The idea for the Describing Words engine came when I was building the engine for Related Words (it’s like a thesaurus, but gives you a much broader set of related words, rather than just synonyms). While playing around with word vectors and the «HasProperty» API of conceptnet, I had a bit of fun trying to get the adjectives which commonly describe a word. Eventually I realised that there’s a much better way of doing this: parse books!
Project Gutenberg was the initial corpus, but the parser got greedier and greedier and I ended up feeding it somewhere around 100 gigabytes of text files — mostly fiction, including many contemporary works. The parser simply looks through each book and pulls out the various descriptions of nouns.
Hopefully it’s more than just a novelty and some people will actually find it useful for their writing and brainstorming, but one neat little thing to try is to compare two nouns which are similar, but different in some significant way — for example, gender is interesting: «woman» versus «man» and «boy» versus «girl». On an inital quick analysis it seems that authors of fiction are at least 4x more likely to describe women (as opposed to men) with beauty-related terms (regarding their weight, features and general attractiveness). In fact, «beautiful» is possibly the most widely used adjective for women in all of the world’s literature, which is quite in line with the general unidimensional representation of women in many other media forms. If anyone wants to do further research into this, let me know and I can give you a lot more data (for example, there are about 25000 different entries for «woman» — too many to show here).
The blueness of the results represents their relative frequency. You can hover over an item for a second and the frequency score should pop up. The «uniqueness» sorting is default, and thanks to my Complicated Algorithm™, it orders them by the adjectives’ uniqueness to that particular noun relative to other nouns (it’s actually pretty simple). As you’d expect, you can click the «Sort By Usage Frequency» button to adjectives by their usage frequency for that noun.
Special thanks to the contributors of the open-source mongodb which was used in this project.
Please note that Describing Words uses third party scripts (such as Google Analytics and advertisements) which use cookies. To learn more, see the privacy policy.
Major word classes
English has four major word classes: nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. They have many thousands of members, and new nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs are often created. Nouns are the most common type of word, followed by verbs. Adjectives are less common and adverbs are even less common.
Many words belong to more than one word class. For example, book can be used as a noun or as a verb; fast can be used as an adjective or an adverb:
It’s an interesting book. (noun)
We ought to book a holiday soon. (verb)
He loves fast cars. (adjective)
Don’t drive so fast! (adverb)
Typical word-class suffixes
A suffix can often, but not always, tell us if a word is a noun, verb, adjective or adverb:
|
nouns |
verbs |
adjectives |
adverbs |
|
station government cruelty |
soften identify industrialise |
drinkable Japanese useless |
carefully easily sadly |
A good learner’s dictionary will tell you what class or classes a word belongs to.
Other word classes
The other word classes include prepositions, pronouns, determiners, conjunctions and interjections.
Prepositions
Prepositions describe the relationship between words from the major word classes. They include words such as at, in, on, across, behind, for:
We went to the top of the mountain. (to describes the relationship between went and top; of describes the relationship between top and mountain)
Are you ready for lunch yet? (for describes the relationship between ready and lunch)
Pronouns
Pronouns are words which substitute for noun phrases, so that we do not need to say the whole noun phrase or repeat it unnecessarily. Pronouns include words such as you, it, we, mine, ours, theirs, someone, anyone, one, this, those:
That’s Gerry in the photo. He lives in Barcelona.
This jacket’s mine. That must be Linda’s.
Determiners
Determiners come before nouns. They show what type of reference the noun is making. They include words such as a/an, the, my, his, some, this, both:
Have you got a ruler I can borrow?
I need some paper for my printer.
This phone isn’t easy to use.
Conjunctions
Conjunctions show a link between one word, phrase or clause and another word, phrase or clause. They include and, but, when, if, because:
Joe and Dan are brothers.
It was okay, but I wouldn’t recommend it as a restaurant.
We’ll ring you when we get to London.
Interjections
Interjections are mostly exclamation words (e.g. gosh! wow! oh!), which show people’s reactions to events and situations:
Yippee! I don’t have to go to work tomorrow!
Gosh! What an awful smell!
Phrase classes
The different word classes can form the basis of phrases. When they do this, they operate as the head of the phrase. So, a noun operates as the head of a noun phrase, a verb as the head of a verb phrase, and so on. Heads of phrases (H) can have words before them (e.g. determiners (det), adjectives (adj), adverbs (adv)) or after them (e.g. postmodifiers (pm) or complements (c)):
Noun phrase (underlined)
[DET]That [ADJ] [H]old box [PM (clause)]you left in the kitchen has got a hole in it.
Adverb phrase (underlined)
It all happened [ADJ]very [H]suddenly.
Prepositional phrase (underlined)
[H]The President [C]of the United States arrives tomorrow.
In English grammar, a word class is a set of words that display the same formal properties, especially their inflections and distribution. The term «word class» is similar to the more traditional term, part of speech. It is also variously called grammatical category, lexical category, and syntactic category (although these terms are not wholly or universally synonymous).
The two major families of word classes are lexical (or open or form) classes (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs) and function (or closed or structure) classes (determiners, particles, prepositions, and others).
Examples and Observations
- «When linguists began to look closely at English grammatical structure in the 1940s and 1950s, they encountered so many problems of identification and definition that the term part of speech soon fell out of favor, word class being introduced instead. Word classes are equivalent to parts of speech, but defined according to strict linguistic criteria.» (David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press, 2003)
- «There is no single correct way of analyzing words into word classes…Grammarians disagree about the boundaries between the word classes (see gradience), and it is not always clear whether to lump subcategories together or to split them. For example, in some grammars…pronouns are classed as nouns, whereas in other frameworks…they are treated as a separate word class.» (Bas Aarts, Sylvia Chalker, Edmund Weiner, The Oxford Dictionary of English Grammar, 2nd ed. Oxford University Press, 2014)
Form Classes and Structure Classes
«[The] distinction between lexical and grammatical meaning determines the first division in our classification: form-class words and structure-class words. In general, the form classes provide the primary lexical content; the structure classes explain the grammatical or structural relationship. Think of the form-class words as the bricks of the language and the structure words as the mortar that holds them together.»
The form classes also known as content words or open classes include:
- Nouns
- Verbs
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
The structure classes, also known as function words or closed classes, include:
- Determiners
- Pronouns
- Auxiliaries
- Conjunctions
- Qualifiers
- Interrogatives
- Prepositions
- Expletives
- Particles
«Probably the most striking difference between the form classes and the structure classes is characterized by their numbers. Of the half million or more words in our language, the structure words—with some notable exceptions—can be counted in the hundreds. The form classes, however, are large, open classes; new nouns and verbs and adjectives and adverbs regularly enter the language as new technology and new ideas require them.» (Martha Kolln and Robert Funk, Understanding English Grammar. Allyn and Bacon, 1998)
One Word, Multiple Classes
«Items may belong to more than one class. In most instances, we can only assign a word to a word class when we encounter it in context. Looks is a verb in ‘It looks good,’ but a noun in ‘She has good looks‘; that is a conjunction in ‘I know that they are abroad,’ but a pronoun in ‘I know that‘ and a determiner in ‘I know that man’; one is a generic pronoun in ‘One must be careful not to offend them,’ but a numeral in ‘Give me one good reason.'» (Sidney Greenbaum, Oxford English Grammar. Oxford University Press, 1996)
Suffixes as Signals
«We recognize the class of a word by its use in context. Some words have suffixes (endings added to words to form new words) that help to signal the class they belong to. These suffixes are not necessarily sufficient in themselves to identify the class of a word. For example, -ly is a typical suffix for adverbs (slowly, proudly), but we also find this suffix in adjectives: cowardly, homely, manly. And we can sometimes convert words from one class to another even though they have suffixes that are typical of their original class: an engineer, to engineer; a negative response, a negative.» (Sidney Greenbaum and Gerald Nelson, An Introduction to English Grammar, 3rd ed. Pearson, 2009)
A Matter of Degree
«[N]ot all the members of a class will necessarily have all the identifying properties. Membership in a particular class is really a matter of degree. In this regard, grammar is not so different from the real world. There are prototypical sports like ‘football’ and not so sporty sports like ‘darts.’ There are exemplary mammals like ‘dogs’ and freakish ones like the ‘platypus.’ Similarly, there are good examples of verbs like watch and lousy examples like beware; exemplary nouns like chair that display all the features of a typical noun and some not so good ones like Kenny.» (Kersti Börjars and Kate Burridge, Introducing English Grammar, 2nd ed. Hodder, 2010)
Данный список содержит полный список английских слов по теме » Schooling», а также упражнения и тесты для закрепления и активизации лексики.
Содержание:
- Kinds of school
- School building & Interior
- Students & Attendance
- School curriculum & School subjects
- Studying at school & School problems
- Out-of-class activities
- School. Упражнения и тесты по теме «Школа. Обучение»
Запомните:
compulsory education — обязательное образование
free education — бесплатное образование
private school — частная школа
state school — государственная школа
1. Kinds of School (Типы учебных заведений):
- primary school – начальная школа
- secondary (high) school – средняя школа
- higher school – высшее учебное заведение
- comprehensive school – общеобразовательная школа
- a school, specializing in — школа, специализирующаяся на
- gymnasium — гимназия
- lyceum – лицей
- technical school — техникум
- college — колледж
2. School Building & School Interior (Школьное здание снаружи и внутри):
- three-storey building — трехэтажное здание
- classroom — кабинет
- classroom of Russian (= Russian classroom)
- computer classroom – кабинет информатики
- be well-equipped with — хорош-оборудованный
- on the ground (first) floor — на первом этаже
- staff room (teacher’s room)- учительская
- sick room (doctor’s office, medical room) — медпункт
- school office — канцелярия
- canteen – буфет
- dining-hall — столовая в школе
- recreation — рекреация
- cloak-room (changing room) – раздевалка
- assembly hall – актовый зал
- gym- hall (gymnasium ) – спортивный зал
- workshop – мастерская
- headmaster’s office — кабинет директора
- laboratory – лаборатория
- library – библиотека
- entrance hall – вестибюль
- school museum – школьный музей
- aquarium — аквариум
- diploma — грамота
- palm — пальма
- poster — плакат
- stand — стенд
3. Staff, Students & Attendance (Персонал, учащиеся и посещаемость):
- headmaster (headmistress) — директор
- director of studies — завуч
- form mistress — классная руководительница
- librarian — библиотекарь
- nurse — медсестра
- security guard — охранник
- pupil — ученик начальной школы
- student — учащийся (ученик средней школы)
- schoolboy — школьник
- junior pupils – ученики младших классов
- senior students –старшеклассники
- attend lessons and classes — посещать уроки и занятия
- enter school — поступить в школу
- leave (finish) school — закончить школу
- pass from …. to….- перейти из….. в….
- miss school — пропускать школу
- change school — поменять школу
4. School Curriculum & School Subjects ( Учебный план и предметы):
- timetable — расписание (on the timetable)
- curriculum — учебный план
- term – четверть
- academic year – учебный год
- at the end of each term… — в конце четверти
- obligatory — обязательный
- optional – факультативный
- lesson of Chemistry = Chemistry lesson — урок химии
- learn (study) different subjects — изучать различные предметы
- advanced mathematics – углубленный курс математики
- Science — точные науки
- The Humanities — предметы гуманитарного цикла
- study Science/ the Humanities — изучать предметы научного / гуманитарного цикла
- attend the optional (elective) class in ….. – необязательный, факультативный
Учебные предметы на английском языке: Maths, Algebra, Geometry, Russian, English, Biology, Geography, History, Literature, Chemistry, Botany, a foreign language, Physics, PE (Physical Education), Design and Technology (технология), Information Technology, Mechanical Drawing, Social Science / Social Studies (обществоведение), Art, World Culture (МХК), Economics, Handicraft (ТРУД): (Cooking, Needlework,Woodwork, Metal work).
5. Studying at School & School Problems (Учеба в школе и школьные проблемы):
- do well/ badly — учиться хорошо/ плохо
- behave well / badly- вести себя хорошо/ плохо
- solve problems in mathematics, physics — решать задачи по математике, физике
- prove theorems — доказывать теоремы
- do equations — решать уравнения
- do experiments in the lab — делать опыты в лаборатории
- swot smth – зубрить
- make smth out – понимать, разбираться в чем-то
- cheat – списывать, пользоваться шпаргалками
- prompt – подсказывать
- work by fits and starts — заниматься урывками
- studies — занятия
- exams — экзамены
- extra lessons — дополнительные занятия
- private lessons — частные уроки
- take lessons — брать уроки
- give lessons — давать уроки
- take an exam in Maths — сдавать экзамен по математике
- fail an exam — провалить экзамен
- pass an exam — сдать экзамен
- weak point — слабое место
- poor memory — плохая память
- can’t remember dates (words, formulas) — не запоминать даты, слова, формулы
- fail to retell texts – не получается пересказывать тексты
- punish — наказывать
- punishment — наказание
6. Out-of-class Activities (Внеклассная деятельность):
- school activities – школьная деятельность
- take part in school activities — принимать участие в школьных мероприятиях
- have school traditions — иметь школьные традиции
- choir — хор
- club — кружок
- Drama Club — театральный кружок
- go hiking — ходить в поход
- go on excursion to – ездить на экскурсию в…..
- performe in school theatre — играть в школьном театре
- trip to… – поездка в …
Я надеюсь, что приведенный полный список английских слова по теме «School» поможет вам подвести итог изучения данной темы, а упражнения и тесты ниже помогут активизировать изученные слова и уверенно использовать их в устной и письменной речи на английском языке. Всем успехов!
School. Упражнения и тесты для активизации словарного запаса
Test 1. School
- They ___________ me a lot at school. (taught, studied, learned)
- I’m ____________my final exam next month. (passing, taking, making)
- “ Have you ________your homework?” Pat’s mother asked her. (made, done, wrote)
- Children have to carry heavy________. (sacks, schoolbags, handbags)
- They have a very good school ____________. (restaurant, bar, canteen)
- _________is my favourite subject. (Historic, History, Story)
- I’m not _______________ Geography and Physics. (well with, good with, good at)
- These pupils are waiting for their teacher in the _________. (classroom, lesson, class)
- Sit ___________your desk and go on with your work. (at, on, near)
- No one likes to _____________ an exam. (lose, fail, fall)
Test 2. School Life
- Who is the ________ of your school? (director, headmaster, chief)
- Clare was very popular with her ________. (schoolfellows, schoolchildren, schoolmates)
- Mathematics is a ______________subject at school. (forced, compulsory, required)
- A___________ is all the different courses that are taught in a school or college. (curriculum, scheme, timetable)
- A __________ is a state school in which children of all abilities study together. (public school, elementary, comprehensive)
- I’m _________English and French classes. (following, attending, visiting)
- A nursery school is for ________. (babies, infants, nurses)
- Every one of their children___________ well at school. (did, succeeded, managed)
- A ________ is a school in Britain for children aged between 11 and 18 who have a high academic ability. (grammar school, state school, special school)
- It’s hard to ___________into the university. (enter, get, go)
- The function of school is to ______________ children. (bring up, educate, encourage)
- We’re building a car at our school ____________ (workshop, laboratory, workplace)
Exercise 1. Translate the text into English
Exercise 2. Describe the school where you study using the plan below and the vocabulary.
- Introduction (give general description of the place and people, some background and history).
- Main body (good/bad points now, your problems, how things will develop in the future).
- Ending (Mention some possible changes at your school).
Vocabulary (positive/negative):
- Location:
not far from, within walking distance from…, it is about 10 minutes walk from, it takes me 10 minutes to get to school.
- Building/Classrooms/ Equipment:
(+) brightly painted/decorated, spacious, comfortable, modern, new, cozy
(-) depressing, gloomy, old, old-fashioned, tasteless, uncomfortable
- Classmates/ Teachers/ Friends:
(+) friendly, funny, helpful, confident, bright, encouraging, motivating, well-organized, experienced, popular with
(-) boring, noisy, disorganized, boring, strict, demanding, discouraging
- Lessons/ Subjects:
(+) favourite, important, motivating, well-organized, I am good at
(-) long, boring, difficult, disorganized, I am bad at
- Out of school activities:
in-school clubs, excursions, trips, theatre, hiking.
Exercise 3. Describe the school where you would like to study using the plan below and the same vocabulary.
Exercise 4. Answer the questions.
- How often do you miss your school?
- Do some children behave badly at school?
- What do they do?
- What kind of punishment do teahers use in your school?
- What is the most (least) effective punishment, in your opinion?
Exercise 5. Give a talk on the following topics.
- Teenage problems at school.
- Your idea of a perfect school.
- Your idea of a perfect teacher.
- Education at school.
- The code of conduct.
- Punishments at school.
- My best school friend.
Exercise 6. Fill in the gaps.
Exercise 7. Write a letter to your friend.
… Recently I have moved to a new flat. I like my new school. We can choose subjects to study. I have chosen Maths and Physics. I like them because I am good at solving problems. And what about you? Do you like your school? What subjects are you good at? I hope you’ll write a lot of interesting things.
…
Best wishes,
John
Words are the building blocks in any sentence. They just don’t ‘mean’ something, they ‘do’ something in every sentence. Hence words are grouped into word classes based on what they do. A word class is a group of words that have certain common features. The term “word class” is analogous to the more conventional term, “part of speech.” It is also variously named grammatical category, lexical category, and syntactic category.
- Types of Word Classes
- Open and Closed Word Classes
- Open Word Classes
- Closed Word Classes
- How to identify the word classes in a sentence?
- How to classify a word class?
- What is the difference between a word class and part of speech?
Word classes can be divided into two families:
- Lexical Classes: Also known as open classes and form classes. The lexical classes include nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.
- Function Classes: Also known as closed classes and structure classes. Includes: pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, and interjections.
Open and Closed Word Classes
As previously mentioned some word classes are open, that is, the class can be expanded with the addition of new words. Take the example of the class of nouns, it is potentially infinite as the number of words in the class is increasing as new scientific and technological discoveries are made.
The latter half of the twentieth century witnessed developments in computer technology which have in turn given rise to many new nouns like the Internet, URL website, bitmap, email, etc.
On the other hand, the word classes of prepositions, determiners, or conjunctions are known as closed word classes. Words like of, the, and but come under these. They are named closed word classes because they consist of a definite set of words. These classes never expand even though the words included in the class may change their spelling.
Open Word Classes
1) Nouns
This class includes words that you frequently use in everyday life. Nouns are most commonly understood as “naming” words, that is, it performs the function of naming “people, places or things”.
- A person – Boy, Girl, John, etc
- A thing- House, Dog, etc
- A place- China, America, etc
However, the use of nouns is not restricted to just names of people, places, or things. Nouns also denote abstract and intangible concepts such as an idea, quality, or state. Example: Danger, Happiness, Love, etc.
2) Verbs
The words that you use to describe an action are known as verbs. Hence verbs are generally known as “action” words. Have a look at the given example: Rahul rides a scooter. The verb in the above sentence denotes an action that Rahul performs which is the action of riding a scooter.
However, the idea of verbs as “action” words is somewhat restricted. Many verbs don’t stand for action at all as in the given instance: Rahul seems desperate. We cannot say that the verb ‘seems ‘ refer to an action.
3) Adverbs
In English, an adverb describes a word that alters the meaning of a verb, adjective, or another adverb. Adverbs in a sentence give you more information about the sentence. They are used to express how an action is fulfilled. Adverbs can broadly be categorized into Simple Adverbs, IInterrogative adverbs, and Relative Adverbs.
Remember:
- Most adverbs end with the common ending – ly.
- An adverb that modifies an adjective or another adverb usually goes before it.
4) Adjectives
Adjectives describe the quality of a noun. For example They stay in a beautiful house
The word beautiful indicates or refers to one of the attributes of the house that is described. Hence beautiful becomes the adjective in the above sentence.
A point to keep in mind: Some adjectives can be identified by their ending. Typical adjective endings include: able, al, ful, ic, etc.
You can even try out our other articles on How to Improve Your Vocabulary as well to expand your knowledge base.
Closed Word Classes
1) Determiners
You might have often noticed that nouns are preceded by words like the, a, or an. These words are known as Determiners. They suggest the type of reference that the noun has.
- The determiner ‘the’ is called a Definite Article. It can be placed both before singular and plural nouns. For example The Taxi, The taxis
- The determiner a or an is known as the Indefinite Article. It is used along with a singular noun. Example: A taxi
Apart from these, many other determiners express quantity. These include ‘al’, ‘both’, ‘many’ etc.
2) Conjunctions
These are used to express connections between different words.
Example: John and David are friends. And is used as a conjunction in the given sentence.
The most familiar conjunctions in English are: and, but, and or.
Conjunctions are further divided into two:
- Coordinating Conjunctions: These conjunctions connect elements of equal syntactic structure. Example: Paul and David study together.
- Subordinating Conjunctions: Connects elements of unequal syntactic structure. Example: I left early because I had an interview the next day.
3) Prepositions
Prepositions indicate the relation between different words. They occur before a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase and indicate a direction, time, place, location, and spatial relationship. Common prepositions include across, after, at, before, by, during, from, in, into, of, on, to, under, with, without, etc.
4) Pronouns
If we did not have the pronoun word families we would have to repeat a whole lot of nouns. A word that takes the position of a noun is named as a pronoun. Pronouns can be employed as a substitute for a noun.
- Pronouns are divided into 5 categories:
- Personal Pronouns: I, you, she, etc
- Demonstrative Pronouns: This, these, etc
- Possessive Pronouns: Yours, His, etc
- Interrogative Pronouns: Which, What, etc
- Reflexive Pronouns: Herself, Himself, etc.
- Reciprocal Pronouns: Each other
- Indefinite Pronouns: Few, Nobody, etc.
- Relative Pronouns: Which, Whom, etc.
5) Interjections
Short exclamations like Oh!, Ah! etc are known as Interjections. Even though they have no grammatical value, we often use them in daily speech. Interjections are primarily used to express emotions such as anger, surprise, etc. Given below are a few examples.
Well! That hurts
Hey! Don’t be so clumsy
Remember, an interjection is always followed by an exclamation mark.
Read More:
- English Idioms
- Literary Devices
FAQs on Word Classes
1. How to identify the word classes in a sentence?
A word class is a group of words that have certain common features. To find out the word classes within a sentence it is important that you familiarise yourself with the most common word classes in English. These include nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, etc.
2. How to classify a word class?
Word classes in English belong to two major categories. These are Open word classes that include nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. The second category is closed word classes that include: pronouns, determiners, interjections, etc.
3. What is the difference between a word class and part of speech?
The term “word class” is analogous to the more conventional term, “part of speech”. Both these terms refer to a group of words that have certain common features.
Conclusion
To understand the grammatical structures of sentences in a better way it’s best if you begin with word classes. Even though comprehending the different word classes may initially be a hectic task, once you master word classes, you will reach the exact meaning or message conveyed by a sentence.
On these pages we look at vocabulary categorised by word class (verbs, nouns, adjectives etc) and by word form (contractions, prefixes, suffixes etc). These pages deal mainly with vocabulary, for example word lists, meanings and sample sentences with the words in context. But see also the grammar of word classes.
Word Classes
Modern grammars normally recognise four major word classes (verb, noun, adjective, adverb) and five other word classes (determiners, preposition, pronoun, conjunction, interjection), making nine word classes (or parts of speech) in total. But note that some grammarians use different systems and may recognise eight or ten different word classes.
Verbs
Verbs are action or state words like: run, work, study, be, seem
Nouns
Nouns are words for people, places or things like: mother, town, Rome, car, dog
Adjectives
Adjectives are words that describe nouns, like: kind, clever, expensive
Adverbs
Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs, like: quickly, back, ever, badly, away generally, completely
Prepositions
Prepositions are words usually in front of a noun or pronoun and expressing a relation to another word or element, like: after, down, near, of, plus, round, to
Pronouns
Pronouns are words that take the place of nouns, like: me, you, his, it, this, that, mine, yours, who, what
Interjections
Interjections have no grammatical value — words like: ah, hey, oh, ouch, um, well
Word Forms
Prefixes with Prefixes Quiz
List of prefixes with examples: non-, inter-, post-
Suffixes
Lists of suffixes and examples in use: -ation, -al, -ize
Words starting with mono- and poly-
Lists of words starting with the combining forms mono- and poly-
Contractions
Shortened forms of words and phrases, common in speech: I’m, aren’t, here’s, gonna
WH Question Words
The words we use to make question word questions: WHo, WHat, HoW
Without grammar very little can be conveyed; without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed.D.A. Wilkins, Linguistics in Language Teaching