Derived meaning of word

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Morphological derivation, in linguistics, is the process of forming a new word from an existing word, often by adding a prefix or suffix, such as un- or -ness. For example, unhappy and happiness derive from the root word happy.

It is differentiated from inflection, which is the modification of a word to form different grammatical categories without changing its core meaning: determines, determining, and determined are from the root determine.^[1]

Derivational patterns[edit]

Derivational morphology often involves the addition of a derivational suffix or other affix. Such an affix usually applies to words of one lexical category (part of speech) and changes them into words of another such category. For example, one effect of the English derivational suffix -ly is to change an adjective into an adverb (slow → slowly).

Here are examples of English derivational patterns and their suffixes:

• adjective-to-noun: -ness (slow → slowness)
• adjective-to-verb: -en (weak → weaken)
• adjective-to-adjective: -ish (red → reddish)
• adjective-to-adverb: -ly (personal → personally)
• noun-to-adjective: -al (recreation → recreational)
• noun-to-verb: -fy (glory → glorify)
• verb-to-adjective: -able (drink → drinkable)
• verb-to-noun (abstract): -ance (deliver → deliverance)
• verb-to-noun (agent): -er (write → writer)

However, derivational affixes do not necessarily alter the lexical category; they may change merely the meaning of the base and leave the category unchanged. A prefix (write → re-write; lord → over-lord) rarely changes the lexical category in English. The prefix un- applies to adjectives (healthy → unhealthy) and some verbs (do → undo) but rarely to nouns. A few exceptions are the derivational prefixes en- and be-. En- (replaced by em- before labials) is usually a transitive marker on verbs, but it can also be applied to adjectives and nouns to form transitive verbs: circle (verb) → encircle (verb) but rich (adj) → enrich (verb), large (adj) → enlarge (verb), rapture (noun) → enrapture (verb), slave (noun) → enslave (verb).

When derivation occurs without any change to the word, such as in the conversion of the noun breakfast into the verb to breakfast, it’s known as conversion, or zero derivation.

Derivation that results in a noun may be called nominalization. It may involve the use of an affix (such as with employ → employee), or it may occur via conversion (such as with the derivation of the noun run from the verb to run). In contrast, a derivation resulting in a verb may be called verbalization (such as from the noun butter to the verb to butter).

Derivation and inflection[edit]

Derivation can be contrasted with inflection, in that derivation can produce a new word (a distinct lexeme) but isn’t required to change this, whereas inflection produces grammatical variants of the same word.

Generally speaking, inflection applies in more or less regular patterns to all members of a part of speech (for example, nearly every English verb adds -s for the third person singular present tense), while derivation follows less consistent patterns (for example, the nominalizing suffix -ity can be used with the adjectives modern and dense, but not with open or strong). However, it is important to note that derivations and inflections can share homonyms, that being, morphemes that have the same sound, but not the same meaning. For example, when the affix -er, is added to an adjective, as in small-er, it acts as an inflection, but when added to a verb, as in cook-er, it acts as a derivation.^[2]

As mentioned above, a derivation can produce a new word (or new part of speech) but is not required to do so. For example, the derivation of the word «common» to «uncommon» is a derivational morpheme but doesn’t change the part of speech (adjective).

An important distinction between derivational and inflectional morphology lies in the content/function of a listeme^{[clarification needed]}. Derivational morphology changes both the meaning and the content of a listeme, while inflectional morphology doesn’t change the meaning, but changes the function.

A non-exhaustive list of derivational morphemes in English: -ful, -able, im-, un-, -ing, -er

A non-exhaustive list of inflectional morphemes in English: -er, -est, -ing, -en, -ed, -s

Derivation and other types of word formation[edit]

Derivation can be contrasted with other types of word formation such as compounding. For full details see Word formation.

Note that derivational affixes are bound morphemes – they are meaningful units, but can only normally occur when attached to another word. In that respect, derivation differs from compounding by which free morphemes are combined (lawsuit, Latin professor). It also differs from inflection in that inflection does not create new lexemes but new word forms (table → tables; open → opened).

Productivity[edit]

Derivational patterns differ in the degree to which they can be called productive. A productive pattern or affix is one that is commonly used to produce novel forms. For example, the negating prefix un- is more productive in English than the alternative in-; both of them occur in established words (such as unusual and inaccessible), but faced with a new word which does not have an established negation, a native speaker is more likely to create a novel form with un- than with in-. The same thing happens with suffixes. For example, if comparing two words Thatcherite and Thatcherist, the analysis shows that both suffixes -ite and -ist are productive and can be added to proper names, moreover, both derived adjectives are established and have the same meaning. But the suffix -ist is more productive and, thus, can be found more often in word formation not only from proper names.

See also[edit]

• Agglutination
• Collocation
• Inflection
• Nominalization
• Word formation
• Word root

References[edit]

• Speech and Language Processing, Jurafsky, D. & Martin J.,H.

Derived words

The derived words or complex words are words that come from another word which is called a primitive word. For example, the word tree it is a primitive word since it does not derive from any other. Several derived words can be extracted from this word. For example: grove, arboreal, wooded, little tree.

So a derived word belongs to the same semantic field than the primitive word. This means that the derivative will have some conceptual relationship with its primitive words. Following the example of the word tree (primitive word) we know that its derived word grove means «set of trees».

How are derived words formed?

Derived words are formed by adding suffixes or prefixes to the primitive word:

Examples of words derived from suffixes

1. Whiteness: primitive word White + suffix —ura
2. Tablespoon: primitive word spoon + suffix —gives
3. To flourish: primitive word flower + suffix -ecer
4. True: primitive word truth + suffix -ero
5. Violinist: primitive word fiddle + suffix -ist
6. Self-conscious: primitive word complex + suffix -ada
7. Contemplative: primitive word contemplate + suffix -ivo
8. Long lasting: primitive word Lasted + suffix -ero
9. Irritable: primitive word irritate + suffix -able
10. Nose or proboscis: primitive word nose + suffixes -on or -udo
11. Blackish: primitive word black + suffix -I think
12. Original: primitive word source + suffix -inal
13. Parasitic: primitive word parasite + suffix -Aryan
14. Leaden: primitive word lead + suffix -i
15. Unbreakable: primitive word to break + suffix -ible
16. Pinkish: primitive word pink + suffix -eo

Words derived from prefixes

1. Antiaircraft: prefix anti- + primitive word aerial
2. Atheist: prefix to- + primitive words teo (God)
3. Bilingual: prefix bi- + primitive word lingual (language)
4. Live together: prefix with- + primitive word to live
5. Undo: prefix des- + primitive word make
6. Single color: prefix monkey- + primitive word Colour.
7. Pluricellular: prefix pluri- + primitive word cell
8. Polysyllable: prefix cop- + primitive word syllable
9. Predict: prefix pre- + primitive word say
10. Redo: prefix re- + primitive word make
11. Underground: prefix sub- + primitive word land
12. Overlap: prefix Super- + primitive word set
13. Transfer: prefix after- + primitive word happen
14. Sole proprietorship: prefix uni- + primitive word person
15. Deputy director: prefix vice- + primitive word director

Examples of derived words

In the following examples, a primitive word, from which several derived words emerge.

1. Love: love affair, love affair.
2. Old: antiquity, ancient.
3. Weapon: armor, armament, armed.
4. Garbage: garbage dump, garbage dump.
5. Corpse: cadaverous.
6. Coffee: caffeine, cafeteria, coffee maker.
7. Box: fit, drawer, cashier.
8. Countryside: camping, camping.
9. Singing: song, singer-songwriter, songbook, singer.
10. Car: lane, road, cart.
11. Letter: postman, primer, wallet, correspondence.
12. Light blue: matchmaker.
13. Darling: heavenly, heavenly.
14. Movie theater: filmmaker, cinema, cinephile, cinematographer.
15. Sure: clarity, chiaroscuro.
16. Class: classification, class.
17. Weather: acclimatize, climate.
18. Coward: cowardice, cowardice.
19. Blanket: shelter, shelter.
20. Food: eat, trough, dining room.
21. Cream: creamy, creamy.
22. Notebook: bind.
23. Finger: thimble.
24. Tooth: dental, dentist, toothpaste.
25. Ten: tithe, tenth.
26. Elite: elitist, elitism.
27. Broom: brush, brush.
28. Fiction: fictitious.
29. Flower: vase, florist, flourish, flourishing, floral, bloom.
30. Fry: fried, deep fryer, frying.
31. Front: face, frontal, face.
32. Cold: cool, cold.
33. Fruit: frugal, fruitful, fruity, greengrocer, fruity.
34. People: gentilicio, courtesy.
35. Balloon: encompass, global, globalization.
36. Live: habitation, habit, habitual, habitat.
37. Flour: flour.
38. Story: historical, history, historicity, historian.
39. Leaf: litter, defoliate.
40. Man: manhood, shoulder pads.
41. Invention: reinvent, inventory, invention, inventive, inventor.
42. Young: youth, rejuvenate, jovial.
43. Jewel: jewelry, jewelery.
44. Juice: wipe, juicy, juicer.
45. Pencil: pen.
46. Milk: milkman, dairy.
47. Book: bookstore, bookcase, notebook.
48. Wrench: key chain.
49. Rain: drizzle, rainy.
50. Light: luminous, luminous, luminescent, star, illuminate.
51. Hand: slap, mitt, handle, handle, handlebar.
52. Makeup: make-up remover, makeup artist, makeup artist.
53. Best: improve, improvement, improvement.
54. Less: minority, lessen, minimal.
55. Mine: ore, miner, mining.
56. Wet: soak, wet.
57. Death: deadly, deadly, deadly.
58. Woman: womanizer, slut, little women.
59. World: worldly, worldly.
60. Music: musician, musical, musicalization.
61. Boy: childhood, childish, babysitter.
62. Knot: knot, unknot.
63. New: novelty, newbie, renew.
64. Hate: hateful, hateful.
65. Eye: sideways eye, buttonhole, dark circles, eyeing.
66. Dark: darkness, darkening, chiaroscuro.
67. Bread: bakery, baker, breadmaker, breading.
68. Paper: ballot, stationery, paper.
69. Tablets: filling, filling.
70. Hair: fur, hairy.
71. Person: personal, character, personify.
72. Fish: fishing, fish tank, fish.
73. Painting: painterly, paint, brush, brushes.
74. Flat: stomp, stomp.
75. Feather: feather duster, plumage, feather jacket, plumage.
76. Town: population, town, small town, popular.
77. Lung: pneumonia, pulmonary.
78. Pulse: pulse, bracelet, pulse, pulse.
79. Fist: stab, dagger, handful, punch.
80. Pure: purify, purity.
81. Crank: unhinged, unhinged.
82. Clock: watchmaker, watchmaker.
83. rose: rosedal, pinkish, roses.
84. Salt: salty, salt shaker, salty, salty.
85. Blood: bloody, bleeding, bleeding.
86. Sign: signal, signaling, pointing.
87. Be quiet: silence, silent.
88. Sun: solar, solstice, sunny.
89. Shadow: parasol, parasol, hat, hatter.
90. Sound: rattle, rattle.
91. Subject: fasten, fastened.
92. Tapestry: upholstery, upholstery.
93. To have: fork, holding.
94. Theory: theorem, theorize.
95. Sad: sadden, sadness, sadly.
96. Green: greenish, greenish, verdigris.
97. Old: old age, aged.
98. Wind: windy.
99. Live: live together.
100. Shoe: shoemaker, shoemaker, shoemaker, slipper.

See also:

The morphologically unchanged part of the word thathas a lexical meaning — it is the basis, it is depending on it, non-derivative and derivative words are distinguished. Each base is characterized by two-sided: structurally and semantically.

Differences

Non-derivative stem is not semanticallymotivated, because it can not be explained with the help of related words, and morphologically it is not considered. In its structure it is equivalent to the root of the word. For example: forest-a; boldth; kind-about; rivers-and so on.

These fundamentals are non-derivative. And the derivative words can be distinguished by these features: motivated semantically, explained by the selection of a related basis. Its structure is easily divided into two equivalent blocks, that is, the very basis that forms derivative words, and the word-building affix. The examples will be the same: forest-Noah; bold-ost; kind-out;

The first block is the base

Non-derivative and derivative words refer tothe domain of word formation, where the central concept is the basis — the basic or the producing. From the basic in form and meaning, that is, two-sided, the derivative is derived, which is why it is considered motivating for the derived basis. Hence, the basis of the derived word is the basis of the motivating one. For example, in a word forest-and-th basis base — forest, and here forestry- is the basis of the adjective motivating. Thus, non-derivative and derivative words are distinguished.

The first block of this derivational structure is the base forest, it is basic, as in any other derived word. It, in turn, can become non-derivative, because everything depends on the ability to break into individual members. For example, a word woodman-ost. In all cases, everything is decided by the stage of production. That is, the first step is a derivative word derived from the root morpheme, here the base is non-derivative, and all subsequent steps make the word derivative.

Scheme

Derivative and non-derivative basis of a word on its word-building structure can be represented by the following schemes:

1. Base base (I) + word-forming suffix (II) + flexion. Examples: proud-ost; speech-k-a; books-N-th.

2. The word-forming prefix (II) + the basic basis (I) + inflexion. Examples:always-Yes; thewithin-to.

3. The word-forming prefix (II) + the base base (I) + the word-forming suffix (II) + inflection. Examples:conversations-Nick; atmoraine-Sk.

Thus, we can formulate from the above diagrams the basic laws of word formation in the Russian language. The derivative and non-derivative basis of the word are easily demarcated.

Basic Basics

The first rule: the word is always formed from the base stem that exists in the language, and the word-building affixes help in this process. In general, the basic framework is a functional concept, since it can be the same for a whole series of words, because from one root we form several, and sometimes many, others. For example, from the noun there are all kinds of adjectives that differ only in word-building affixes: goals-a — goals-n-oh — goals-ast-th; eye — eye-n-oh — eye-st-th and so on.

All words have a derivative property andnon-derivative, the meaning of a word from this basically depends. But the basic basis is for all derivatives. If the base itself is delimited, then there are difficulties and even errors in the definition of word-building affixes. For example: a noun like talent, comes from the adjective talented, and not vice versa, as always happens. Noun talent first had to form talent-live, and already from here appeared a new noun with the help of an affix —awn. Otherwise,talent-ost «, somehow ugly.

Affixes

The second rule: all words in one meaning of the basic bases are obtained by using the same affix or one of its types. Here the principle of semantic deducibility acts as the foundation for motivational relations of basic words and their derivatives. Of course, such a phenomenon as the polysemy of words adds complexity to this principle. In Russian, most of them are polysemantic, and this is reflected in word formation.

The semantic structure of the derivative and multivaluedThe initial words are often quite different from each other. A derivative word usually has some one, a separate meaning, which is different from the base. Here the main role is played by the derivative and non-derivative basis of the word. Examples can be found everywhere. Take the adjective old. He has several meanings: a person, an animal or an object that has reached old age; It is something ancient, existing since ancient times; long used, old, spoiled by time; old; inappropriate, invalid; old, outdated, out-of-date and many, many more. The group of derivatives of this word is numerous and is related to the first, initial value of the base stem: old, old, old, old, old, old, old and so on. From here appear derivatives that change the original meaning.

Non-derivative words

It is known that the boundary between classes thatwould represent an exact contrast, which words derivatives, and which are non-derivatives, are not strictly stringent. Accentological analysis makes this distinction so that words that have no semantic connection with any real word in Russian belong to the category of non-derivatives. A lot of them: luggage, author, lively, water, strong, take and so on. In addition, non-productive words must be words with a one-morphic basis — barking, running and so on. Also in the number of non-derivatives there will be words, so to say, «overtaken».

What does «derivative and non-derivative words» meanbecomes more understandable when the principle of joining morphemes becomes clear. Joining can be tight and no. How do two word forms combine into one word? Its main part is an independently existing word form. Recycling and oil refining, red and beautiful, entrance and exit — a million examples. Here is the last — tightly joined, and the first — loose.

Words-workers

It is in no way confusing the derivative and the generatingword. The producer — works, directly from him and appears a derivative, with its material backbone repeating the parental traits, but not completely, but how about a son looks like a mother, a father, or even a cousin: there the ending is truncated, and sometimes and the suffix disappears. Work-nik — works; pri-chain and so on. Here, the producing word here is invariable, and the derivative is obtained by means of affixes and is often not identical to the usual basis of the word.

On this subject — «Derivatives and non-derivative words»- the summary of the lesson would be interesting, since word formation is very strongly connected with all manifestations of human existence. The teacher simply expanses in the selection of examples, comparisons, illustrations.

Analysis

Comparison in the analysis of the derived word withrelated words to him, that is, close in meaning and sound, can not be, and this is done very often. It is very difficult to give an exhaustive answer to the question of what words are called non-productive. Derivatives are easier to operate. This term in itself is too broad, since it covers a huge word-building nest where derivatives are located not only with the producing basis that interests us, but also a lot of words that do not directly concern it, there are a lot of related entities.

For example, adjective talkative. Here you can give related words: speaking, talking, speaking, talking, talking, talking or talking. And here only one, the second, will beproducing, it is from this directly formed this adjective. The last two are superfluous, they do not contribute to the chosen direction of analysis, because the adjective talkative is formed not from the verb, but from the noun conversation, that is, from its substitutive generatingthe basis, and the past tense (form) — from the infinitive, which included all other suffixes as additional elements. It is from here that one can observe what the derivative and non-derivative basis of the word in word formation means.

And yet — the definition

Non-derivative words can be considered those thatthey are not formed and are not derived from any other single-root word existing in the language. Regarding derived words, the opposite is true. These are formations from words that already exist in a language with the help of various models of word formation. The motivation for it is the relationship of two words with one root. The value of one of them is determined either by the value of the other (crab — crab-uk that is, small, but still crab), or through identity in all components, excluding the grammatical meaning of the part of speech (white th — white-out, run-a-th — run and so on).

Word chain is a series of words withsingle root that are consistently motivated. The initial, initial link is an unmotivated word, then with each newly formed word motivation grows. Both derived and non-derived words are thus defined. Examples: old-old-old-old-old-old-old-old-old. Here, there are four degrees of motivation, and together they constitute a word-formation nest, in which there are much more chicks. The original word is a kind of bird-mother, a kind of peak, and it is unmotivated. From it emanate derivational chains that have the same source word.

Morphemes

First you need to define eachstructure element. The part of the word where its lexical meaning is expressed is called the base. Inflection is an ending that always indicates the relation of this word to others. Root — part of the word, which is common to all related. Affixes (or formants) are morphemes that join the root and serve to form new words.

Modern Russian word formation occurs in different ways — both morphological and non-morphological. First of all — the pattern in the combination of morphemes in the process of word formation.

Ways of word formation

Morphological methods of word formation are quite numerous.

1. Addition, that is, the formation of complex and compound-abbreviated words (earthquake, sky-vault, steam drive and rai-com, lik-without, savings bank).

2. A rarely used non-affix method, works only for nouns, there changes the consonant at the end and the stress, and the basis remains the same.

3. Affix — from the most productive when morphemes are added to the root, creating both lexical and grammatical forms.

4. Suffix — is added to the base suffix.

5. Prefixal — the prefix is ​​added.

6. Suffix-prefix — accordingly, both are added, respectively.

7. Postfix — an affix is ​​added after the end.

There are only three non-morphological methods of word formation: lexico-semantic (a word with a new meaning), lexico-syntactic (former phrases like crazy) and morphological-syntactic, when wordsbecome other parts of speech. Having mastered these rules of word formation, a person will already be able to answer which words are derivatives, and which words are never non-derivatives.

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In morphology, derivation is the process of creating a new word out of an old word, usually by adding a prefix or a suffix. The word comes from the Latin, «to draw off,» and its adjectival form is derivational.

Linguist Geert Booij, in «The Grammar of Words,» notes that one criterion for distinguishing derivation and ​inflection «is that derivation may feed inflection, but not vice versa. Derivation applies to the stem-forms of words, without their inflectional endings, and creates new, more complex stems to which inflectional rules can be applied.»

The derivational change that takes place without the addition of a bound morpheme (such as the use of the noun impact as a verb) is called zero derivation or conversion.

Examples and Observations

«Derivational morphology studies the principles governing the construction of new words, without reference to the specific grammatical role a word might play in a sentence. In the formation of drinkable from drink, or disinfect from infect, for example, we see the formation of new words, each with its own grammatical properties.»

– David Crystal, «How Language Works.» Overlook Press, 2005

Derivation vs. Inflection

Morphology may be divided into derivation—rules that form a new word out of old words, like duckfeathers and unkissable—and inflection—rules that modify a word to fit its role in a sentence, what language teachers call conjugation and declension.»

– Steven Pinker, «Words and Rules: The Ingredients of Language.» Basic Books, 1999

«The distinction between inflectional morphology and derivational morphology is an ancient one. Fundamentally, it is a matter of the means used to create new lexemes (derivational affixes among other processes) and those used to mark the role of the lexeme in a particular sentence (accidence, inflectional morphology)…

«It seems that although we probably can maintain a distinction between inflectional and derivational morphology relatively well in English—albeit with certain problematical cases which do not invalidate the fundamental notion—the distinction is not helpful to us in understanding any other aspects of the morphology of English. The classification might be useful in terms of typology, but does not throw much light on the behavior of English morphological processes.»

– Laurie Bauer, Rochelle Lieber, and Ingo Plag, The Oxford Reference Guide to English Morphology. Oxford University Press, 2013

Derivation, Compounding, and Productivity

«Word-formation is traditionally divided into two kinds: derivation and compounding. Whereas in compounding the constituents of a word are themselves lexemes, this is not the case in derivation. For instance, -ity is not a lexeme, and hence taxability is a case of derivation. The word income tax, on the other hand, is a compound since both income and tax are lexemes. Changing the word class of a word, as happened in the creation of the verb to tax from the noun tax, is called conversion, and may be subsumed under derivation…

«Morphological patterns that can be systematically extended are called productive. The derivation of nouns ending in -er from verbs is productive in English, but the derivation of nouns in -th from adjectives is not: it is hard to expand the set of words of this type such as depth, health, length, strength, and wealth. Marchand (1969: 349) has observed some occasional coinings like coolth (after warmth) but notes that such word coinings are often jocular, and hence do not represent a productive pattern. If we want to coin a new English noun on the basis of an adjective, we have to use -ness or -ity instead.»

– Geert Booij, «The Grammar of Words: An Introduction to Linguistic Morphology.» Oxford University Press, 2005

Changes to Meaning and Word Class: Prefixes and Suffixes

«Derivational prefixes do not normally alter the word class of the base word; that is, a prefix is added to a noun to form a new noun with a different meaning:

Derivational suffixes, on the other hand, usually change both the meaning and the word class; that is, a suffix is often added to a verb or adjective to form a new noun with a different meaning:

• patient: outpatient
• group: subgroup
• trial: retrial
• adjective — dark: darkness
• verb — agree: agreement
• noun — friend: friendship«

– Douglas Biber, Susan Conrad, and Geoffrey Leech, «Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English.» Longman, 2002