: развитие бизнеса; Гл +: вести бизнес; + гл: бизнес растёт.
Manager	Менеджер
to see the manager (Глагольные словосочетания) He was promoted to manager. (Глагольные словосочетания) to apply to the manager (Глагольные словосочетания) to approach the manager about this matter (Глагольные словосочетания) The guests asked for the manager. (Глагольные словосочетания)	Прил +: старший менеджер; + сущ: менеджер группы; Сущ +: должность менеджера; Гл +: стать менеджером; + гл: менеджер сообщил.
Challenge	Челлендж
challenge to smb (фразеологические сочетания прилагательных с предлогами: господство/ подчинение/давление) challenge to smb (фразеологические сочетания прилагательных с предлогами:угрозы/насмешка/донос) challenge to a fight (фразеологические сочетания прилагательных с предлогами:список глаголов, требующих за собой предлог) to accept smb’s challenge (Глагольные словосочетания) to challenge a report (сочетаемость существительных:)	Прил +: новый челлендж; Гл +: продолжить челлендж; Сущ +: день челленджа.

10. From the lexemes in brackets choose the correct one to go with each of the synonyms given below:

1. Write a short definition based on the clues you find in context for the italicized words in the sentence. Check your definitions with the dictionary.

Sentence	Meaning
The method of reasoning from the particular to the general — the inductive method — has played an important role in science since the time of Francis Bacon.	The way of learning or investigating from the particular to the general that played an important role in the time of Francis Bacon
Most snakes are meat eaters, or carnivores.	Animals whose main diet is meat
A person on a reducing diet is expected to eschew most fatty or greasy foods.	deliberately avoid
After a hectic year in the city, he was glad to return to the peace and quiet of the country.	full of incessant or frantic activity.
Darius was speaking so quickly and waving his arms around so wildly, it was impossible to comprehend what he was trying to say.	grasp mentally; understand.to perceive
The babysitter tried rocking, feeding, chanting, and burping the crying baby, but nothing would appease him.	to calm down someone
It behooves young ladies and gentlemen not to use bad language unless they are very, very angry.	necessary
The Academy Award is an honor coveted by most Hollywood actors.	The dream about some achievements
In the George Orwell book 1984, the people’s lives are ruled by an omnipotent dictator named “Big Brother.”	The person who have a lot of power
After a good deal of coaxing, the father finally acceded to his children’s request.	to Agree with some request
He is devoid of human feelings.	Someone have the lack of something
This year, my garden yielded several baskets full of tomatoes.	produce or provide
It is important for a teacher to develop a rapport with his or her students.	good relationship