Describe technology in one word

The idea for the Describing Words engine came when I was building the engine for Related Words (it’s like a thesaurus, but gives you a much broader set of related words, rather than just synonyms). While playing around with word vectors and the «HasProperty» API of conceptnet, I had a bit of fun trying to get the adjectives which commonly describe a word. Eventually I realised that there’s a much better way of doing this: parse books!

Project Gutenberg was the initial corpus, but the parser got greedier and greedier and I ended up feeding it somewhere around 100 gigabytes of text files — mostly fiction, including many contemporary works. The parser simply looks through each book and pulls out the various descriptions of nouns.

Hopefully it’s more than just a novelty and some people will actually find it useful for their writing and brainstorming, but one neat little thing to try is to compare two nouns which are similar, but different in some significant way — for example, gender is interesting: «woman» versus «man» and «boy» versus «girl». On an inital quick analysis it seems that authors of fiction are at least 4x more likely to describe women (as opposed to men) with beauty-related terms (regarding their weight, features and general attractiveness). In fact, «beautiful» is possibly the most widely used adjective for women in all of the world’s literature, which is quite in line with the general unidimensional representation of women in many other media forms. If anyone wants to do further research into this, let me know and I can give you a lot more data (for example, there are about 25000 different entries for «woman» — too many to show here).

The blueness of the results represents their relative frequency. You can hover over an item for a second and the frequency score should pop up. The «uniqueness» sorting is default, and thanks to my Complicated Algorithm™, it orders them by the adjectives’ uniqueness to that particular noun relative to other nouns (it’s actually pretty simple). As you’d expect, you can click the «Sort By Usage Frequency» button to adjectives by their usage frequency for that noun.

Special thanks to the contributors of the open-source mongodb which was used in this project.

Please note that Describing Words uses third party scripts (such as Google Analytics and advertisements) which use cookies. To learn more, see the privacy policy.

It is
definitely worth learning technology vocabulary. Technology is such a big part of
our daily lives that there’s a good chance it will feature in your IELTS exam.

It’s a broad
subject. Here are some common areas that appear regularly:

There are
many other things you could be asked about, as you’ll discover on this page. Learning
and being able to use a wide range of technology vocabulary will enable you to
answer questions effectively and coherently and earn yourself high marks.

You
may be asked to talk about technology related topics or write about them, and technology,
computers or the internet could also be the topic of your reading or listening
tests.

Technology has revolutionised global communication.

To help you prepare for your exam, I’ve included four things on this page:

You’ll find
PDF downloads of both the questions and sample answers and the technology
vocabulary list at the bottom of the respective sections.

The
questions relate to the Speaking test because this part of the exam offers the
broadest range of possible questions on the topic of technology. They give the
best opportunity for me to demonstrate the vocabulary and for you to practise
using it.

I’ve
included IELTS-style questions and answers for all three parts of the Speaking
test. I’ve highlighted key words and phrases in bold.

You’ll find these words and phrases, and many others, in the
vocabulary list beneath. The list also includes explanations and sample
sentences and there’s an audio to listen to the pronunciation.

The
technology vocabulary list contains words and phrases relevant to all parts of
the IELTS exam.

Finally, at the bottom of the page I’ve added links to topical articles, short videos and podcasts that will help you to improve both your technology vocabulary and your reading and listening skills.

Here’s something to think
about as you work through this page:

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IELTS-Style
Speaking Test Questions and Answers

Common technology vocabulary
is highlighted in bold.

Some people like PCs, others prefer a laptop.

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Most people would be lost without their mobile phone.

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You can find information on almost any subject by searching the internet.

Download PDF Now

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Technology
Vocabulary

* Important

I recommend that you create
your own answers to the Speaking questions on this page. You will find many
other IELTS-style practise questions by searching online. 

For help on how to learn
vocabulary, what to learn and how to record it, visit these pages:

How to Learn Vocabulary for
IELTS

Top 6 Types of IELTS
Vocabulary & Topic Word Lists

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Technology
Vocabulary – Common Words & Phrases

Technology Vocabulary Pronunciation

Technology Vocabulary Pronunciation

Technology Vocabulary Pronunciation

Technology Vocabulary Pronunciation

Technology Vocabulary Pronunciation

Technology Vocabulary Pronunciation

Technology Vocabulary Pronunciation

Download PDF Now

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Ways to Improve Your Technology Vocabulary

One of the best
ways to improve your vocabulary is through reading. Watching topic related YouTube
videos and listening to podcasts is also hugely beneficial.

Here are some
online resources I recommend.

Technology
Articles

BBC News – Technology 

New Scientist

Tech News World

CNET News

The Economist – Science & Technology
(3 free articles a week when you sign up) 

TED Talks

I love TED Talks. They are short videos
with a powerful message and are generally very interesting. They’re ideal for
improving your vocabulary and give valuable listening skills practise.

Search YouTube TED Talks Technology to help you improve your technology vocabulary.

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All Topic Vocabulary

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Definition of Technology

What Is Technology?

Technology is the tangible and intangible practical application of proven knowledge in a given field which aims to create and improve tools, materials and processes. 

Karehka Ramey

Technology is also applied in the field of science. But it is vital to know that technology and science are different subjects, rather they work hand-in-hand to accomplish specific tasks or solve problems.

The term ‘Technology” is wide, and everyone has their own way of interpreting its meaning. We use technology to accomplish various tasks in our daily lives, in brief; we can describe technology as products and processes used to simplify our daily lives. We use technology to extend mankind’s abilities, making people the most crucial part of any technological system.

We apply technology in almost everything we do in our daily lives; we use technology at work, we use technology for communication, transportation, education, manufacturing, securing data, scaling businesses and so much more.  Technology is human knowledge which involves tools, materials, and systems. The application of technology typically results in products. If technology is well applied, it benefits humans, but the opposite is unfortunately true, when technology is used for malicious reasons.

Many businesses are using technology to stay competitive, they create new products and services using technology, and they also use technology to deliver those products and services to their customers on time and within budget. A good example is mobile phones companies like Apple & Samsung, these mobile empires, use high-end technology to create new smartphones and other electronic devices to stay competitive. This competitive edge is gained through employing advanced current technology.

Let’s look at a simple example of how people use technology on a daily basis.

Advancing Technology

Technology is dynamic; it keeps on improving because our needs and demands for technology keep on changing. We have moved from the industrial age (industrial revolution) to an information age. During the industrial age, companies with large sums of capital had the potential of employing expensive technological tools to gain the competitive advantage; small businesses had less potential because they could not afford expensive manufacturing or processing technology tools. However, advancement in technology has created a new economic environment which depends on information, and that is what we call the ‘’INFORMATION AGE’’. The information age provides a different work environment, and this has helped small businesses gain position in highly competitive markets.

Let’s take a simple example and see how technology has advanced:

Types and Examples of Technology

We use technology to accomplish various tasks, so technology comes in different forms. Below I have listed some of the different types of technology we use on a daily basis and in each kind of technology I have included an example of that particular technology.

Communication Technology

This is a system that uses technical means to transmit information or data from one place to another or from one person to another.  Communication is a daily essential for all; it is used to convey ideas, exchange information, and express emotions. Humans use communication technology tools like phones, computers, emails, fax or messaging tools to stay in touch with friends and family. Businesses use communication technology tools to facilitate the flow of information in a workplace, to help in decision making, to serve customers needs and requests, to promote new products or services to targeted consumers and so much more.

Example of Communication Technology

Plantronics M165 Marque 2 Ultralight Wireless Bluetooth Headset

This simple elegant device allows for a hands-free conversation on any mobile device, it is completely compatible with Android or IOS. It features dual microphones to reduce noise and wind interference for crystal clear call quality. Also, it boasts over 7 hours talk time.

Construction Technology

This is the study of advanced methods and equipment used to build basic and advanced structures. One type includes buildings and heavy engineering structures like bridges. Construction methods use various technological products to erect a structure. The use of construction technology tools like heavy tractors to prepare the land, computer-aided design software to create digital designs for structures in 2D and3D format. These tools along with many others help builders to efficiently complete a project on time, within budget and with minimum accidents.

Example of Construction Technology

Milwaukee M18 Fuel 2-Tool Combo Kit

Equipped with the best of Milwaukee’s technology these tools are prepared for any job you can through at it. Supported by the best brushless motors available and a powerful M18 Battery Pack.

Assistive Technology

Assistive technology is used by people with disabilities to accomplish specific tasks that are difficult or impossible to perform. The term ”Assistive” means helping or providing an extra hand. Assistive technology is being used in many ways, in schools it is used to help students with Autism to learn better, it is used to help people with disabled bodies move, additionally, with the use of speech recognition applications those who are unable to type are able to use a computer and so much more. Due to advancement in technology, we have a variety of assistive technologies that assist many to accomplish tasks that may otherwise be considered impossible.

Example of Assistive Technology

Off-road Wheelchair

Image from: www.wheelchairdriver.com

This off-road wheelchair can assist people with disabilities to move comfortably.

Medical Technology

This is the type of technology which is used to extend and improve human life. Medical technology reduces patient’s pain and cares for an injury. Developed countries have benefited from the use of medical technology in their healthcare systems, and this explains the reason why people in developed countries leave longer than people in developing countries. Medical technology is used to diagnose infections, treat diseases and to research diseases affecting humans, etc..

Example of Medical Technology

TAP 20™ for Point-of-Care Testing – SeventhSenseThis Point-of-Care Testing can help doctors obtain patient’s blood without a diagnosis. It comes with so many advantages which include:

• It’s painless for the patient.
• It keeps the blood sample until used for testing.

Information Technology

Information Technology is a set of hardware and software tools used to store, transfer and process information. Information technology tools help in providing the right people with the right information at the right time. Knowledge workers in an organization use information technology to complete various tasks, and these can include; transferring of information which facilitates decision making within an organization, improve customer service, and so much more. In this information age, it is imperative to manage information systems to ensure accuracy and efficiency. Management information systems (MIS) involves planning for, development, management, and use of information technology tools to help knowledge workers and people perform all tasks related to information processing and management. Big financial institutions like banks use information technology to operate their entire businesses as well as serve their customers.

Examples of Information Technology

NETGEAR Nighthawk Pro WiFi Router

This complete router features ultra Fast AC technology allowing for Up to 2.6Gbps of wireless speed. It houses a powerful Dual-core 1.7Ghz processor, a 4 port switch and 2 USB 3.0 slots. All you would ever need for information transfer at home.

Entertainment Technology

This use of technology to create an entertainment experience. Since entertainment is too broad, everyone gets entertained in their way. Technology is used to create video games, to develop musical systems and so much more.  Entertainment technology includes things like video, sound, animations, scenery fabrication, computer simulations, interactive environments and so much more.

Example of Entertainment Technology

Numark Mixtrack 3

A DJ Console with all the bells and whistles. Everything you need to entertain!

Business Technology

This is technology used to run a business and enhance various business operations, it normally consists of a combination of software and hardware. Many businesses are using technology to scale its growth. Small businesses have used technology to create new ways of competing with well-established companies. To some extent, some business technologies can make a small company look like a big company, and this can help a small business gain position in a competitive market.

Example of Business Technology

3D Printer – Created by formlabs

This is an affordable 3D printer that allows designers to create advanced 3D objects. Its size and design are a perfect fit for every office desk space. With this 3D printer, you can create as many 3D models as you want. Use its software to generate thin, breakable support structures. Learn more about this FORM2 3D printer here.

Educational Technology

Education technology aims at improving a students performance by creating and managing various technological processes and resources in or out the classroom. It is an academic discipline which prepares individuals to acquire deeper understanding and knowledge. It helps them learn how to devise solutions to problems through research, design, evaluation, and utilization. Educational technology helps in improving the way we learn, some of the benefits of educational technology include:

• – It motivates students and encourages individual learning.
• – Easy access to educational material
• – Helps students learn new subjects and languages through gamification

Example of Education Technology

Markup:

Teachers you can try this Paperless grading application for iPad. If you want to have a paperless classroom and your students have access to iPads, then this technology will be of great use to you and your students. Markup has completely changed the way teachers mark test and exam papers; students can submit electronic papers to be marked by their teachers electronically, this saves time and resources on both sides.

What is the Difference Between Science and Technology?

Technology is not applied science, both technology and science are closely related, but they are different in so many ways.

Technology develops and explains the human-made world; it involves development, processing, and management;

While

Science explains the natural world; science refers to systematic methodology used to gather accurate information about shared reality.

During the process of gathering this information, technological tools are used. For example, microscopes are biological tools which can be used to study specific facts about anything with life.

Scientific knowledge is gathered from detached observations. Scientists can use this gathered information using technological tools to explain why certain things happen and this all process can be described as research.

As humans, we use both technology and science together, that is why we confuse these two to be the same. Science is knowledge of the natural world while technology is human-made world determined by processing, development, and management.

For you to understand the difference between science and technology, see example in figure (3) below:

Figure (3)

Look closely at the image (a), it shows you a volcanic mountain erupting, this is a natural state of our world, and it is only science which explains how this volcanic activity happens based on extensive research and data gathered by the scientist. In the image (b), we see a scientist using a microscope to do research and gather data. A microscope is a human-made technology designed to help scientists do research. So that means that both concepts work hand in hand, but they are completely different. Humans have developed various technological tools to help us solve problems during our daily lives, but also this technology can affect the natural setup of our environment if misapplied.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Technology?

Technology is good because it simplifies the way we do things in our daily lives, however, if the technology is wrongly applied, it can be harmful in so many ways. Technology is developed by humans, so we can use it to accomplish almost every task; it makes the impossible look possible.  However, for you to understand the advantage and disadvantage of technology today, we can use an example in figure (4) below:

Figure (4)

As you can see in the photo above, if the technology is well implemented it can be of great use to humanity, but it can also cause harm. Below I have detailed points on the advantage and disadvantage of technology in business, classroom or education.

Advantages of Technology in Business

• Increases production: Technology helps businesses automate most tasks and this process results in increased production and efficiency. Business can automate tasks in the accounting department by using accounting software like QuickBooks. Bakeries can automate the temperature room by using temperature sensors to detect a drop or an increase in temperature.
• Technology Helps small business gain competitive advantage: If business technology is well implemented, it can help a small business gain position in a competitive market. Some of the ways small businesses use technology to scale out and gain a good position in the market are; improving customer care services through internet technologies like social networks  and electronic mail, creating new products and services tailored basing on customers needs and wants
• Saves time: Since most of the activities in the business are automated, time is saved during the process. Computers can be used to perform various business tasks, for example, a computer can be used to record data, it can be used in video conferencing, and much more.
• Technology accelerates innovation: The only way small businesses can succeed in today’s competitive world is by using technology to create new products or services. Small businesses can use internet technology to collect information about targeted consumers so that they understand their needs and wants; this information can be used when tailoring new products or services.
• It improves sharing of information: Many businesses use internal networks to facilitate the flow of information within the organization. This internal network can help in the transfer of information among different departments at work. Also, employees can share different technologies like printers, fax machines, and internet via an internal network.  This easy flow of information also improves the speed at which decisions are made in a business.
• It improves on data storage: It is critical to keep business data secure because a disaster can strike your business and you lose all important information.  The use of databases and remote storage facilities helps in keeping business information and data secure and accessible from anywhere.
• Technology simplifies business communication: Every business survives on communication; you need to communicate with your suppliers, business partners, and employees, so technology will make this all process simple. Many businesses use communication technologies like mobile phones, video conferencing applications like Skype, text messaging services and electronic mail to exchange important business information.

Disadvantages of Technology in Business

• It’s expensive: Technology comes at a price, not every small business can manage to use technology. After buying and integrating technology in business, you will have to pay another cost of maintaining that technology, monthly maintenance is recommended, and this can be expensive.
• Not Safe: Technology is not safe; it is very easy to lose business data through internet technology. Hackers can easily access your remote database and use your business data for their own needs.
• Social/ Workplace Disconnection: Over-dependence on technology has killed workplace relationships, employees and business managers communicate through email, phones, text messages and video conferences, this kills face-face communication.  Also, most tasks are being automated, so you find that employees have less involvement in the final product which leads to dissatisfaction and workplace boredom.

Advantages of Technology in the Classroom

• Technology Promotes individual learning: Students can use their iPads and internet to do personal research online and educate themselves. When a student is in control of what they learn, they will have no fear of making mistakes, and this will encourage them to explore more about a specific subject. Many teachers are allowing students to carry out personal research on particular topics; the results can be shared with other students or the entire classroom via a smart whiteboard.
• It Promotes Students engagement in the classroom: Since educational technologies like digital whiteboards are interactive, teachers can give students a chance to teach their fellow students using this interactive whiteboard. Also, the integration of Gamification technologies keeps students entertained and attentive while in the classroom because games remove that dull atmosphere in the classroom.  Students can learn subjects like Math and English through playing games.
• Technology Helps students learn how to write and spell: The use of computers to take notes in the classroom has helped so many students learn how to write well-composed essays. Computers have word applications and built-in dictionaries which will auto-correct grammar mistakes while students are taking notes in the classroom. Also, teachers are encouraging students to create personal blogs so that they can practice and improve their writing and spelling skills.
• Technology Encourages group learning: The use of group sharing technologies like Piazza.com / Snagit / NoodleTools.com has helped shy students join discussion groups in the classroom without exposing their identities. Group discussions help students ask questions and learn more about a specific subject. Group discussions tend to create a strong relationship among students in the classroom, and they also help shy students learn how to socialize with others in the classroom.
• It prepares students for technical working environments: Students are taught how to use computers and various technological tools which can be of great benefit when they complete school and start applying for jobs. As the world keeps on advancing, all jobs of the future will require applicants to have some technical skills. So the use of technology in the classroom prepares students for tomorrow’s technical working conditions.
• Technology encourages risk-taking due to the challenges it presents: Technology is challenging to learn, and it presents students with puzzles to solve. During this process of solving academic puzzles, student’s brains become sharp, and they tend to get interested in taking more risks. Life is about taking risks, so if our students learn how to take risks while in the classroom, then it will be easier for them to take more calculated risks after school.
• Technology assists students with disabilities: Assistive educational technology like iPads, Robots, Games can help students with diseases like Autism learn how to speak and write.  Also, deaf students can easily communicate using mobile text messaging in the classroom, and this can increase their engagement in the classroom.
• Technology bridges the gap between teachers and students: Teachers and students are using advanced educational technologies to connect more than before. New mobile text messaging technologies like www.remind101.com, can be used by teachers to remind their students about research work, remind them to prepare for a test or exam.
• Technology simplifies teachers work: Teachers have found creative ways of making their work easier by using technology in the classroom. For example, a teacher does not need to go through the hassle of marking thousands of exam/test papers, now we have a new iPad application ‘’Markup’’  which turns all students exams into electrical papers, and teachers can mark these exam papers with an iPad. This creates a paperless classroom because most students can afford computers, so exams are assigned to students electronically.

Disadvantages of Technology in the Classroom

• Distraction in the classroom: Students love to use technology in the classroom, but it tends to distract them, for example, the use of mobile phones to study in the classroom, distracts some students. Most of these smartphones have social applications like twitter, facebook, Youtube and Pinterest; students tend to use these social applications on their smartphones for entertainment purposes while in the classroom.
• It is expensive: Schools with small budgets can not afford to integrate technology into their classrooms. Also, parents with limited income can not afford to buy laptops or iPads for their children. So not every school or student will be in a position to use technology in the classroom.  Then for schools which have managed to integrate technology into their classrooms, find trouble when it comes to maintaining these educational technologies.
• Requires Training: Both teachers and students need extra training on how to use various educational technologies, this can cost both time and money.

How to Solve Problems Using Technology?

Technology is designed with a purpose of solving problems; it has to meet human needs and wants. We use technology in so many ways; at least everyone uses technology in one-way or another. A problem exists when we encounter difficulty; problem-solving is human behavior, though our approach varies from person-to-person. During the process of solving a problem, the following is taken into consideration;

• Develop an understanding of the problem through observation.
• Devise a plan for solving that problem
• Implementing the plan.
• Evaluating the plan.
• Technology will be used in all those four stages of problem-solving, however, for you to easily understand how to solve problems using technology, see image example below.

Example

Look closely at the photo above, on the left we see the problem is the traffic jam in the city and on the right; you can see that one of the solutions of solving this traffic jam is by using high-speed electronic trains. The problem was identified, and technology was used to plan the solution and implement that solution in the city. The use of high-speed electronic trains has reduced traffic jam in big cities like Newyork. Below I have listed four basic phases you need to know about when solving problems with technology.

• Identifying a Technological Problem

During this stage, you will need to define the problem by explaining the situation that needs a technological solution and establishing the criteria that technological system or device has to meet.  Then you have to gather information needed to begin developing solutions for the problem or situation.

• Developing a solution

During this phase, you will need to develop possible solutions that can solve a given problem. You will test more than one solution until you refine the best solution to solve that problem permanently and meet the opportunity.

• Evaluating the Solution

At this stage, you will be modeling the best solution through testing and evaluating all proposed solutions by use of graphics, statistics, and mathematical modeling techniques. For you to select the best technological solution, you will need to compare the design solutions regarding economic, market, technical, production, and environmental criteria to determine the best solution to that particular problem.

• Communicating the Solution

Now that you have evaluated all solutions, it is time to communicate the final solution to your team through graphical drawings, reports, and mathematical means. If you agree with your team, you can now go ahead and present the solution for approval from the management or government.

In Conclusion

Judging from the four steps of solving a problem using technology, you will see that the technology we are using started with an idea of solving a problem or meeting an opportunity. A person or a group of people saw the problem or the opportunity, and they designed solutions for meeting that problem or opportunity. Today we have various technologies which were designed to solve simple problems, for example, social networks like Facebook.com, twitter.com have solved communication and social interaction problem.

As I conclude this chapter of “WHAT IS TECHNOLOGY?” , I hope that you deeply understand the meaning of technology, types of technology being used today, the advantages and disadvantages of technology and how you can use technology to solve daily problems.

Technology is the making, usage, and knowledge of tools, machines, techniques, crafts, systems or methods of organization in order to solve a problem or perform a specific function. It can also refer to the collection of such tools, machinery, and procedures. The word technology comes from Greek τεχνολογία (technología); from τέχνη (téchnē), meaning «art, skill, craft», and -λογία (-logía), meaning «study of-«.^[1] The term can either be applied generally or to specific areas: examples include construction technology, medical technology, and information technology.

Technologies significantly affect human as well as other animal species’ ability to control and adapt to their natural environments. The human species’ use of technology began with the conversion of natural resources into simple tools. The prehistorical discovery of the ability to control fire increased the available sources of food and the invention of the wheel helped humans in travelling in and controlling their environment. Recent technological developments, including the printing press, the telephone, and the Internet, have lessened physical barriers to communication and allowed humans to interact freely on a global scale. However, not all technology has been used for peaceful purposes; the development of weapons of ever-increasing destructive power has progressed throughout history, from clubs to nuclear weapons.

Technology has affected society and its surroundings in a number of ways. In many societies, technology has helped develop more advanced economies (including today’s global economy) and has allowed the rise of a leisure class. Many technological processes produce unwanted by-products, known as pollution, and deplete natural resources, to the detriment of the Earth and its environment. Various implementations of technology influence the values of a society and new technology often raises new ethical questions. Examples include the rise of the notion of efficiency in terms of human productivity, a term originally applied only to machines, and the challenge of traditional norms.

Philosophical debates have arisen over the present and future use of technology in society, with disagreements over whether technology improves the human condition or worsens it. Neo-Luddism, anarcho-primitivism, and similar movements criticise the pervasiveness of technology in the modern world, opining that it harms the environment and alienates people; proponents of ideologies such as transhumanism and techno-progressivism view continued technological progress as beneficial to society and the human condition. Indeed, until recently, it was believed that the development of technology was restricted only to human beings, but recent scientific studies indicate that other primates and certain dolphin communities have developed simple tools and learned to pass their knowledge to other generations.

Definition and usage

The use of the term technology has changed significantly over the last 200 years. Before the 20th century, the term was uncommon in English, and usually referred to the description or study of the useful arts.^[2] The term was often connected to technical education, as in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (chartered in 1861).^[3] «Technology» rose to prominence in the 20th century in connection with the second industrial revolution. The meanings of technology changed in the early 20th century when American social scientists, beginning with Thorstein Veblen, translated ideas from the German concept of Technik into «technology.» In German and other European languages, a distinction exists between Technik and Technologie that is absent in English, as both terms are usually translated as «technology.» By the 1930s, «technology» referred not to the study of the industrial arts, but to the industrial arts themselves.^[4] In 1937, the American sociologist Read Bain wrote that «technology includes all tools, machines, utensils, weapons, instruments, housing, clothing, communicating and transporting devices and the skills by which we produce and use them.»^[5] Bain’s definition remains common among scholars today, especially social scientists. But equally prominent is the definition of technology as applied science, especially among scientists and engineers, although most social scientists who study technology reject this definition.^[6] More recently, scholars have borrowed from European philosophers of «technique» to extend the meaning of technology to various forms of instrumental reason, as in Foucault’s work on technologies of the self («techniques de soi»).

Dictionaries and scholars have offered a variety of definitions. The Merriam-Webster dictionary offers a definition of the term: «the practical application of knowledge especially in a particular area» and «a capability given by the practical application of knowledge».^[1] Ursula Franklin, in her 1989 «Real World of Technology» lecture, gave another definition of the concept; it is «practice, the way we do things around here».^[7] The term is often used to imply a specific field of technology, or to refer to high technology or just consumer electronics, rather than technology as a whole.^[8] Bernard Stiegler, in Technics and Time, 1, defines technology in two ways: as «the pursuit of life by means other than life», and as «organized inorganic matter.»^[9]

Technology can be most broadly defined as the entities, both material and immaterial, created by the application of mental and physical effort in order to achieve some value. In this usage, technology refers to tools and machines that may be used to solve real-world problems. It is a far-reaching term that may include simple tools, such as a crowbar or wooden spoon, or more complex machines, such as a space station or particle accelerator. Tools and machines need not be material; virtual technology, such as computer software and business methods, fall under this definition of technology.^[10]

The word «technology» can also be used to refer to a collection of techniques. In this context, it is the current state of humanity’s knowledge of how to combine resources to produce desired products, to solve problems, fulfill needs, or satisfy wants; it includes technical methods, skills, processes, techniques, tools and raw materials. When combined with another term, such as «medical technology» or «space technology», it refers to the state of the respective field’s knowledge and tools. «State-of-the-art technology» refers to the high technology available to humanity in any field.

Technology can be viewed as an activity that forms or changes culture.^[11] Additionally, technology is the application of math, science, and the arts for the benefit of life as it is known. A modern example is the rise of communication technology, which has lessened barriers to human interaction and, as a result, has helped spawn new subcultures; the rise of cyberculture has, at its basis, the development of the Internet and the computer.^[12] Not all technology enhances culture in a creative way; technology can also help facilitate political oppression and war via tools such as guns. As a cultural activity, technology predates both science and engineering, each of which formalize some aspects of technological endeavor.

Science, engineering and technology

The distinction between science, engineering and technology is not always clear. Science is the reasoned investigation or study of phenomena, aimed at discovering enduring principles among elements of the phenomenal world by employing formal techniques such as the scientific method.^[13] Technologies are not usually exclusively products of science, because they have to satisfy requirements such as utility, usability and safety.

Engineering is the goal-oriented process of designing and making tools and systems to exploit natural phenomena for practical human means, often (but not always) using results and techniques from science. The development of technology may draw upon many fields of knowledge, including scientific, engineering, mathematical, linguistic, and historical knowledge, to achieve some practical result.

Technology is often a consequence of science and engineering — although technology as a human activity precedes the two fields. For example, science might study the flow of electrons in electrical conductors, by using already-existing tools and knowledge. This new-found knowledge may then be used by engineers to create new tools and machines, such as semiconductors, computers, and other forms of advanced technology. In this sense, scientists and engineers may both be considered technologists; the three fields are often considered as one for the purposes of research and reference.^[14]

The exact relations between science and technology in particular have been debated by scientists, historians, and policymakers in the late 20th century, in part because the debate can inform the funding of basic and applied science. In the immediate wake of World War II, for example, in the United States it was widely considered that technology was simply «applied science» and that to fund basic science was to reap technological results in due time. An articulation of this philosophy could be found explicitly in Vannevar Bush’s treatise on postwar science policy, Science—The Endless Frontier: «New products, new industries, and more jobs require continuous additions to knowledge of the laws of nature… This essential new knowledge can be obtained only through basic scientific research.» In the late-1960s, however, this view came under direct attack, leading towards initiatives to fund science for specific tasks (initiatives resisted by the scientific community). The issue remains contentious—though most analysts resist the model that technology simply is a result of scientific research.^[15][16]

History

Paleolithic (2.5 million – 10,000 BC)

The use of tools by early humans was partly a process of discovery, partly of evolution. Early humans evolved from a species of foraging hominids which were already bipedal,^[17] with a brain mass approximately one third that of modern humans.^[18] Tool use remained relatively unchanged for most of early human history, but approximately 50,000 years ago, a complex set of behaviors and tool use emerged, believed by many archaeologists to be connected to the emergence of fully modern language.^[19]

Stone tools

Human ancestors have been using stone and other tools since long before the emergence of Homo sapiens approximately 200,000 years ago.^[20] The earliest methods of stone tool making, known as the Oldowan «industry», date back to at least 2.3 million years ago,^[21] with the earliest direct evidence of tool usage found in Ethiopia within the Great Rift Valley, dating back to 2.5 million years ago.^[22] This era of stone tool use is called the Paleolithic, or «Old stone age», and spans all of human history up to the development of agriculture approximately 12,000 years ago.

To make a stone tool, a «core» of hard stone with specific flaking properties (such as flint) was struck with a hammerstone. This flaking produced a sharp edge on the core stone as well as on the flakes, either of which could be used as tools, primarily in the form of choppers or scrapers.^[23] These tools greatly aided the early humans in their hunter-gatherer lifestyle to perform a variety of tasks including butchering carcasses (and breaking bones to get at the marrow); chopping wood; cracking open nuts; skinning an animal for its hide; and even forming other tools out of softer materials such as bone and wood.^[24]

The earliest stone tools were crude, being little more than a fractured rock. In the Acheulian era, beginning approximately 1.65 million years ago, methods of working these stone into specific shapes, such as hand axes emerged. The Middle Paleolithic, approximately 300,000 years ago, saw the introduction of the prepared-core technique, where multiple blades could be rapidly formed from a single core stone.^[23] The Upper Paleolithic, beginning approximately 40,000 years ago, saw the introduction of pressure flaking, where a wood, bone, or antler punch could be used to shape a stone very finely.^[25]

Fire

The discovery and utilization of fire, a simple energy source with many profound uses, was a turning point in the technological evolution of humankind.^[26] The exact date of its discovery is not known; evidence of burnt animal bones at the Cradle of Humankind suggests that the domestication of fire occurred before 1,000,000 BC;^[27] scholarly consensus indicates that Homo erectus had controlled fire by between 500,000 BC and 400,000 BC.^[28][29] Fire, fueled with wood and charcoal, allowed early humans to cook their food to increase its digestibility, improving its nutrient value and broadening the number of foods that could be eaten.^[30]

Clothing and shelter

Other technological advances made during the Paleolithic era were clothing and shelter; the adoption of both technologies cannot be dated exactly, but they were a key to humanity’s progress. As the Paleolithic era progressed, dwellings became more sophisticated and more elaborate; as early as 380,000 BC, humans were constructing temporary wood huts.^[31][32] Clothing, adapted from the fur and hides of hunted animals, helped humanity expand into colder regions; humans began to migrate out of Africa by 200,000 BC and into other continents, such as Eurasia.^[33]

Neolithic through Classical Antiquity (10,000BC – 300AD)

Man’s technological ascent began in earnest in what is known as the Neolithic period («New stone age»). The invention of polished stone axes was a major advance because it allowed forest clearance on a large scale to create farms. The discovery of agriculture allowed for the feeding of larger populations, and the transition to a sedentist lifestyle increased the number of children that could be simultaneously raised, as young children no longer needed to be carried, as was the case with the nomadic lifestyle. Additionally, children could contribute labor to the raising of crops more readily than they could to the hunter-gatherer lifestyle.^[34][35]

With this increase in population and availability of labor came an increase in labor specialization.^[36] What triggered the progression from early Neolithic villages to the first cities, such as Uruk, and the first civilizations, such as Sumer, is not specifically known; however, the emergence of increasingly hierarchical social structures, the specialization of labor, trade and war amongst adjacent cultures, and the need for collective action to overcome environmental challenges, such as the building of dikes and reservoirs, are all thought to have played a role.^[37]

Metal tools

Continuing improvements led to the furnace and bellows and provided the ability to smelt and forge native metals (naturally occurring in relatively pure form).^[38] Gold, copper, silver, and lead, were such early metals. The advantages of copper tools over stone, bone, and wooden tools were quickly apparent to early humans, and native copper was probably used from near the beginning of Neolithic times (about 8000 BC).^[39] Native copper does not naturally occur in large amounts, but copper ores are quite common and some of them produce metal easily when burned in wood or charcoal fires. Eventually, the working of metals led to the discovery of alloys such as bronze and brass (about 4000 BC). The first uses of iron alloys such as steel dates to around 1400 BC.

Energy and Transport

Meanwhile, humans were learning to harness other forms of energy. The earliest known use of wind power is the sailboat.^[40] The earliest record of a ship under sail is shown on an Egyptian pot dating back to 3200 BC.^[41] From prehistoric times, Egyptians probably used the power of the Nile annual floods to irrigate their lands, gradually learning to regulate much of it through purposely built irrigation channels and ‘catch’ basins. Similarly, the early peoples of Mesopotamia, the Sumerians, learned to use the Tigris and Euphrates rivers for much the same purposes. But more extensive use of wind and water (and even human) power required another invention.

According to archaeologists, the wheel was invented around 4000 B.C. probably independently and nearly-simultaneously in Mesopotamia (in present-day Iraq), the Northern Caucasus (Maykop culture) and Central Europe. Estimates on when this may have occurred range from 5500 to 3000 B.C., with most experts putting it closer to 4000 B.C. The oldest artifacts with drawings that depict wheeled carts date from about 3000 B.C.; however, the wheel may have been in use for millennia before these drawings were made. There is also evidence from the same period of time that wheels were used for the production of pottery. (Note that the original potter’s wheel was probably not a wheel, but rather an irregularly shaped slab of flat wood with a small hollowed or pierced area near the center and mounted on a peg driven into the earth. It would have been rotated by repeated tugs by the potter or his assistant.) More recently, the oldest-known wooden wheel in the world was found in the Ljubljana marshes of Slovenia.^[42]

The invention of the wheel revolutionized activities as disparate as transportation, war, and the production of pottery (for which it may have been first used). It didn’t take long to discover that wheeled wagons could be used to carry heavy loads and fast (rotary) potters’ wheels enabled early mass production of pottery. But it was the use of the wheel as a transformer of energy (through water wheels, windmills, and even treadmills) that revolutionized the application of nonhuman power sources.

Medieval and Modern history (300 AD —)

Innovations continued through the Middle Ages with innovations such as silk, the horse collar and horseshoes in the first few hundred years after the fall of the Roman Empire. Medieval technology saw the use of simple machines (such as the lever, the screw, and the pulley) being combined to form more complicated tools, such as the wheelbarrow, windmills and clocks. The Renaissance brought forth many of these innovations, including the printing press (which facilitated the greater communication of knowledge), and technology became increasingly associated with science, beginning a cycle of mutual advancement. The advancements in technology in this era allowed a more steady supply of food, followed by the wider availability of consumer goods.

Starting in the United Kingdom in the 18th century, the Industrial Revolution was a period of great technological discovery, particularly in the areas of agriculture, manufacturing, mining, metallurgy and transport, driven by the discovery of steam power. Technology later took another step with the harnessing of electricity to create such innovations as the electric motor, light bulb and countless others. Scientific advancement and the discovery of new concepts later allowed for powered flight, and advancements in medicine, chemistry, physics and engineering. The rise in technology has led to the construction of skyscrapers and large cities whose inhabitants rely on automobiles or other powered transit for transportation. Communication was also greatly improved with the invention of the telegraph, telephone, radio and television. The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw a revolution in transportation with the invention of the steam-powered ship, train, airplane, and automobile.

The 20th century brought a host of innovations. In physics, the discovery of nuclear fission has led to both nuclear weapons and nuclear power. Computers were also invented and later miniaturized utilizing transistors and integrated circuits. These advancements subsequently led to the creation of the Internet, which ushered in the current Information Age. Humans have also been able to explore space with satellites (later used for telecommunication) and in manned missions going all the way to the moon. In medicine, this era brought innovations such as open-heart surgery and later stem cell therapy along with new medications and treatments. Complex manufacturing and construction techniques and organizations are needed to construct and maintain these new technologies, and entire industries have arisen to support and develop succeeding generations of increasingly more complex tools. Modern technology increasingly relies on training and education — their designers, builders, maintainers, and users often require sophisticated general and specific training. Moreover, these technologies have become so complex that entire fields have been created to support them, including engineering, medicine, and computer science, and other fields have been made more complex, such as construction, transportation and architecture.

Technology and philosophy

Technicism

Generally, technicism is a reliance or confidence in technology as a benefactor of society. Taken to extreme, technicism is the belief that humanity will ultimately be able to control the entirety of existence using technology. In other words, human beings will someday be able to master all problems and possibly even control the future using technology. Some, such as Stephen V. Monsma,^[43] connect these ideas to the abdication of religion as a higher moral authority.

Optimism

Optimistic assumptions are made by proponents of ideologies such as transhumanism and singularitarianism, which view technological development as generally having beneficial effects for the society and the human condition. In these ideologies, technological development is morally good. Some critics see these ideologies as examples of scientism and techno-utopianism and fear the notion of human enhancement and technological singularity which they support. Some have described Karl Marx as a techno-optimist.^[44]

Skepticism and critics of technology

On the somewhat skeptical side are certain philosophers like Herbert Marcuse and John Zerzan, who believe that technological societies are inherently flawed. They suggest that the inevitable result of such a society is to become evermore technological at the cost of freedom and psychological health.

Many, such as the Luddites and prominent philosopher Martin Heidegger, hold serious, although not entirely deterministic reservations, about technology (see «The Question Concerning Technology^[45])». According to Heidegger scholars Hubert Dreyfus and Charles Spinosa, «Heidegger does not oppose technology. He hopes to reveal the essence of technology in a way that ‘in no way confines us to a stultified compulsion to push on blindly with technology or, what comes to the same thing, to rebel helplessly against it.’ Indeed, he promises that ‘when we once open ourselves expressly to the essence of technology, we find ourselves unexpectedly taken into a freeing claim.’^[46]» What this entails is a more complex relationship to technology than either techno-optimists or techno-pessimists tend to allow.^[47]

Some of the most poignant criticisms of technology are found in what are now considered to be dystopian literary classics, for example Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World and other writings, Anthony Burgess’s A Clockwork Orange, and George Orwell’s Nineteen Eighty-Four. And, in Faust by Goethe, Faust’s selling his soul to the devil in return for power over the physical world, is also often interpreted as a metaphor for the adoption of industrial technology. More recently, modern works of science fiction, such as those by Philip K. Dick and William Gibson, and films (e.g. Blade Runner, Ghost in the Shell) project highly ambivalent or cautionary attitudes toward technology’s impact on human society and identity.

The late cultural critic Neil Postman distinguished tool-using societies from technological societies and, finally, what he called «technopolies,» that is, societies that are dominated by the ideology of technological and scientific progress, to the exclusion or harm of other cultural practices, values and world-views.^[48]

Darin Barney has written about technology’s impact on practices of citizenship and democratic culture, suggesting that technology can be construed as (1) an object of political debate, (2) a means or medium of discussion, and (3) a setting for democratic deliberation and citizenship. As a setting for democratic culture, Barney suggests that technology tends to make ethical questions, including the question of what a good life consists in, nearly impossible, because they already give an answer to the question: a good life is one that includes the use of more and more technology.^[49]

Nikolas Kompridis has also written about the dangers of new technology, such as genetic engineering, nanotechnology, synthetic biology and robotics. He warns that these technologies introduce unprecedented new challenges to human beings, including the possibility of the permanent alteration of our biological nature. These concerns are shared by other philosophers, scientists and public intellectuals who have written about similar issues (e.g. Francis Fukuyama, Jürgen Habermas, William Joy, and Michael Sandel).^[50]

Another prominent critic of technology is Hubert Dreyfus, who has published books On the Internet and What Computers Still Can’t Do.

Another, more infamous anti-technological treatise is Industrial Society and Its Future, written by Theodore Kaczynski (aka The Unabomber) and printed in several major newspapers (and later books) as part of an effort to end his bombing campaign of the techno-industrial infrastructure.

Appropriate technology

The notion of appropriate technology, however, was developed in the 20th century (e.g., see the work of Jacques Ellul) to describe situations where it was not desirable to use very new technologies or those that required access to some centralized infrastructure or parts or skills imported from elsewhere. The eco-village movement emerged in part due to this concern.

Technology and competitiveness

In 1983 a classified program was initiated in the US intelligence community to reverse the US declining economic and military competitiveness. The program, Project Socrates, used all source intelligence to review competitiveness worldwide for all forms of competition to determine the source of the US decline. What Project Socrates determined was that technology exploitation is the foundation of all competitive advantage and that the source of the US declining competitiveness was the fact that decision-making through the US both in the private and public sectors had switched from decision making that was based on technology exploitation (i.e., technology-based planning) to decision making that was based on money exploitation (i.e., economic-based planning) at the end of World War II.

Technology is properly defined as any application of science to accomplish a function. The science can be leading edge or well established and the function can have high visibility or be significantly more mundane but it is all technology, and its exploitation is the foundation of all competitive advantage.

Technology-based planning is what was used to build the US industrial giants before WWII (e.g., Dow, DuPont, GM) and it what was used to transform the US into a superpower. It was not economic-based planning.

Project Socrates determined that to rebuild US competitiveness, decision making throughout the US had to readopt technology-based planning. Project Socrates also determined that countries like China and India had continued executing technology-based (while the US took its detour into economic-based) planning, and as a result had considerable advanced the process and were using it to build themselves into superpowers. To rebuild US competitiveness the US decision-makers needed adopt a form of technology-based planning that was far more advanced than that used by China and India.

Project Socrates determined that technology-based planning makes an evolutionary leap forward every few hundred years and the next evolutionary leap, the Automated Innovation Revolution, was poised to occur. In the Automated Innovation Revolution the process for determining how to acquire and utilize technology for a competitive advantage (which includes R&D) is automated so that it can be executed with unprecedented speed, efficiency and agility.

Project Socrates developed the means for automated innovation so that the US could lead the Automated Innovation Revolution in order to rebuild and maintain the country’s economic competitiveness for many generations.^[51][52][53]

Other animal species

The use of basic technology is also a feature of other animal species apart from humans. These include primates such as chimpanzees, some dolphin communities,^[54][55] and crows.^[56][57] Considering a more generic perspective of technology as ethology of active environmental conditioning and control, we can also refer to animal examples such as beavers and their dams, or bees and their honeycombs.

The ability to make and use tools was once considered a defining characteristic of the genus Homo.^[58] However, the discovery of tool construction among chimpanzees and related primates has discarded the notion of the use of technology as unique to humans. For example, researchers have observed wild chimpanzees utilising tools for foraging: some of the tools used include leaf sponges, termite fishing probes, pestles and levers.^[59] West African chimpanzees also use stone hammers and anvils for cracking nuts,^[60] as do capuchin monkeys of Boa Vista, Brazil.^[61]

Future technology

Theories of technology often attempt to predict the future of technology based on the high technology and science of the time.

See also

Theories and concepts in technology

References

Further reading

• Kremer, Michael (1993). «Population Growth and Technological Change: One Million B.C. to 1990». Quarterly Journal of Economics (The MIT Press) 108 (3): 681–716. doi:10.2307/2118405. http://jstor.org/stable/2118405.
• Frank Popper (2007) From Technological to Virtual Art, Leonardo Books, MIT Press
• Charlie Gere (2005) Art, Time and Technology: Histories of the Disappearing Body, Berg
• Ambrose, Stanley H. (2001-03-02) (PDF). Paleolithic Technology and Human Evolution. Science. http://www3.isrl.uiuc.edu/~junwang4/langev/localcopy/pdf/ambrose01science.pdf. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
• Kevin Kelly. What Technology Wants. New York, Viking Press, October 14, 2010, hardcover, 416 pages. ISBN 9780670022151