Derivational word formation analysis

Derivational
analysis – word-formation analysis.The
basic elementary units of the derivative structure of words are:
derivational
bases, derivational affixes and derivational patterns.

1.Derivational
base –
is a part of word to which a rule of word-formation is applied.
Structurally
derivational bases fall into three classes:

1)
bases that coincide with morphological stems of different degrees of
complexity, e.g. dutiful,
dutifully;
day-dream,
to day-dream, daydreamer.

Derivationally
the stems may be:

1. simple,
   which consist of only one, semantically non motivated constituent
   (pocket,
   motion, retain, horrible).

b)
derived
stems are semantically and structurally motivated, and are the
results of the application of word-formation rules (girl
– girlish, to weekend)

c)
compound
stems are always binary and semantically motivated (match-box,
letter-writer)

2)
bases that coincide with word-forms; e.g. paper-bound,
unsmiling,
This
class of bases is confined to verbal word-forms
— the
present and the past participles.

3)
bases that coincide with word-grоups
of different degrees of stability, e ,g. second-rateness,
This
class is made of word-groups. Bases of this kind are most active with
derivational affixes in the class of adjectives and nouns, e.g.
blue-eyed,

2.Derivational
affixes.
Derivational
affixes are ICs of numerous derivatives in all parts of speech.
Derivational affixes possess two basic functions:

1)
that of stem-building and 2) that of word-building. In most cases
derivational affixes perform both functions simultaneously.

3.Derivational
patterns: A
derivational pattern is a regular meaningful arrangement, a structure
that imposes rigid rules on the order and the nature of the
derivational bases and affixes that may be brought together.

There
are two types of DPs — structural that specify base classes and
individual affixes, and structural-semantic that specify semantic
peculiarities of bases and the individual meaning of the affix. DPs
of different levels of generalisation signal: 1) the class of source
unit that motivates the derivative and the direction of motivation
between different classes of words; 2) the part of speech of the
derivative; 3) the lexical sets and semantic features of derivatives.

12. Affixation in English

Affixation
– is the formation of new words by adding derivative affixes to
derivational bases.

Classification
of affixes: 1. According to the number of words they create, all
affixes may be classified into productive (un-, re-, -er) and
non-productive (….,
— hood); 2. From the point of view of their current participation in
word-formation process, the derivational affixes are divided into
active and non-active, or dead affixes (for- in forgive, forbid,
forget); 3. From the point of view of their origin: native (-dom,
-hood, over-) and borrowed (-able, -ist); 4. Synchronically all the
affixes are divided into verbal, adj., adv., (womanly – quickly)

Affixation
is subdivided into suffixation
and prefixation.
Prefixation
is the formation of words with the help of prefixes.
Prefixes
may be classified on different principles. Diachronically distinction
is made between prefixes of native and foreign origin.¹
Synchronically prefixes may be classified:

1. according
   to the class of words they preferably form. The majority of prefixes
   tend to function either in nominal parts of speech
   or
   in verbs

2. as
   to the type of lexical-grammatical character of the base they are
   added to.

3. semantically
   prefixes fall into mono- and polysemantic.

4. as
   to the generic denotational meaning: negative (un-, non-, in-,
   dis-); reversative (un-, de-, dis-); perjorative (mis-, mal-,
   pseudo-); prefixes of time and order (fore-, pre-, post-, ex-);
   prefix of repetition (re-); locative prefixes (super-, sub-, inter-,
   trans-).

5. neutral
   stylistic reference (un-, out-, re-, under-) and those possessing
   quite a definite stylistic value, they have literary-bookish
   character (pseudo-, super-, ultra-).

6. prefixes
   may be also classified as to the degree of productivity into
   highly-productive, productive and non-productive.

Suffixation
– is the formation of words with the help of suffixes. There are
indentified from 60 to 130 suffixes. There
are different classifications of suffixes:

1. The
   first principle of classification that, one might say, suggests
   itself is the part of speech formed:

Noun-suffixes
(-er, -dom, -ness, -ation)

Adjective-suffixes
(-able, -less, -ful, -ic, -ous)

Verb-suffixes
(-en, -fy, -ise)

Adverb-suffixes
(-ly, -ward)

2) Suffixes
may also be classified into various groups according to the
lexico-grammatical character of the base the affix is usually added
to:

a)
deverbal suffixes (those added to the verbal base), e.g. -er,
-ing, -ment, -able, etc.
(speaker,
reading);

1. denominal
   suffixes (those added to the noun base), e.g. -less,
   -ish, -ful, -ist, -some, etc.
   (handless,
   childish);

2. de-adjectival
   suffixes (those affixed to the adjective base), e.g. -en,
   -ly, -ish, -ness, etc.
   (blacken,
   slowly).

3)
A
classification of suffixes may also be based on the criterion of
sense expressed by a set of suffixes:

a)
the agent of an action, e.g. -er,
-ant (baker, dancer);

1. appurtenance,
   e.g. -an,
   -ian, —ese,
   etc. (Russian,
   Chinese, Japanese, etc.);

2. collectivity,
   e.g. -age,
   -dom, -ery (-ry), etc.
   (freightage,
   officialdom);

3. diminutiveness,
   e.g. -ie, -let, -ling, etc. (birdie,
   girlie, cloudlet).

4)
From the angle of stylistic reference:

a)
those
characterised by neutral stylistic reference such as -able,
-er,
-ing, etc.;

1. those
   having a certain stylistic value such as -oid,
   -i/form, -aceous, -tron, etc.

5)
Suffixes
are also classified as to the degree of their productivity.

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1

Seminar 3

When studying word-structure there are two levels of approach: the level of the morphemic analysis and

the derivational or word-formation analysis. For the purposes of this seminar, we will focus on the

derivational analysis. However, in what follows you are given some information on the morphemic

analysis as well.

Morphemic analysis

Morpheme = the smallest meaningful unit in a language that cannot be further divided

= the basic unit of the morphemic level

= not independent and are found in speech only as integral parts of the word

Types of morphemes:

a) root-morpheme = the lexical nucleus of the word; it has a very general and abstract lexical meaning

common to a set of semantically related words constituting one word-cluster (e.g. (to) teach, teacher,

teaching)

— do not possess the part-of-speech meaning which is not found in roots

— roots are what remains of a word after all affixes have been removed and their

fundamental characteristic is that they are not further divisible into other constituent parts that should

have meaning

affixational morpheme = include inflectional affixes or inflections and derivational affixes

— Inflections carry only grammatical meaning and are thus relevant only for the

formation of word-forms

— Derivational affixes are relevant for building various types of words (this is the

concern of Lexicology)

o Lexically always dependent on the root which they modify

o Most of them have the part-of-speech meaning which makes them

structurally the important part of the word as they condition the lexico-

grammatical class the word belongs to (classified into affixes building

different parts of speech: nouns, verbs, adjectives or adverbs)

e.g. helpless, handy, blackness, Londoner



the root-morphemes help-, hand-, black-, London- are

understood as the lexical centres of the words; and –less, -y, -ness, —er are felt as morphemes dependent

on these roots.

b) free morphemes  coincide with word-forms of independently functioning words

 can be found only among roots  the morpheme boy— in the word boy is a free

morpheme; in the word undesirable there is only one free morpheme desire—; pen-holder has two free

morphemes pen- and hold-; fancy-dress—maker has three free morphemes.

WORD STRUCTURE IN MODERN ENGLISH

  I.   The morphological structure of a word. Morphemes. Types of morphemes. Allomorphs.

II.   Structural types of words.

III.   Principles of morphemic analysis.

  IV.   Derivational level of analysis. Stems. Types of stems. Derivational types of words.

I.   The morphological structure of a word. Morphemes. Types of Morphemes.  Allomorphs.

There are two levels of approach to the study of word- structure: the level of morphemic analysis and the level of derivational or word-formation analysis.

Word is the principal and basic unit of the language system, the largest on the morphologic and the smallest on the syntactic plane of linguistic analysis.

It has been universally acknowledged that a great many words have a composite nature and are made up of morphemes, the basic units on the morphemic level, which are defined as the smallest indivisible two-facet language units.

The term morpheme is derived from Greek morphe “form ”+ -eme. The Greek suffix –eme has been adopted by linguistic to denote the smallest unit or the minimum distinctive feature.

The morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of form. A form in these cases a recurring discrete unit of speech. Morphemes occur in speech only as constituent parts of words, not independently, although a word may consist of single morpheme. Even a cursory examination of the morphemic structure of English words reveals that they are composed of morphemes of different types: root-morphemes and affixational morphemes. Words that consist of a root and an affix are called derived words or derivatives and are produced by the process of word building known as affixation (or derivation).

The root-morpheme is the lexical nucleus of the word; it has a very general and abstract lexical meaning common to a set of semantically related words constituting one word-cluster, e.g. (to) teach, teacher, teaching. Besides the lexical meaning root-morphemes possess all other types of meaning proper to morphemes except the part-of-speech meaning which is not found in roots.

Affixational morphemes include inflectional affixes or inflections and derivational affixes. Inflections carry only grammatical meaning and are thus relevant only for the formation of word-forms. Derivational affixes are relevant for building various types of words. They are lexically always dependent on the root which they modify. They possess the same types of meaning as found in roots, but unlike root-morphemes most of them have the part-of-speech meaning which makes them structurally the important part of the word as they condition the lexico-grammatical class the word belongs to. Due to this component of their meaning the derivational affixes are classified into affixes building different parts of speech: nouns, verbs, adjectives or adverbs.

Roots and derivational affixes are generally easily distinguished and the difference between them is clearly felt as, e.g., in the words helpless, handy, blackness, Londoner, refill, etc.: the root-morphemes help-, hand-, black-, London-, fill-, are understood as the lexical centers of the words, and –less, -y,      -ness, -er, re- are felt as morphemes dependent on these roots.

 Distinction is also made of free and bound morphemes.

Free morphemes coincide with word-forms of independently functioning words. It is obvious that free morphemes can be found only among roots, so the morpheme boy- in the word boy is a free morpheme; in the word undesirable there is only one free morpheme desire-; the word pen-holder has two free morphemes  pen- and hold-. It follows that bound morphemes are those that do not coincide with separate word- forms, consequently all derivational morphemes, such as –ness, -able, -er are bound. Root-morphemes may be both free and bound. The morphemes theor- in the words theory, theoretical, or horr- in the words horror, horrible, horrify; Angl- in  Anglo-Saxon; Afr- in Afro-Asian are all bound roots as there are no identical word-forms.

It should also be noted that morphemes may have different phonemic shapes. In the word-cluster please , pleasing , pleasure , pleasant the phonemic shapes of the word stand in complementary distribution or in alternation with each other. All the representations of the given morpheme, that manifest alternation are called allomorphs/or morphemic variants/ of that morpheme.

The combining form allo- from Greek allos “other” is used in linguistic terminology to denote elements of a group whose members together consistute a structural unit of the language (allophones, allomorphs). Thus, for example, -ion/ -tion/ -sion/ -ation are the positional variants of the same suffix, they do not differ in meaning or function but show a slight difference in sound form depending on the final phoneme of the preceding stem. They are considered as variants of one and the same morpheme and called its allomorphs.

Allomorph is defined as a positional variant of a morpheme occurring in a specific environment and so characterized by complementary description.

Complementary distribution is said to take place, when two linguistic variants cannot appear in the same environment.

Different morphemes are characterized by contrastive distribution, i.e. if they occur in the same environment they signal different meanings. The suffixes –able and –ed, for instance, are different morphemes, not allomorphs, because adjectives in –able mean “ capable of beings”.

Allomorphs will also occur among prefixes. Their form then depends on the initials of the stem with which they will assimilate.

Two or more sound forms of a stem existing under conditions of complementary distribution may also be regarded as allomorphs, as, for instance, in long a: length n.

II. Structural types of words.

The morphological analysis of word- structure on the morphemic level aims at splitting the word into its constituent morphemes – the basic units at this level of analysis – and at determining their number and types. The four types (root words, derived words, compound, shortenings) represent the main structural types of Modern English words, and conversion, derivation and composition the most productive ways of word building.

According to the number of morphemes words can be classified into monomorphic and polymorphic. Monomorphic or root-words consist of only one root-morpheme, e.g. small, dog, make, give, etc. All polymorphic word fall into two subgroups:  derived words and compound words – according to the number of root-morphemes they have. Derived words are composed of one root-morpheme and one or more derivational morphemes, e.g. acceptable, outdo, disagreeable, etc. Compound words are those which contain at least two root-morphemes, the number of derivational morphemes being insignificant. There can be both root- and derivational morphemes in compounds as in pen-holder, light-mindedness, or only root-morphemes as in lamp-shade, eye-ball, etc.

These structural types are not of equal importance. The clue to the correct understanding of their comparative value lies in a careful consideration of: 1)the importance of each type in the existing wordstock, and 2) their frequency value in actual speech. Frequency is by far the most important factor. According to the available word counts made in different parts of speech, we find that derived words numerically constitute the largest class of words in the existing wordstock; derived nouns comprise approximately 67% of the total number, adjectives about 86%, whereas compound nouns make about 15% and adjectives about 4%. Root words come to 18% in nouns, i.e. a trifle more than the number of compound words; adjectives root words come to approximately 12%.

But we cannot fail to perceive that root-words occupy a predominant place. In English, according to the recent frequency counts, about 60% of the total number of nouns and 62% of the total number of adjectives in current use are root-words. Of the total number of adjectives and nouns, derived words comprise about 38% and 37% respectively while compound words comprise an insignificant 2% in nouns and 0.2% in adjectives. Thus it is the root-words that constitute the foundation and the backbone of the vocabulary and that are of paramount importance in speech. It should also be mentioned that root words are characterized by a high degree of collocability and a complex variety of meanings in contrast with words of other structural types whose semantic structures are much poorer. Root- words also serve as parent forms for all types of derived and compound words.

III. Principles of morphemic analysis.

In most cases the morphemic structure of words is transparent enough and individual morphemes clearly stand out within the word. The segmentation of words is generally carried out according to the method of Immediate and Ultimate Constituents. This method is based on the binary principle, i.e. each stage of the procedure involves two components the word immediately breaks into. At each stage these two components are referred to as the Immediate Constituents. Each Immediate Constituent at the next stage of analysis is in turn broken into smaller meaningful elements. The analysis is completed when we arrive at constituents incapable of further division, i.e. morphemes. These are referred to Ultimate Constituents.

A synchronic morphological analysis is most effectively accomplished by the procedure known as the analysis into Immediate Constituents. ICs are the two meaningful parts forming a large linguistic unity.

The method is based on the fact that a word characterized by morphological divisibility is involved in certain structural correlations. To sum up: as we break the word we obtain at any level only ICs one of which is the stem of the given word. All the time the analysis is based on the patterns characteristic of the English vocabulary. As a pattern showing the interdependence of all the constituents segregated at various stages, we obtain the following formula:

un+ { [ ( gent- + -le ) + -man ] + -ly}

Breaking a word into its Immediate Constituents we observe in each cut the structural order of the constituents.

A  diagram presenting the four cuts described looks as follows:

1. un- / gentlemanly

2.   un- / gentleman / — ly

3.   un- / gentle / — man / — ly

4.   un- / gentl / — e / — man / — ly

A similar analysis on the word-formation level showing not only the morphemic constituents of the word but also the structural pattern on which it is built.

The analysis of word-structure at the morphemic level must proceed to the stage of Ultimate Constituents. For example, the noun friendliness is first segmented into the ICs: [frendlı-] recurring in the adjectives friendly-looking and friendly and [-nıs] found in a countless number  of nouns, such as unhappiness, blackness, sameness, etc. the IC [-nıs] is at the same time an UC of the word, as it cannot be broken into any smaller elements possessing both sound-form and meaning. Any further division of –ness would give individual speech-sounds which denote nothing by themselves. The IC [frendlı-] is next broken into the ICs [-lı] and [frend-] which are both UCs of the word.

Morphemic analysis under the method of Ultimate Constituents may be carried out on the basis of two principles: the so-called root-principle and affix principle.

According to the affix principle the splitting of the word into its constituent morphemes is based on the identification of the affix within a set of words, e.g. the identification of the suffix –er leads to the segmentation of words singer, teacher, swimmer into the derivational morpheme – er  and the roots teach- , sing-, drive-.

According to the root-principle, the segmentation of the word is based on the identification of the root-morpheme in a word-cluster, for example the identification of the root-morpheme agree-  in the words agreeable, agreement, disagree.

As a rule, the application of these principles is sufficient for the morphemic segmentation of words.

However, the morphemic structure of words in a number of cases defies such analysis, as it is not always so transparent and simple as in the cases mentioned above. Sometimes not only the segmentation of words into morphemes, but the recognition of certain sound-clusters as morphemes become doubtful which naturally affects the classification of words. In words like retain, detain, contain or  receive, deceive, conceive, perceive the sound-clusters [rı-], [dı-] seem to be singled quite easily, on the other hand, they undoubtedly have nothing in common with the phonetically identical prefixes  re-, de- as found in words re-write, re-organize, de-organize, de-code. Moreover, neither the sound-cluster [rı-] or [dı-], nor the [-teın] or [-sı:v] possess any lexical or functional meaning of their own. Yet, these sound-clusters are felt as having a certain meaning because [rı-] distinguishes retain from detain and [-teın] distinguishes retain from receive.

It follows that all these sound-clusters have a differential and a certain distributional meaning as their order arrangement point to the affixal status of re-, de-, con-, per- and makes one understand —tain and –ceive as roots. The differential and distributional meanings seem to give sufficient ground to recognize these sound-clusters as morphemes, but as they lack lexical meaning of their own, they are set apart from all other types of morphemes and are known in linguistic literature as pseudo- morphemes. Pseudo- morphemes of the same kind  are also encountered in words like rusty-fusty.

IV.   Derivational level of analysis. Stems. Types of Stems. Derivational types of word.

The morphemic analysis of words only defines the constituent morphemes, determining their types and their meaning but does not reveal the hierarchy of the morphemes comprising the word. Words are no mere sum totals of morpheme, the latter reveal a definite, sometimes very complex interrelation. Morphemes are arranged according to certain rules, the arrangement differing in various types of words and particular groups within the same types. The pattern of morpheme arrangement underlies the classification of words into different types and enables one to understand how new words appear in the language. These relations within the word and the interrelations between different types and classes of words are known as derivative or word- formation relations.

The analysis of derivative relations aims at establishing a correlation between different types and the structural patterns words are built on. The basic unit at the derivational level is the stem.

The stem is defined as that part of the word which remains unchanged throughout its paradigm, thus the stem which appears in the paradigm (to) ask ( ), asks, asked, asking is ask-; thestem of the word singer ( ), singer’s, singers, singers’ is singer-. It is the stem of the word that takes the inflections which shape the word grammatically as one or another part of speech.

The structure of stems should be described in terms of IC’s analysis, which at this level aims at establishing the patterns of typical derivative relations within the stem and the derivative correlation between stems of different types.

There are three types of stems: simple, derived and compound.

Simple stems are semantically non-motivated and do not constitute a pattern on analogy with which new stems may be modeled. Simple stems are generally monomorphic and phonetically identical with the root morpheme. The derivational structure of stems does not always coincide with the result of morphemic analysis. Comparison proves that not all morphemes relevant at the morphemic level are relevant at the derivational level of analysis. It follows that bound morphemes and all types of pseudo- morphemes are irrelevant to the derivational structure of stems as they do not meet requirements of double opposition and derivative interrelations. So the stem of such words as retain, receive, horrible, pocket, motion, etc. should be regarded as simple, non- motivated stems.

Derived stems are built on stems of various structures though which they are motivated, i.e. derived stems are understood on the basis  of the derivative relations between their IC’s and the correlated stems. The derived stems are mostly polymorphic in which case the segmentation results only in one IC that is itself a stem, the other IC being necessarily a derivational affix.

Derived stems are not necessarily polymorphic.

Compound stems are made up of two IC’s, both of which are themselves stems, for example match-box, driving-suit, pen-holder, etc. It is built by joining of two stems, one of which is simple, the other derived.

In more complex cases the result of the analysis at the two levels sometimes seems even to contracted one another.

The derivational types of words are classified according to the structure of their stems into simple, derived and compound words.

Derived words are those composed of one root- morpheme and one or more derivational morpheme.

Compound words contain at least two root- morphemes, the number of derivational morphemes being insignificant.

Derivational compound is a word formed by a simultaneous process of composition and derivational.

Compound words proper are formed by joining together stems of word already available in the language.

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