2.1. Morphology: definition.
The
notion of morpheme.
Morphology
(Gr. morphe – form, and logos – word) is a branch of grammar that
concerns itself with the internal structure of words and
peculiarities of their grammatical categories and their semantics.
The study
of Modern English morphology consists of four main items,
(1) general
study of morphemes and types of word-form derivation,
(2) the system of parts of
speech,
(3) the
study of each separate part of speech, the grammatical categories
connected with it, and its syntactical functions.
The
morpheme
may be defined as an elementary meaningful segmental component of the
word. It is built up by phonemes and is indivisible into smaller
segments as regards its significative function.
Example:
writers
can be divided into three morphemes:
(1) writ-,
expressing the basic lexical meaning of the word,
(2) —er-,
expressing the idea of agent performing the action indicated by the
root of the verb,
(3) —s,
indicating number, that is, showing that more than one person of the
type indicated is meant.
Two or more
morphemes may sound the same but be basically different, that is,
they may be homonyms.
Thus the -er
morpheme indicating the doer of an action as in writer
has a homonym — the morpheme -er
denoting the comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs, as in
longer.
There may
be zero
morphemes,
that is, the absence of a morpheme may indicate a certain meaning.
Thus, if we compare the words book
and books,
both derived from the stem book-,
we may say that while books
is characterised by the –s
morpheme indicating a plural form, book
is characterised by the zero morpheme indicating a singular form.
Traditional
classification of morphemes is based on the two basic criteria:
-
positional
– the location of the marginal
morphemes
(периферийные
морфемы)
in relation to the central
ones
(центральные
морфемы) -
semantic/functional
– the correlative contribution (соотносительный
вклад)
of the morphemes to the general meaning of the word.
According
to this classification, morphemes are divided into:
-
root-morphemes
(roots)
– express the concrete, ‘material’ (насыщенная
конкретным
содержанием,
вещественная)
part of the meaning of the word.
The roots
of notional words are classical lexical
morphemes.
-
affixal
morphemes (affixes) – express
the specificational (спецификационная)
part of the meaning of the word.
This
specification can have lexico-semantic (лексическая)
and grammatico-semantic (грамматическая)
character.
The affixal
morphemes include:
1) prefixes
2) suffixes
Prefixes
and lexical suffixes have word-building functions, and form the stem
of the word together with the root.
3)
inflexions
(флексия)/grammatical
suffix
(Blokh)
The
morpheme serves to derive a grammatical form; it has no lexical
meaning of its own and expresses different morphological categories.
The
abstract complete morphemic model of the common English word is the
following: prefix + root + lexical suffix + inflection/grammatical
suffix.
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Models that have been developed for explaining the relationship between word knowledge and reading ability include instrumentalist (bottom-up) models and knowledge (interactive) models. Both these models are employed to some extent in contemporary classrooms for deaf students.
Instrumentalist Models
«Instrumentalist models» place emphasis on direct instruction of words and exposure to as many words as possible. These models are most useful to the practitioners of traditional approaches to language teaching such as the audio-lingual approach and the oral/aural method, which are influenced by the «natural order» of language acquisition. Often these bottom-up models advocate development of drills and practice of target words that essentially present word lists first, then provide practice reading the words in context, and finally have the students write down the meanings of the words in their individual contexts.
Knowledge Models
«Knowledge models» place emphasis on presenting words in conceptual and integrated schemas that help bridge the new word information with more familiar word associations. These interactive models emphasize «the integration of conceptual or interrelated associations» of a particular word (Paul, 1996). The various knowledge models give practice by describing the different meanings of words and by showing examples of the words in differing contexts to give a total picture of the word and its various uses in English (see «Vocabulary Building Ideas» in the SEA Site module, Reading and Writing in Content Areas).
Definition of a Word
A word is a speech sound or a combination of sound having a particular meaning for an idea, object or thought and has a spoken or written form. In English language word is composed by an individual letter (e.g., ‘I’), I am a boy, or by combination of letters (e.g., Jam, name of a person) Jam is a boy. Morphology, a branch of linguistics, deals with the structure of words where we learn under which rules new words are formed, how we assigned a meaning to a word? how a word functions in a proper context? how to spell a word? etc.
Examples of word: All sentences are formed by a series of words. A sentence starts with a word, consists on words and ends with a word. Therefore, there is nothing else in a sentence than a word.
Some different examples are: Boy, kite, fox, mobile phone, nature, etc.
Different Types of Word
There are many types of word; abbreviation, acronym, antonym, back formation, Clipped words (clipping), collocation, compound words, Content words, contractions, derivation, diminutive, function word, homograph, homonym, homophone, legalism, linker, conjunct, borrowed, metonym, monosyllable, polysyllable, rhyme, synonym, etc. Read below for short introduction to each type of word.
Abbreviation
An abbreviation is a word that is a short form of a long word.
Example: Dr for doctor, gym for gymnasium
Acronym
Acronym is one of the commonly used types of word formed from the first letter or letters of a compound word/ term and used as a single word.
Example: PIA for Pakistan International Airline
Antonym
An antonym is a word that has opposite meaning of an another word
Example: Forward is an antonym of word backward or open is an antonym of word close.
Back formation
Back formation word is a new word that is produced by removing a part of another word.
Example: In English, ‘tweeze’ (pluck) is a back formation from ‘tweezers’.
Clipped words
Clipped word is a word that has been clipped from an already existing long word for ease of use.
Example: ad for advertisement
Collocation
Collocation is a use of certain words that are frequently used together in form of a phrase or a short sentence.
Example: Make the bed,
Compound words
Compound words are created by placing two or more words together. When compound word is formed the individual words lose their meaning and form a new meaning collectively. Both words are joined by a hyphen, a space or sometime can be written together.
Example: Ink-pot, ice cream,
Content word
A content word is a word that carries some information or has meaning in speech and writing.
Example: Energy, goal, idea.
Contraction
A Contraction is a word that is formed by shortening two or more words and joining them by an apostrophe.
Example: ‘Don’t’ is a contraction of the word ‘do not’.
Derivation
Derivation is a word that is derived from within a language or from another language.
Example: Strategize (to make a plan) from strategy (a plan).
Diminutive
Diminutive is a word that is formed by adding a diminutive suffix with a word.
Example: Duckling by adding suffix link with word duck.
Function word
Function word is a word that is mainly used for expressing some grammatical relationships between other words in a sentence.
Example: (Such as preposition, or auxiliary verb) but, with, into etc.
Homograph
Homograph is a word that is same in written form (spelled alike) as another word but with a different meaning, origin, and occasionally pronounced with a different pronunciation
Example: Bow for ship and same word bow for shooting arrows.
Homonym
Homonyms are the words that are spelled alike and have same pronunciation as another word but have a different meaning.
Example: Lead (noun) a material and lead (verb) to guide or direct.
Homophone
Homophones are the words that have same pronunciation as another word but differ in spelling, meaning, and origin.
Example: To, two, and too are homophones.
Hyponym
Hyponym is a word that has more specific meaning than another more general word of which it is an example.
Example: ‘Parrot’ is a hyponym of ‘birds’.
Legalism
Legalism is a type of word that is used in law terminology.
Example: Summon, confess, judiciary
Linker/ conjuncts
Linker or conjuncts are the words or phrase like ‘however’ or ‘what’s more’ that links what has already been written or said to what is following.
Example: however, whereas, moreover.
Loanword/ borrowed
A loanword or borrowed word is a word taken from one language to use it in another language without any change.
Example: The word pizza is taken from Italian language and used in English language
Metonym
Metonym is a word which we use to refer to something else that it is directly related to that.
Example: ‘Islamabad’ is frequently used as a metonym for the Pakistan government.
Monosyllable
Monosyllable is a word that has only one syllable.
Example: Come, go, in, yes, or no are monosyllables.
Polysyllable
Polysyllable is a word that has two or more than two syllables.
Example: Interwoven, something or language are polysyllables.
Rhyme
Rhyme is a type of word used in poetry that ends with similar sound as the other words in stanza.
Example; good, wood, should, could.
Synonym
Synonym is a word that has similar meaning as another word.
Example: ‘happiness’ is a synonym for ‘joy’.