5. The main units of derivational analysis. Derivational patterns.
It is important alongside morphological
analysis of a word to carry out its derivational
(word-formation) analysis in order
to determine the type and arrangement of immediate constituents there
i.e., to establish a word’s derivative
(derivational) structure. Restoring
a derivative structure in a word helps to answer the question how new
words are formed, or derived.
The basic elements of a derivative structure of
a word are immediate constituents –
-
A derivational base
(DB)
-
A derivational affix
(DA)
-
A derivational pattern
(DP) of their arrangement.
A
derivational base is the word constituent to which a rule of
word-formation is applied.
Structurally, DBs
fall into 3 classes:
-
bases that coincide with morphological stems
of different degrees of complexity. A DB which is the starting point
for new words may coincide with a simple morphological stem as the
DB father- used
for creation of the verb to
father coincides with a simple
morphological stem father-
which is a starting point for such noun forms as fathers,
father’s. A DB may coincide
with a derived morphological stem as computer-
in computer-ize
or even compound morphological stem as week-end-
in the word weekender.
This class of DBs is the biggest. -
bases that coincide with word forms as the
base known-
in un-known
or dancing-
in a dancing-girl; -
bases that coincide with word groups of
different degrees of stability as the DB narrow
mind- in narrow-minded
or blue eye(s)-
in blue-eye-d,
or second rate-
in second-rateness.
The important peculiarity of a DB in contrast
to a morphological stem is that it is monosemantic. Rules of
word-formation are applied to a DB representing only one meaning of a
polysemantic stem. For example, the DB bed
in the compound word a flower-bed
has only one meaning: “a flat or level surface as in a plot of
ground prepared for pants” while the word bed
is highly polysemantic.
Another
component of a derivative structure is a DA
which is added to a DB.
DAs (prefixes and suffixes) are highly
selective to the etymological, phonological, structural-semantic
properties of DBs. The suffix –ance/-ence,
for example, never occurs after s
or z
(disturb-ance,
but: organiz-ation).
The prefix in-
has limitations, too (insecure,
inconvenience but non-conformist, disobedience).
Or, even though the combining abilities of the adjectival suffix –ish
are vast they are not unlimited: it is possible to say boyish,
bookish, monkeyish, sevenish, but not, for example, enemish.
The conditions under which affixes of a certain type may be attached
to a certain DB and the limits of possible use of affixes are still
not clear and being actively investigated.
A DP
– is a regular meaningful arrangement of immediate components,
which can be expressed by a formula denoting their part of speech,
lexical-semantic class and individual semantics. For example:
Pref + adj → Adj (adj +
n) + -ed →Adj
Or being written in a more abstract way not
taking into account the final results:
Pref + adj
(adj + n) + suf
Or vice versa, taking into account the final
results and with individualization of some of the immediate
constituents,
Like in:
Re- + v → V or pref +
read → V.
Like DA DP may be productive
and nonproductive.
For example, a number of patterns of different
productivity are used to lexicalize concepts denoting a doer of an
action:
V + -er → N
is a highly productive DP (teach →
teacher, build → builder, sing → singer);
n + -ist → N
is quite a productive pattern (piano
→ pianist, art →artist ),
but
n + -ian → N
(Christ → Christian ;
politics/policy → politian ; comedy → comedian)
is active though not a productive pattern because a limited number of
words are derived according to it.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Morphological derivation, in linguistics, is the process of forming a new word from an existing word, often by adding a prefix or suffix, such as un- or -ness. For example, unhappy and happiness derive from the root word happy.
It is differentiated from inflection, which is the modification of a word to form different grammatical categories without changing its core meaning: determines, determining, and determined are from the root determine.[1]
Derivational patterns[edit]
Derivational morphology often involves the addition of a derivational suffix or other affix. Such an affix usually applies to words of one lexical category (part of speech) and changes them into words of another such category. For example, one effect of the English derivational suffix -ly is to change an adjective into an adverb (slow → slowly).
Here are examples of English derivational patterns and their suffixes:
- adjective-to-noun: -ness (slow → slowness)
- adjective-to-verb: -en (weak → weaken)
- adjective-to-adjective: -ish (red → reddish)
- adjective-to-adverb: -ly (personal → personally)
- noun-to-adjective: -al (recreation → recreational)
- noun-to-verb: -fy (glory → glorify)
- verb-to-adjective: -able (drink → drinkable)
- verb-to-noun (abstract): -ance (deliver → deliverance)
- verb-to-noun (agent): -er (write → writer)
However, derivational affixes do not necessarily alter the lexical category; they may change merely the meaning of the base and leave the category unchanged. A prefix (write → re-write; lord → over-lord) rarely changes the lexical category in English. The prefix un- applies to adjectives (healthy → unhealthy) and some verbs (do → undo) but rarely to nouns. A few exceptions are the derivational prefixes en- and be-. En- (replaced by em- before labials) is usually a transitive marker on verbs, but it can also be applied to adjectives and nouns to form transitive verbs: circle (verb) → encircle (verb) but rich (adj) → enrich (verb), large (adj) → enlarge (verb), rapture (noun) → enrapture (verb), slave (noun) → enslave (verb).
When derivation occurs without any change to the word, such as in the conversion of the noun breakfast into the verb to breakfast, it’s known as conversion, or zero derivation.
Derivation that results in a noun may be called nominalization. It may involve the use of an affix (such as with employ → employee), or it may occur via conversion (such as with the derivation of the noun run from the verb to run). In contrast, a derivation resulting in a verb may be called verbalization (such as from the noun butter to the verb to butter).
Derivation and inflection[edit]
Derivation can be contrasted with inflection, in that derivation can produce a new word (a distinct lexeme) but isn’t required to change this, whereas inflection produces grammatical variants of the same word.
Generally speaking, inflection applies in more or less regular patterns to all members of a part of speech (for example, nearly every English verb adds -s for the third person singular present tense), while derivation follows less consistent patterns (for example, the nominalizing suffix -ity can be used with the adjectives modern and dense, but not with open or strong). However, it is important to note that derivations and inflections can share homonyms, that being, morphemes that have the same sound, but not the same meaning. For example, when the affix -er, is added to an adjective, as in small-er, it acts as an inflection, but when added to a verb, as in cook-er, it acts as a derivation.[2]
As mentioned above, a derivation can produce a new word (or new part of speech) but is not required to do so. For example, the derivation of the word «common» to «uncommon» is a derivational morpheme but doesn’t change the part of speech (adjective).
An important distinction between derivational and inflectional morphology lies in the content/function of a listeme[clarification needed]. Derivational morphology changes both the meaning and the content of a listeme, while inflectional morphology doesn’t change the meaning, but changes the function.
A non-exhaustive list of derivational morphemes in English: -ful, -able, im-, un-, -ing, -er
A non-exhaustive list of inflectional morphemes in English: -er, -est, -ing, -en, -ed, -s
Derivation and other types of word formation[edit]
Derivation can be contrasted with other types of word formation such as compounding. For full details see Word formation.
Note that derivational affixes are bound morphemes – they are meaningful units, but can only normally occur when attached to another word. In that respect, derivation differs from compounding by which free morphemes are combined (lawsuit, Latin professor). It also differs from inflection in that inflection does not create new lexemes but new word forms (table → tables; open → opened).
Productivity[edit]
Derivational patterns differ in the degree to which they can be called productive. A productive pattern or affix is one that is commonly used to produce novel forms. For example, the negating prefix un- is more productive in English than the alternative in-; both of them occur in established words (such as unusual and inaccessible), but faced with a new word which does not have an established negation, a native speaker is more likely to create a novel form with un- than with in-. The same thing happens with suffixes. For example, if comparing two words Thatcherite and Thatcherist, the analysis shows that both suffixes -ite and -ist are productive and can be added to proper names, moreover, both derived adjectives are established and have the same meaning. But the suffix -ist is more productive and, thus, can be found more often in word formation not only from proper names.
See also[edit]
- Agglutination
- Collocation
- Inflection
- Nominalization
- Word formation
- Word root
References[edit]
- ^ Crystal, David (1999): The Penguin Dictionary of Language, Penguin Books, England.
- ^ Sobin, Nicholas (2011). Syntactic Analysis The Basics. West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 17–18. ISBN 978-1-4443-3895-9.
- Speech and Language Processing, Jurafsky, D. & Martin J.,H.
Derivation is defined as the process of attaching an affix to a base. It is a regular procedure of word formation, which allows languages to designate semantically related concepts with others, in a certain sense considered primitive, by adding affixes. The existence of the derivation makes it possible to have a lexicon that allows the attribution of numerous meanings, from a much smaller number of roots or lexemes. Derivation in linguistics
The derivation is a regular procedure word formation that allows languages designate semantically related concepts with other in a sense considered primitive by adding suffixes (eg knife of knife ). The existence of the derivation allows to have a lexicon that allows to designate numerous senses from a much smaller number of roots or lexemes . Also the derivation is the main source of new words in many languages.
The shunt is similar to certain flexion forms , since both would use morphemes added to the root to express differences. However, flexion does not involve changing referents but rather the added marks have a strictly grammatical purpose. On the other hand, the derivation resembles changes in meaning to the composition .
The derivation is a set of a primitive word together with a prefix or a suffix
In the field of linguistics, the concept of derivation refers to one of the processes of new word formation . This process has a general criterion.
Keep in mind that different words come from the same primitive word. Thus, all words that come from a primitive are known as derived words. In this way, with the primitive word sun, I can form a series of derived words, such as solace, sunstroke, solar, sunny, etc. For the derivation process to be possible it is necessary to apply a series of rules. Derivation in linguistics
- Demonstrate > demonstra-tion > demonstrable; if, on the other hand, this modification does not occur, it is called a homogeneous derivation:
- White > whitish-white. The first occurs when it is derived through suffixes, while in the second we find derivatives from prefixes, for example:
- Paint > repaint; proper > improper, nor is it transformed when using augmentative, diminutive and derogatory suffixes:
woman > big woman, book > little book, house > shack, etc.
Derivational patterns
Here are examples of English derivation patterns and their suffixes:
- adjective- to- noun : -ness ( slow → slowness )
- adjective-to- verb : -in ( weak → weaken )
- adjective-to-adjective: -ish ( red → reddish )
- adjective to adverb : -ly ( personal → personally )
- noun to adjective : -al ( recreation → recreation )
- noun-to-verb: -fy ( glory → glorify )
- verb-to-adjective: -able ( drink → drinkable )
- verb-to-noun ( abstract ): -ance ( deliver → release )
- verb-to-noun ( agent ): -er ( write → writer )
However, derived affixes do not necessarily alter the lexical category; they can simply change the meaning of the base and leave the category unchanged. A prefix ( write → rewrite ; lord → over-lord ) rarely changes the lexical category in English. The prefix does not apply to adjectives ( healthy → unhealthy ) and some verbs ( do → undo ), but rarely to nouns. Some exceptions are the derived prefixes en- and be- . En- (replaced by em- beforelabials ) is usually a transitive marker on verbs, but can also be applied to adjectives and nouns to form transitive verbs: circle (verb) → encircle (verb) but rich (adj) → enrich (verb), large (adj) → enlarge (verb), rapture (noun) → enrapture (verb), slave (noun) → enslave (verb). Derivation in linguistics
When the derivation occurs without any change in the word, as in the conversion of the noun breakfast to the verb for breakfast , it is known as zero conversion or derivation.
The derivation that results in a noun can be called a nominalization . It may involve the use of an affix (as with employ → employee ), or it may occur through conversion (as with the derivation of the noun run from the verb to run ). In contrast, a derivation that results in a verb may be called a verbalization (as from the noun butter to the verb butter ).
Derivation and inflection
Generally speaking, the inflection is applied in more or less regular patterns to all members of a part of speech (for example, almost all verbs in English add -s for the third person singular in the present tense), while the derivation follows less consistent patterns (for example, the nominalizing suffix -ity can be used with the adjectives modern and dense , but not with open or strong ). However, it is important to note that derivations and inflections can share homonyms, that is, morphemes .They have the same sound, but not the same meaning. For example, when the affix -er is added to an adjective, as in small-er , it acts as an inflection, but when it is added to a verb, as in cook-er , it acts as a derivation. Derivation in linguistics
As mentioned above, a derivation can produce a new word (or a new part of speech), but it doesn’t have to. For example, the derivation of the word “common” to “uncommon” is a derivational morpheme but does not change the part of speech (adjective).
An important distinction between derived and inflectional morphology lies in the content/function of a listeme. Derivative morphology changes both the meaning and content of a listeme, while inflectional morphology does not change the meaning, but changes the function.
A non-exhaustive list of English derivational morphemes: -ful, -able, im-, un-, -ing, -er
A non-exhaustive list of inflectional morphemes in English: -er, -est, -ing, -en, -ed, -s
10.1. The morphological structure of English words.
10.2. Definition of word-formation. Synchronic and diachronic approaches to word formation.
10.3. Main units of word-formation. Derivational analysis.
10.4. Ways of word-formation.
10.5. Functional approach to word-formation.
10.6. The communicative aspect of word-formation.
10.1. Structurally, words are divisible into smaller units which are called morphemes. Morphemes are the smallest indivisible two-facet (significant) units. A morpheme exists only as a constituent part of the word.
One morpheme may have different phonemic shapes, i.e. it is represented by allomorphs (its variants),
e.g. in please, pleasure, pleasant [pli: z], [ple3-], [plez-] are allomorphs of one morpheme.
Semantically, all morphemes are classified into roots and affixes. The root is the lexical centre of the word, its basic part; it has an individual lexical meaning,
e.g. in help, helper, helpful, helpless, helping, unhelpful — help- is the root.
Affixes are used to build stems; they are classified into prefixes and suffixes; there are also infixes. A prefix precedes the root, a suffix follows it; an infix is inserted in the body of the word,
e.g. prefixes: re -think, mis -take, dis -cover, over -eat, ex -wife;
suffixes: danger- ous, familiar- ize, kind- ness, swea- ty etc.
Structurally, morphemes fall into: free morphemes, bound morphemes, semi-bound (semi-free) morphemes.
A free morpheme is one that coincides with a stem or a word-form. A great many root-morphemes are free,
e.g. in friendship the root -friend — is free as it coincides with a word-form of the noun friend.
A bound morpheme occurs only as a part of a word. All affixes are bound morphemes because they always make part of a word,
e.g. in friendship the suffix -ship is a bound morpheme.
Some root morphemes are also bound as they always occur in combination with other roots and/or affixes,
e.g. in conceive, receive, perceive — ceive — is a bound root.
To this group belong so-called combining forms, root morphemes of Greek and Latin origin,
e.g. tele -, mega, — logy, micro -, — phone: telephone, microphone, telegraph, etc.
Semi-bound morphemes are those that can function both as a free root morpheme and as an affix (sometimes with a change of sound form and/or meaning),
e.g. proof, a. » giving or having protection against smth harmful or unwanted» (a free root morpheme): proof against weather;
-proof (in adjectives) » treated or made so as not to be harmed by or so as to give protection against» (a semi-bound morpheme): bulletproof, ovenproof, dustproof, etc.
Morphemic analysis aims at determining the morphemic (morphological) structure of a word, i.e. the aim is to split the word into morphemes and state their number, types and the pattern of arrangement. The basic unit of morphemic analysis is the morpheme.
In segmenting words into morphemes, we use the method of Immediate and Unltimate Constituents. At each stage of the analysis, a word is broken down into two meaningful parts (ICs, i.e. Immediate Constituents). At the next stage, each IC is broken down into two smaller meaningful elements. The analysis is completed when we get indivisible constituents, i.e. Ultimate Constituents, or morphs, which represent morphemes in concrete words,
e.g. 
Friend-, -ly, -ness are indivisible into smaller meaningful units, so they are Ultimate Constituents (morphs) and the word friendliness consists of 3 morphemes: friend-+-li+-ness.
There are two structural types of words at the morphemic level of analysis: monomorphic (non-segmentable, indivisible) and polymorphic words (segmentable, divisible). The former consist only of a root morpheme, e.g. cat, give, soon, blue, oh, three. The latter consist of two or more morphemes, e.g. disagreeableness is a polymorphic word which consists of four morphemes, one root and three affixes: dis- + -agree- + -able + -ness. The morphemic structure is Pr + R + Sf1 + Sf2.
10.2. Word-Formation (W-F) is building words from available linguistic material after certain structural and semantic patterns. It is also a branch of lexicology that studies the process of building words as well as the derivative structure of words, the patterns on which they are built and derivational relations between words.
Synchronically, linguists study the system of W-F at a given time; diachronically, they are concerned with the history of W-F, and the history of building concrete words. The results of the synchronic and the diachronic analysis may not always coincide,
e.g. historically, to beg was derived from beggar, but synchronically the noun beggar is considered derived from the verb after the pattern v + -er/-ar → N, as the noun is structurally and semantically more complex. Cf. also: peddle- ← -pedlar/peddler, lie ← liar.
10.3. The aim of derivational analysis is to determine the derivational structure of a word, i.e. to state the derivational pattern after which it is built and the derivational base (the source of derivation).
Traditionally, the basic units of derivational analysis are: the derived word (the derivative), the derivational base, the derivational pattern, the derivational affix.
The derivational base is the source of a derived word, i.e. a stem, a word-form, a word-group (sometimes even a sentence) which motivates the derivative semantically and on which the latter is based structurally,
e.g. in dutifully the base is dutiful-, which is a stem;
in unsmiling it is the word-form smiling (participle I);
in blue-eyed it is the word-group blue eye.
In affixation, derivational affixes are added to derivational bases to build new words, i.e. derivatives. They repattern the bases, changing them structurally and semantically. They also mark derivational relations between words,
e.g. in encouragement en- and -ment are derivational affixes: a prefix and a suffix; they are used to build the word encouragement: (en- + courage) + -ment.
They also mark the derivational relations between courage and encourage, encourage and encouragement.
A derivational pattern is a scheme (a formula) describing the structure of derived words already existing in the language and after which new words may be built,
e.g. the pattern of friendliness is a+ -ness- → N, i.e. an adjective stem + the noun-forming suffix -ness.
Derivationally, all words fall into two classes: simple (non-derived) words and derivatives. Simple words are those that are non-motivated semantically and independent of other linguistic units structurally, e.g. boy, run, quiet, receive, etc. Derived words are motivated structurally and semantically by other linguistic units, e.g. to spam, spamming, spammer, anti-spamming are motivated by spam.
Each derived word is characterized by a certain derivational structure. In traditional linguistics, the derivational structure is viewed as a binary entity, reflecting the relationship between derivational bases and derivatives and consisting of a stem and a derivational affix,
e.g. the structure of nationalization is nationaliz- + -ation
(described by the formula, or pattern v + -ation → N).
But there is a different point of view. In modern W-F, the derivational structure of a word is defined as a finite set of derivational steps necessary to produce (build) the derived word,
e.g. [(nation + -al) + — ize ] + -ation.
To describe derivational structures and derivational relations, it is convenient to use the relator language and a system of oriented graphs. In this language, a word is generated by joining relators to the amorphous root O. Thus, R1O describes the structure of a simple verb (cut, permiate); R2O shows the structure of a simple noun (friend, nation); R3O is a simple adjective (small, gregarious) and R4O is a simple adverb (then, late).
e.g. The derivational structure of nationalization is described by the R-formula R2R1R3R2O; the R-formula of unemployment is R2R2R1O (employ → employment → unemployment).
In oriented graphs, a branch slanting left and down » /» correspond to R1; a vertical branch » I» corresponds to R2; a branch slanting right and down » » to R3, and a horizontal right branch to R4.
Thus we can show the derivational structure of unemployment like this:
and dutifulness like this:
Words whose derivational structures can be described by one R-formula are called monostructural, e.g. dutifulness, encouragement; words whose derivational structures can be described by two (or more) R-formulas are polystructural,
e.g. disagreement R2R2R1O / R2R1R1O
(agree → disagree → disagreement R2R1R1O or
agree → agreement → disagreement R2R2R1O)
There are complex units of word-formation. They are derivational clusters and derivational sets.
A derivational cluster is a group of words that have the same root and are derivationally related. The structure of a cluster can be shown with the help of a graph,
e.g. READ
reread read
misreadreaderreadable
reading
readership ∙ unreadable
A derivational set is a group of words that are built after the same derivational pattern,
e.g. n + -ish → A: mulish, dollish, apish, bookish, wolfish, etc,
Table TWO TYPES OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
| MORPHEMIC ANALYSIS | DERIVATIONAL ANALYSIS | |
| AIM | to find out the morphemic structure (composition) | to determine the derivational structure |
| BASIC UNITS | morphemes (roots and affixes) | derived word, derivational pattern, derivational base, derivational step, derivational means (e.g. affix) |
| RESULTS: CLASSES OF WORDS | monomorphic (non-segmentable) and polymorphic (segmentable) words | simple and derived words |
| EXAMPLES | 1. cut, v. and cut, n. are monomorphic (root) words | 1. cut, v. is a simple word (R1O); cut, n. is derived from it (R2R1O) |
| 2. encouragement, unemployment consist of three morphemes and have the same morphemic composition: Pr + R + Sf | 2. encouragement and unemployment have different derivational structures: v + -ment → N (R2R1R2O) and un- + n → N (R2R2R1O) |
10.4. Traditionally, the following ways of W-F are distinguished:
affixation, compounding, conversion, shortening, blending, back-formation. Sound interchange, sound imitation, distinctive stress, lexicalization, coinage certainly do not belong to word-formation as no derivational patterns are used.
Affixation is formation of words by adding derivational affixes to derivational bases. Affixation is devided into prefixation and suffixation,
e.g. the following prefixes and suffixes are used to build words with negative or opposite meanings: un-, non-, a-, contra-, counter-, de-, dis-, in-, mis-, -less, e.g. non-toxic.
Compounding is building words by combining two (or more) derivational bases (stems or word-forms),
e.g. big -ticket (= expensive), fifty-fifty, laid-back, statesman.
Among compounds, we distinguish derivational compounds, formed by adding a derivational affix (usu. a suffix) to a word group,
e.g. heart-shaped (= shaped like a heart), stone-cutter (= one who cuts stone).
Conversion consists in making a word from some existing word by transferring it into another part of speech. The new word acquires a new paradigm; the sound form and the morphimic composition remain unchanged. The most productive conversion patterns are n → V (i.e. formation of verbs from noun-stems), v → N (formation of nouns from verb stems), a → V (formation of verbs from adjective stems),
e.g. a drink, a do, a go, a swim: Have another try.
to face, to nose, to paper, to mother, to ape;
to cool, to pale, to rough, to black, to yellow, etc.
Nouns and verbs can be converted from other parts of speech, too, for example, adverbs: to down, to out, to up; ifs and buts.
Shortening consists in substituting a part for a whole. Shortening may result in building new lexical items (i.e. lexical shortenings) and so-called graphic abbreviations, which are not words but signs representing words in written speech; in reading, they are substituted by the words they stand for,
e.g. Dr = doctor, St = street, saint, Oct = 0ctober, etc.
Lexical shortenings are produced in two ways:
(1) clipping, i.e. a new word is made from a syllable (or two syllables) of the original word,
e.g. back-clippings: pro ← professional, chimp ← chimpanzee,
fore-clippings: copter ← helicopter, gator ← alligator,
fore-and-aft clippings: duct ← deduction, tec ← detective,
(2) abbreviation, i.e. a new word is made from the initial letters of the original word or word-group. Abbreviations are devided into letter-based initialisms (FBI ← the Federal Bureau of Investigation) and acronyms pronounced as root words (AIDS, NATO).
Blending is building new words, called blends, fusions, telescopic words, or portmanteau words, by merging (usu.irregular) fragments of two existing words,
e.g. biopic ← biography + picture, alcoholiday ← alcohol + holiday.
Back-formation is derivation of new words by subtracting a real or supposed affix (usu. a suffix) from existing words (on analogy with existing derivational pairs),
e.g. to enthuse ← enthusiasm, to intuit ← intuition.
Sound interchange and distinctive stress are not ways of word-formation. They are ways of distinguishing words or word forms,
e.g. food -feed, speech — speak, life — live;
‘ insult, n. — in ‘ sult, v., ‘ perfect, a. — per ‘ fect, v.
Sound interchange may be combined with affixation and/or the shift of stress,
e.g. strong — strength, wide — width.
10.5. Productivity and activity of derivational ways and means.
Productivity and activity in W-F are close but not identical. By productivity of derivational ways/types/patterns/means we mean ability to derive new words,
e.g. The suffix -er/ the pattern v + -er → N is highly productive.
By activity we mean the number of words derived with the help of a certain derivational means or after a derivational pattern,
e.g. — er is found in hundreds of words so it is active.
Sometimes productivity and activity go together, but they may not always do.
| DERIVATIONAL MEANS | EXAMPLE | PRODUCTIVITY | ACTIVITY |
| -ly | nicely | + | + |
| -ous | dangerous | _ | + |
| -th | breadth | _ | _ |
In modern English, the most productive way of W-P is affixation (suffixation more so than prefixation), then comes compounding, shortening takes third place, with conversion coming fourth.
Productivity may change historically. Some derivational means / patterns may be non-productive for centuries or decades, then become productive, then decline again,
e.g. In the late 19th c. US -ine was a popular feminine suffix on the analogy of heroine, forming such words as actorine, doctorine, speakerine. It is not productive or active now.
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