People in general have no difficulty coping the new words. We can very quickly understand a new word in our language (a neologism) and accept the use of different forms of that new word. This ability must derive in part from the fact that there is a lot of regularity in the word-formation process in our language.
In some aspects the study of the processes whereby new words come into being language like English seems relatively straightforward. This apparent simplicity however masks a number of controversial issues. Despite the disagreement of scholars in the area, there don´t seem to be a regular process involved.
These processes have been at work in the language for some time and many words in daily use today were, at one time, considered barbaric misuses of the language.
What is Coinage?
Coinage is a common process of word-formation in English and it is the invention of totally new terms. The most typical sources are invented trade names for one company´s product which become general terms (without initial capital letters) for any version of that product.
For example: aspirin, nylon, zipper and the more recent examples kleenex, teflon.
This words tend to become everyday words in our language.
What is Borrowing?
Borrowing is one of the most common sources of getting new words in English. That is the taking over of words from other languages. Throughout history the English language has adopted a vast number of loan words from other languages. For example:
- Alcohol (Arabic)
- Boss (Dutch)
- Croissant (French)
- Piano (Italian)
- Pretzel (German)
- Robot (Czech)
- Zebra (Bantu)
Etc…
A special type of borrowing is the loan translation or calque. In this process, there is a direct translation of the elements of a word into the borrowing language. For example: Superman, Loan Translation of Übermensch, German.
What is Compounding?
The combining process of words is technically known as compounding, which is very common in English and German. Obvious English examples would be:
- Bookcase
- Fingerprint
- Sunburn
- Wallpaper
- Textbook
- Wastebasket
- Waterbed
What is Blending?
The combining separate forms to produce a single new term, is also present in the process of blending. Blending, takes only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of the other word. For instance, if you wish to refer to the combined effects of smoke and fog, there´s the term smog. The recent phenomenon of fund rising on television that feels like a marathon, is typically called a telethon, and if you´re extremely crazy about video, you may be called a videot.
What is Clipping?
Clipping is the process in which the element of reduction which is noticeable in blending is even more apparent. This occurs when a word of more than one syllable is reduced to a shorter form, often in casual speech. For example, the term gasoline is still in use but the term gas, the clipped form is used more frequently. Examples
- Chem.
- Gym
- Math
- Prof
- Typo
What is Backformation?
Backformation is a very specialized type of reduction process. Typically a word of one type, usually noun, is reduced to form another word of a different type, usually verb. A good example of backformation is the process whereby the noun television first came into ude and then the term televise is created form it.
More examples:
- Donation – Donate
- Option – Opt
- Emotion – Emote
- Enthusiasm – Enthuse
- Babysit – Babysitter
What is Conversion?
Conversion is a change in the function of a word, as for example, when a noun comes to be used as a verb without any reduction. Other labels of this very common process are “category change” and “functional shift”. A number of nouns such as paper, butter, bottle, vacation and so on, can via the process of conversion come to be used as verbs as in the following examples:
- My brother is papering my bedroom.
- Did you buttered this toast?
- We bottled the home brew last night.
What is an Acronym?
Some new words known as acronyms are formed with the initial letters of a set of other words. Examples:
- Compact Disk – CD
- Video Cassette Recorder – VCR
- National Aeronautics and Space Administration – NASA
- The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization – UNESCO
- Personal Identification Number –PIN
- Women against rape – WAR
What is Derivation?
Derivation is the most common word formation process and it accomplished by means of a large number of small bits of the English language which are not usually given separate listings in dictionaries. These small bits are called affixes. Examples:
- Unhappy
- Misrepresent
- Prejudge
- Joyful
- Careless
- Happiness
Prefixes and Suffixes
In the preceding group of words, it should be obvious that some affixes have to be added to the beginning of a word. These are called prefixes: unreliable. The other affix forms are called suffixes and are added at the end of the word: foolishness.
Infixes
One of the characteristics of English words is that any modifications to them occur at the beginning or the end; mix can have something added at the beginning re-mix or at the end, mixes, mixer, but never in the middle, called infixes.
Activities – WORDS AND WORD FORMATION PROCESSES
Activity 1
Identify the word formation process involved in the following sentences:
- My little cousin wants to be a footballer
- Rebecca parties every weekend
- I will have a croissant for breakfast.
- Does somebody know where is my bra?
- My family is vacationing in New Zealand
- I will babysit my little sister this weekend
- Would you give me your blackberry PIN?
- She seems really unhappy about her parents’ decision.
- I always have kleenex in my car.
10. A carjacking was reported this evening.
(To check your answers, please go to home and check the link: Activities Keyword)
*You may require checking other sources
It’s
a process of creating new words from material available in the
language after a certain structural and semantic formulas and
pattern, forming words by combining root & affix morphemes.
2 Types of word formation:
1)
Compounding (словосложение)
2)
Word – derivation
Within
the types further distinction may be made between the ways of forming
words. The basic way of forming words is word-derivation affixation
and conversion apart from this shortening and a number of minor ways
of formal words such as back-forming, blending, sound imitation are
traditionally referred to formation.
Different types of word
formation:
Affixation
is
the formation of new words by means of suffixes and prefixes to
stemsbasis.
Affixes may be grouped
1) according to their
linguistic origin. We distinguish affixes of Germanic origin (full,
less), of Romanic origin (ion), of Greek origin (ise, izm);
2) according to the parts of
speech. We distinguish noun forming, adj. forming and verb forming
affixes;
3)
according to semantic functions. They may denote persons, quality,
negation. Many suffixes originated from separate words: hood
originated for the noun hood, which meant state or condition; full –
полный
(adj. In O.E) now it is suffix. Suffixes may change the part of
speech: critic (al).
All
suffixes are divided into lexical
and grammatical.
Lexical
suffixes build new word. Productive
affixes. For
ex: read-readable, happy-happiness, act-actor.
Grammatical
suffixes change the grammatical form of a word. Often used to create
neologisms and nonce-words (I
don’t like Sunday evenings: I feel so mondayish).
For ex: finish-finished, say-says, rose-roses.
Some
productive suffixes:
Noun
forming – er,
ing, is, ist, ance
Adj
– forming – y,
ish, ed, able, less
Adv
– forming – ly
Verb – forming — Ize, /ise,
ate
Prefixies
—
Un, die, re
Conversion
(zero derivation) it is one of the major ways of enriching EV &
referrers to the numerous cases of phonetic identity of word forms of
2 words belonging to different part of speech.. The new word has a
meaning which differs from that of original one though it can ><
be associated with it. nurse
(noun) to nurse – to feed
A certain stem is used for the
formation of a categorically different word without a derivative
element being added.
Bag
– to bag, Back – to back , Bottle – to bottle This
specific pattern is very productive in English
The
most popular types are noun →verb or verb→noun To
take off – a take off
Conversion
can be total
or partial.
Partial: the then
president (тогдашний).
An adverb is used as an adjective, only in this particular context.
Total: work
– to work
Conversion
may be the result of shading of English endings. The historical
changes may be briefly outlined as follows: in O.E. a verb and a noun
of the same root were distinguished by their endings. For ex: the
verb ‘to love’ had a form (Old Eng.) ‘lufian’. This verb had
personal conjunctions. The noun ‘love’ had the form ‘lufu’
with different case endings. But in the course of time, the personal
and case endings were lost. There are numerous pairs of words (e. g.
love, n. — to love, v.; work, n. — to work, v.; drink, n. — to
drink, v., etc.) which did, not occur due to conversion but coincided
as a result of certain historical processes (dropping of endings,
simplification of stems) when before that they had different forms
(e. g. O. E. lufu, n. — lufian, v.).
The
two categories of parts of speech especially affected by conversion
are nouns and verbs. Verbs made from nouns are the most numerous
amongst the words produced by conversion: e. g. to
hand, to back, to face, to eye, to mouth, to nose, to dog, to wolf,
to monkey, to can, to coal, to stage, to screen, to room, to floor,
to blackmail, to blacklist, to honeymoon,
and very many others.
Nouns
are frequently made from verbs: do (e. g. This
is the queerest do I»ve ever come across.
Do — event, incident), go (e. g. He
has still plenty of go at his age.
Go — energy), make,
run, find, catch, cut, walk, worry, show, move,
etc. Verbs can also be made from adjectives: to
pale, to yellow, to cool, to grey, to rough
(e. g. We
decided to rough it in the tents as the weather was warm),
etc.
Other
parts of speech are not entirely unsusceptible to conversion as the
following examples show: to
down, to out (as in a newspaper heading Diplomatist Outed from
Budapest), the ups and downs, the ins and outs, like, n, (as in the
like of me and the like of you).
Compounding
& word comparison. Compound
words are made of 2 derivational stems. The types of structure of CW:
neutral,
morphological &syntactic.
In
neutral
compound
the process is released without any linking elements sunflower.
There
are three types of neutral compounds simple compounds went a compound
consist of a simple affixes stems.
Derivate/
derivational compound
— has affixes babysitter.
Contracted
–
has a shorten stems. TV-set
Morphological
C –
few
in number. This type is non productive. Represented by words, where 2
stems are combined by a linking vowel/ consonant Anglo-Saxon,
statesman, craftsmanship.
Syntactic
C
– formed of segments of speech preserving articles, prepositions,
adverbs. Mother-in-law
Reduplication.
New
word are made by stem ether without any phonetic changes Bye-Bye
or variation of a root vowel or consonant ping-pong
Shortening.
There
are 2 ways of producing them:
1.
The word is formed from the syllable of the original word which in
term may loose its beginning –phone,
its ending vac
(vacation) or
both
fridge.
2.
The word is formed from the initial letter of a word group BB,
bf – boyfriend. Acronyms are
shorten words but read as one UNO
[ju:nou]
TYPES OF WF
Sound
imitation – words
are made by imitating different links of sounds that may be produced
by animals, birds…bark
– лаять,
mew – мяукать…some
names of animals, birds & insects are made by SI coo-coo
– кукушка,
crow – ворона.
To
glide, to slip are
supposed to convey the very sound of the smooth easy movement over a
slippery surface.
Back
formation a
verb is produced from a noun by subtraction (вычитание)
bagger
– to bag, babysitter – to babysit
Blending
— Is
blending part of two words to form one word (merging into one word),
combining letters/sounds they have in common as a connecting element.
Smoke
+ fog = smog, Breakfast + lunch = brunch, Smoke + haze = smaze
(дымка)
—
addictive type: they are transformable into a phrase consisting of
two words combined by a conjunction “and” smog
→ smoke & fog
—
blending of restrictive type: transformable into an attributive
phrase, where the first element serves as modifier of a second.
Positron
– positive electron,
Medicare
– medical care
Borrowings.
Contemporary
English is a unique mixture of Germanic & Romanic elements. This
mixing has resulted in the international character of the vocabulary.
In the comparison with other languages English possesses great
richness of vocabulary.
All languages are mixtures to
a greater or lesser extent, but the present day English vocabulary is
unique in this respect.
A brief look on various
historical strata of the English vocabulary:
1) through cultural contacts
with Romans partly already on the continent and all through the
influence of Christianity a very early stratum of Latin-Greek words
entered the language.
Their origin is no longer felt
by the normal speaker today in such word: pound, mint, mustard,
school, dish, chin, cleric, cheese, devil, pepper, street, gospel,
bishop.
The
same can be said about some Scandinavian words (from about the 10th
century) that today belong to the central core of the vocabulary.
It
means that their frequency is very high. They,
their, them, sky, skin, skill, skirt, ill, dies, take… They
partly supersede the number of OE words OE
heofon – heaven (sky) Niman – take
Steorfan – die
A
more radical change & profound influence on the English
vocabulary occurred on 1066 (Norman Conquest). Until the 15th
cent., a great number of French words were adopted. They belong to
the areas of court,
church, law, state.
Virtue, religion,
parliament, justice, noble, beauty, preach, honour…
The
influx of the words was the strongest up to the 15th
cent., but continued up to the 17th
cent.
Many French borrowings
retained their original pronunciation & stress
Champagne,
ballet, machine, garage…
Separate, attitude,
constitute, introduce…
Adjectives in English –
arrogant, important, patient
Sometimes with their
derivatives:
Demonstrative –
demonstration
Separate – separation
17-18 cc. due to the
establishing of cultural, trade relations many words were borrowed
from Italian, Spanish, Dutch, French.
Italian:
libretto,
violin, opera
Spanish:
hurricane, tomato, tobacco
Dutch:
yacht,
dog, landscape
French:
bouquet,
buffet
From the point of view of
their etymology formal words are normally of classical Romanic
origin, informal – Anglo-Saxon.
Nowadays many Americanisms
become familiar due to the increase of transatlantic travel & the
influence of broadcast media.
Even
in London (Heathrow airport) “baggage”
instead of “luggage”
The present day English
vocabulary is from being homogeneous.
6.
Neologisms new
word expressions are created for new things irrespective of their
scale of importance. They may be all important and concern some
social relationships (new form/ state)
People’s republic. Or
smth threatening the very existence of humanity nuclear
war
or the thing may be short lived. N
is
a newly coined word, phrase/ a new meaning for an existing word / a
word borrowed from another language.
The
development of science and industry technology: black
hole, internet, supermarket.
The
adaptive lexical system isn’t only adding new units but readjust
the ways & means of word formation radio
detection and ranging – RADAR
The
lex. System may adopt itself by combining several word-building
processes face-out
(noun) – the radioactive dust descending through the air after an
anatomic explosion. This
word was coined by composition/ compounding & conversion.
Teach
–in (n) –a student conference/ series of seminars on some burning
issue of the day, meaning some demonstration on protest. This
pattern is very frequent lis–in
, due-in
means protest demonstration when fluking traffic. Bionies
– the
combination of bio & electron.
Back
formation:
air-condion
– air-conditioner – air-conditioning
Semi-affixes
(могут
быть
как
самостоятельные
слова)
chairman
used
to be not numerous and might be treated as exceptions now, evolving
into separate set.
Some
N abscessed with smth and containing the elements mad
& happy: powermad, moneymad, auto-happy.
Conversion, composition,
semantic change are in constant use when coining N
The
change of meaning rather an introduction of a new additional meaning
may be illustrated by the word NETWORK
– stations for simultaneous broadcast of the same program.
Once
accepted N may become a basis for further word formation. ZIP
– to zip – zipper –
zippy.
The
lex. System is unadaptive system, developing for many centuries and
reflecting the changing needs, servicing only in special context.
Archaism
& historisms.
Archaism
–
once common but are now replaced by synonyms. Mostly they are poetic:
morn
– arch, morning – new word, hapless – arch, unlucky – modern.
Historism
– when
the causes of the word’s disappearance are extralinguistic, eg. The
thing named is no longer used. They are very numerous as names for
social relations, institutions, objects of material culture of the
past, eg. many types of sailing craft belong to the past: caravels,
galleons.A
great many of
H
denotes various types of weapons in historical novels: blunderbuss
— мушкетер,
breastplate. Many
of them are in Voc in some figurative meaning: shiel
– щит,
sword. – меч.
7.
Homonymy.
Different
in meaning, but identical in sound or spelling form
Sources:
1.
The result of split of polysemy capital
– столица,
заглавная
буква
Homonymy
differs from polysemy because there is no semantic bond (связь)
between homonyms; it has been lost & doesn’t exist.
2.
as the result of leveling of grammar in flections, when different
parts of speech become identical in their forms. Care
(in OE) — caru(n), care (OE) – carian (v)
3.
By conversion
slim – to slim, water – to water
4.
With the help of the same suffix fro the same stem. Reader
– the person who reads/a book for reading.
5.
Accidentally. Native words can coincide in their form beran
– to bear, bera (animal) – to bear
6.
Shortening of different words. Cab
(cabriolet, cabbage, cabin)
Homonyms can be of 3 kinds:
1.
Homonyms proper (the sound & the spelling are identical)
bat – bat
— flying
animal (летучая
мышь)
— cricket bat (бита,
back — part of body, away from the front, go to back
2.
Homophones (the same sound form but different spelling)
flower – flour, sole – soul, rain – reign, bye-by-buy
3.
Homographs (the same spelling)
tear [iə] – tear [εə, lead [i:] – lead [e]
Homonyms in English are very
numerous. Oxford English Dictionary registers 2540 homonyms, of which
89% are monosyllabic words and 9,1% are two-syllable words.
So,
most homonyms are monosyllabic words. The trend towards
monosyllabism, greatly increased by the loss of inflections and
shortening, must have contributed much toward increasing the number
of homonyms in English.
Among the other ways of
creating homonyms the following processes must be mentioned:
From
the viewpoint of their origin homonyms are sometimes divided into
historical and etymological. Historical
homonyms are those which result from the breaking up of polysemy;
then one polysemantic word will split up into two or more separate
words. Etymo1ogiсal
homonyms are words of different origin which come to be alike in
sound or in spelling (and may be both written and pronounced alike).
Borrowed
and native words can coincide in form, thus producing homonyms (as in
the above given examples). In other cases homonyms are a result of
borrowing when several different words become identical in sound or
spelling. E.g. the Latin vitim — «wrong», «an immoral
habit» has given the English vice — вада
«evil conduct»; the Latin vitis -«spiral» has
given the English »vice» — тиски
«apparatus with strong jaws in which things can be hold
tightly»; the Latin vice — «instead of», «in
place of» will be found in vice — president.
8.
Synonymy.
A
synonym – a word of similar or identical meaning to one or more
words in the same language. All languages contain synonyms but in
English they exist in superabundance. There no two absolutely
identical words because connotations, ways of usage, frequency of an
occurrence are different. Senses of synonyms are identical in respect
of central semantic trades (denotational meaning) but differ in
respect of minor semantic trades (connotational). In each group of S
there’s a word with the most general meaning, with can substitute
any word of the group. TO
LOOK AT — to glance – to stare
Classification:
Weather the different in
denotational/ connotational component
1.
Ideographic
synonyms. They
bear the same idea but not identical in their referential content,
different shades of meaning or degree. BEAUTIFUL
– fine, handsome – pretty,
to
ascent – to mount – to climb.
2.
Stylistic
synonyms. Different
in emotive and stylistic sphere.
|
child girl happiness |
Infant maid
bliss |
Kid |
|
neutral |
elevated |
colloquial |
|
To |
To |
Eat
— Devour (degradation),
Face
— muzzle
(морда)
Synonymic condensation is
typical of the English language.
It
refers to situations when writers or speakers bring together several
words with one & the same meaning to add more conviction, to
description more vivid. Ex.:
Lord & master, First & foremost, Safe & secure,
Stress & strain, by force & violence
Among
synonyms there’s a special group of words –
euphemism used
to substitute some unpleasant or offensive words. Drunk
– marry
According to interchangability
context S are classified
3.
Total
synonyms
An extremely rare occurrence. Ulman: “a luxury that language
can hardly afford.” M. Breal spoke about a law of distribution in
the language (words should be synonyms, were synonyms in the past
usually acquire different meanings and are no longer
interchangeable). Ex.: fatherland
— motherland
4.
Contextual
synonyms.
Context can emphasize some certain semantic trades & suppress
other semantic trades; words with different meaning can become
synonyms in a certain context. Ex.: tasteless
– dull, Active – curious, Curious – responsive
Synonyms can reflect social
conventions.
Ex.:
|
clever |
bright |
brainy |
intelligent |
Dever-clever |
|
neutral |
Only speaking about younger |
Is not used by the higher |
Positive connotation |
Stylistically remarked |
5.
Dialectical
synonyms.
Ex.:
lift – elevator, Queue – line, autumn – fall
6.
Relative
some
authors classify group like:
like – love – adore, famous- celebrated – eminentthey
denote different degree of the same notion or different shades of
meanings and can be substituted only in some context.
Antonymy.
Words
belonging to the same part of speech identical in speech expressing
contrary or contradictory notion.
Комиссаров
В.Н.
classify them into absolute/
root (late/early)they
have different roots
,
derivational (to
please-to
displease) the
same root but different affixes. In most cases “-“ prefixes from
antonyms an,
dis, non.
Sometimes they are formed by suffixes full
& less.
But they do not always substitute each other selfless
– selfish, successful – unsuccessful .the
same with “-“ prefixes
to appoint – to disappoint.
The
difference is not only in structure but in semantic. The DA
express
contradictory notions, one of then excludes the other active
– inactive. The
AA
express
contrary notion: ugly
–
plain – good-looking – pretty –
beautiful
Antonimy
is
distinguished from complementarily
by being based on different logical relationshipd for pairs of
antonyms like
good – bad, big – small.
He
is good (not bad). He is not good (doesn’t imply he is bad).
The negation (отрицание)
of one term doesn’t implies the assertion of the other.
John
Lines suggests proper
hot-warm
– tapped – cold &
complementary antonyms only
2 words negative and assertion not
male — female.
There’s
also one type of semantic opposition conversives
words
denote one reference as viewed from different points of view that of
the subject & that of the object.
Bye
– sell, give — receive
Conversness
is
minor image relations of functions husband
– wife, pupil – teacher, above – below, before — after
9.
Phraseology.
Phrasiological units/ idioms – motivated word group. They are
reproduced as readymade units. Express a singe notion, used in
sentence as one part of it.
Idiomaticy
—
PU when the meaning of the whole
is
not deducible from the sum of the meanings of the parts. Stability
of PU implies that it exist as a readymade linguistic unit, which
doesn’t allow of any variability of its lexical component of gr.
Structure.
In
ling. literature the term
Phraseology is
used for the expressions where the meaning of one element is depended
on the other. Vinogradov: “irrespective of structure and properties
of the units”. Smernitsky: “it denotes only such set expressions
which do not possess expressiveness or emotional coloring”. Arnold:
“it says that only denotes such set expressions that are
imaginative, expressive and emotional”. Ammosova call them fixed
context units – we
can’t substitute an element without changing the meaning of the
whole. Ahmanova insists on the semantic intearity of such phrases:
“prevailing over the structural separates of their element”.
Kuning lays stress on the structural separatness of the elements in
the PU on the change of meaning in the whole as compared with its
elements taken separately with its elements and on a certain minimum
stability.
Phraseology
(Webster’s
dictionary) mode of expression peculiarities of diction. That is
choice and arrangement of words and phrases characteristic of some
author.there are difficult terms. Idioms word equivalents & these
difficult units or terminology reflects certain differences in the
main criteria used to distinguish.
The
features: 1.
lack of semantic motivation 2. Lexical & grammatical stability
Semantic
classification:2
criteria: 1). The degree of semantic isolation 2). The degree of
disinformation
1.
Opaque in meaning (трудный
для
понимания)
the meaning of the individual words can’t be summed together to
produce the meaning of the whole.to
kick the bucket = to die It
contains no clue to the idiomatic meaning of this expression.The
degree of semantic isolation is the highest.
The 3 typesof PU:
1.
Phraseological fusions. The degree of motivation is very low. one
component preserves its direct meaning Ex.:
to pass the buck = to pass responsibility – свалить
ответственность,
2.
Phraseological unities. Clearly motivated. Transparent both
components in their direct meaning but the combination acquires
figurative sense to
see the light = to understand, old salt — морской
волк
3.
Phraseological combinations. There is a component used in its
direct meaning. There are lots of idioms (proverbs, saying). To
be good at smth.:
Curiosity
killed the cat, but satisfaction brought it back
Idioms institutionalized formulas of politeness:How
do you do?Good-bye (God be with you) How about a drink?
Structural classification
of PU
Prof. A.I. Smirnitsky worked
out structural classification of phraseological units, comparing them
with words. He points out one-top units which he compares with
derived words because derived words have only one root morpheme. He
points out two-top units which he compares with compound words
because in compound words we usually have two root morphemes.
Among
one-top units he
points out three structural types;
a)
units of the type «to give up» (verb + postposition type), e.g. to
art up, to back up, to drop out, to nose out, to buy into, to
sandwich in etc.;
b)
units of the type «to be tired» . Some of these units remind the
Passive Voice in their structure but they have different prepositions
with them, while in the Passive Voice we can have only prepositions
«by» or «with», e.g. to
be tired of, to be interested in, to be surprised at etc.
There are also units in this type which remind free word-groups of
the type «to be young», e.g. to be akin to, to be aware of etc.
The difference between them is that the adjective «young» can be
used as an attribute and as a predicative in a sentence, while the
nominal component in such units can act only as a predicative. In
these units the verb is the grammar centre and the second component
is the semantic centre;
c)
Prepositional- nominal phraseological units. These units are
equivalents of unchangeable words: prepositions, conjunctions,
adverbs, that is why they have no grammar centre, their semantic
centre is the nominal part, e.g.
On the doorstep (quite near), on the nose (exactly), in the course
of, on the stroke of, in time, on the point of
etc. In the course of time such units can become words, e.g.
tomorrow,
instead etc.
Among
two-top units
A.I. Smirnitsky points out the following structural types:
a) attributive-nominal such
as: a month of Sundays, grey matter, a millstone round one’s neck
and many others. Units of this type are noun equivalents and can be
partly or perfectly idiomatic. In partly idiomatic units (phrasisms)
sometimes the first component is idiomatic, e.g. high road, in other
cases the second component is idiomatic, e.g. first night. In many
cases both components are idiomatic, e.g. red tape, blind alley, bed
of nail, shot in the arm and many others.
b) verb-nominal phraseological
units, e.g. to read between the lines , to speak BBC, to sweep under
the carpet etc. The grammar centre of such units is the verb, the
semantic centre in many cases is the nominal component, e.g. to fall
in love. In some units the verb is both the grammar and the semantic
centre, e.g. not to know the ropes. These units can be perfectly
idiomatic as well, e.g. to burn one’s boats,to vote with one’s
feet, to take to the cleaners’ etc.
Very close to such units are
word-groups of the type to have a glance, to have a smoke. These
units are not idiomatic and are treated in grammar as a special
syntactical combination, a kind of aspect.
c) phraseological repetitions,
such as : now or never, part and parcel , country and western etc.
Such units can be built on antonyms, e.g. ups and downs , back and
forth; often they are formed by means of alliteration, e.g cakes and
ale, as busy as a bee. Components in repetitions are joined by means
of conjunctions. These units are equivalents of adverbs or adjectives
and have no grammar centre. They can also be partly or perfectly
idiomatic, e.g. cool as a cucumber (partly), bread and butter
(perfectly).
Phraseological units the same
as compound words can have more than two tops (stems in compound
words), e.g. to take a back seat, a peg to hang a thing on, lock,
stock and barrel, to be a shaddow of one’s own self, at one’s own
sweet will.
Syntactical classification
of PU
Phraseological
units can be classified as parts of speech. This classification was
suggested by I.V. Arnold. Here we have the following groups:
a) noun phraseologisms
denoting an object, a person, a living being, e.g. bullet train,
latchkey child, redbrick university, Green Berets,
b) verb phraseologisms
denoting an action, a state, a feeling, e.g. to break the log-jam, to
get on somebody’s coattails, to be on the beam, to nose out , to
make headlines,
c) adjective phraseologisms
denoting a quality, e.g. loose as a goose, dull as lead ,
d) adverb phraseological
units, such as : with a bump, in the soup, like a dream , like a dog
with two tails,
e) preposition phraseological
units, e.g. in the course of, on the stroke of ,
f) interjection phraseological
units, e.g. «Catch me!», «Well, I never!» etc.
In I.V.Arnold’s
classification there are also sentence equivalents, proverbs, sayings
and quatations, e.g. «The sky is the limit», «What makes him
tick», » I am easy». Proverbs are usually metaphorical, e.g. «Too
many cooks spoil the broth», while sayings are as a rule
non-metaphorical, e.g. «Where there is a will there is a way».
Derivation is defined as the process of attaching an affix to a base. It is a regular procedure of word formation, which allows languages to designate semantically related concepts with others, in a certain sense considered primitive, by adding affixes. The existence of the derivation makes it possible to have a lexicon that allows the attribution of numerous meanings, from a much smaller number of roots or lexemes. Derivation in linguistics
The derivation is a regular procedure word formation that allows languages designate semantically related concepts with other in a sense considered primitive by adding suffixes (eg knife of knife ). The existence of the derivation allows to have a lexicon that allows to designate numerous senses from a much smaller number of roots or lexemes . Also the derivation is the main source of new words in many languages.
The shunt is similar to certain flexion forms , since both would use morphemes added to the root to express differences. However, flexion does not involve changing referents but rather the added marks have a strictly grammatical purpose. On the other hand, the derivation resembles changes in meaning to the composition .
The derivation is a set of a primitive word together with a prefix or a suffix
In the field of linguistics, the concept of derivation refers to one of the processes of new word formation . This process has a general criterion.
Keep in mind that different words come from the same primitive word. Thus, all words that come from a primitive are known as derived words. In this way, with the primitive word sun, I can form a series of derived words, such as solace, sunstroke, solar, sunny, etc. For the derivation process to be possible it is necessary to apply a series of rules. Derivation in linguistics
- Demonstrate > demonstra-tion > demonstrable; if, on the other hand, this modification does not occur, it is called a homogeneous derivation:
- White > whitish-white. The first occurs when it is derived through suffixes, while in the second we find derivatives from prefixes, for example:
- Paint > repaint; proper > improper, nor is it transformed when using augmentative, diminutive and derogatory suffixes:
woman > big woman, book > little book, house > shack, etc.
Derivational patterns
Here are examples of English derivation patterns and their suffixes:
- adjective- to- noun : -ness ( slow → slowness )
- adjective-to- verb : -in ( weak → weaken )
- adjective-to-adjective: -ish ( red → reddish )
- adjective to adverb : -ly ( personal → personally )
- noun to adjective : -al ( recreation → recreation )
- noun-to-verb: -fy ( glory → glorify )
- verb-to-adjective: -able ( drink → drinkable )
- verb-to-noun ( abstract ): -ance ( deliver → release )
- verb-to-noun ( agent ): -er ( write → writer )
However, derived affixes do not necessarily alter the lexical category; they can simply change the meaning of the base and leave the category unchanged. A prefix ( write → rewrite ; lord → over-lord ) rarely changes the lexical category in English. The prefix does not apply to adjectives ( healthy → unhealthy ) and some verbs ( do → undo ), but rarely to nouns. Some exceptions are the derived prefixes en- and be- . En- (replaced by em- beforelabials ) is usually a transitive marker on verbs, but can also be applied to adjectives and nouns to form transitive verbs: circle (verb) → encircle (verb) but rich (adj) → enrich (verb), large (adj) → enlarge (verb), rapture (noun) → enrapture (verb), slave (noun) → enslave (verb). Derivation in linguistics
When the derivation occurs without any change in the word, as in the conversion of the noun breakfast to the verb for breakfast , it is known as zero conversion or derivation.
The derivation that results in a noun can be called a nominalization . It may involve the use of an affix (as with employ → employee ), or it may occur through conversion (as with the derivation of the noun run from the verb to run ). In contrast, a derivation that results in a verb may be called a verbalization (as from the noun butter to the verb butter ).
Derivation and inflection
Generally speaking, the inflection is applied in more or less regular patterns to all members of a part of speech (for example, almost all verbs in English add -s for the third person singular in the present tense), while the derivation follows less consistent patterns (for example, the nominalizing suffix -ity can be used with the adjectives modern and dense , but not with open or strong ). However, it is important to note that derivations and inflections can share homonyms, that is, morphemes .They have the same sound, but not the same meaning. For example, when the affix -er is added to an adjective, as in small-er , it acts as an inflection, but when it is added to a verb, as in cook-er , it acts as a derivation. Derivation in linguistics
As mentioned above, a derivation can produce a new word (or a new part of speech), but it doesn’t have to. For example, the derivation of the word “common” to “uncommon” is a derivational morpheme but does not change the part of speech (adjective).
An important distinction between derived and inflectional morphology lies in the content/function of a listeme. Derivative morphology changes both the meaning and content of a listeme, while inflectional morphology does not change the meaning, but changes the function.
A non-exhaustive list of English derivational morphemes: -ful, -able, im-, un-, -ing, -er
A non-exhaustive list of inflectional morphemes in English: -er, -est, -ing, -en, -ed, -s
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Morphological derivation, in linguistics, is the process of forming a new word from an existing word, often by adding a prefix or suffix, such as un- or -ness. For example, unhappy and happiness derive from the root word happy.
It is differentiated from inflection, which is the modification of a word to form different grammatical categories without changing its core meaning: determines, determining, and determined are from the root determine.[1]
Derivational patterns[edit]
Derivational morphology often involves the addition of a derivational suffix or other affix. Such an affix usually applies to words of one lexical category (part of speech) and changes them into words of another such category. For example, one effect of the English derivational suffix -ly is to change an adjective into an adverb (slow → slowly).
Here are examples of English derivational patterns and their suffixes:
- adjective-to-noun: -ness (slow → slowness)
- adjective-to-verb: -en (weak → weaken)
- adjective-to-adjective: -ish (red → reddish)
- adjective-to-adverb: -ly (personal → personally)
- noun-to-adjective: -al (recreation → recreational)
- noun-to-verb: -fy (glory → glorify)
- verb-to-adjective: -able (drink → drinkable)
- verb-to-noun (abstract): -ance (deliver → deliverance)
- verb-to-noun (agent): -er (write → writer)
However, derivational affixes do not necessarily alter the lexical category; they may change merely the meaning of the base and leave the category unchanged. A prefix (write → re-write; lord → over-lord) rarely changes the lexical category in English. The prefix un- applies to adjectives (healthy → unhealthy) and some verbs (do → undo) but rarely to nouns. A few exceptions are the derivational prefixes en- and be-. En- (replaced by em- before labials) is usually a transitive marker on verbs, but it can also be applied to adjectives and nouns to form transitive verbs: circle (verb) → encircle (verb) but rich (adj) → enrich (verb), large (adj) → enlarge (verb), rapture (noun) → enrapture (verb), slave (noun) → enslave (verb).
When derivation occurs without any change to the word, such as in the conversion of the noun breakfast into the verb to breakfast, it’s known as conversion, or zero derivation.
Derivation that results in a noun may be called nominalization. It may involve the use of an affix (such as with employ → employee), or it may occur via conversion (such as with the derivation of the noun run from the verb to run). In contrast, a derivation resulting in a verb may be called verbalization (such as from the noun butter to the verb to butter).
Derivation and inflection[edit]
Derivation can be contrasted with inflection, in that derivation can produce a new word (a distinct lexeme) but isn’t required to change this, whereas inflection produces grammatical variants of the same word.
Generally speaking, inflection applies in more or less regular patterns to all members of a part of speech (for example, nearly every English verb adds -s for the third person singular present tense), while derivation follows less consistent patterns (for example, the nominalizing suffix -ity can be used with the adjectives modern and dense, but not with open or strong). However, it is important to note that derivations and inflections can share homonyms, that being, morphemes that have the same sound, but not the same meaning. For example, when the affix -er, is added to an adjective, as in small-er, it acts as an inflection, but when added to a verb, as in cook-er, it acts as a derivation.[2]
As mentioned above, a derivation can produce a new word (or new part of speech) but is not required to do so. For example, the derivation of the word «common» to «uncommon» is a derivational morpheme but doesn’t change the part of speech (adjective).
An important distinction between derivational and inflectional morphology lies in the content/function of a listeme[clarification needed]. Derivational morphology changes both the meaning and the content of a listeme, while inflectional morphology doesn’t change the meaning, but changes the function.
A non-exhaustive list of derivational morphemes in English: -ful, -able, im-, un-, -ing, -er
A non-exhaustive list of inflectional morphemes in English: -er, -est, -ing, -en, -ed, -s
Derivation and other types of word formation[edit]
Derivation can be contrasted with other types of word formation such as compounding. For full details see Word formation.
Note that derivational affixes are bound morphemes – they are meaningful units, but can only normally occur when attached to another word. In that respect, derivation differs from compounding by which free morphemes are combined (lawsuit, Latin professor). It also differs from inflection in that inflection does not create new lexemes but new word forms (table → tables; open → opened).
Productivity[edit]
Derivational patterns differ in the degree to which they can be called productive. A productive pattern or affix is one that is commonly used to produce novel forms. For example, the negating prefix un- is more productive in English than the alternative in-; both of them occur in established words (such as unusual and inaccessible), but faced with a new word which does not have an established negation, a native speaker is more likely to create a novel form with un- than with in-. The same thing happens with suffixes. For example, if comparing two words Thatcherite and Thatcherist, the analysis shows that both suffixes -ite and -ist are productive and can be added to proper names, moreover, both derived adjectives are established and have the same meaning. But the suffix -ist is more productive and, thus, can be found more often in word formation not only from proper names.
See also[edit]
- Agglutination
- Collocation
- Inflection
- Nominalization
- Word formation
- Word root
References[edit]
- ^ Crystal, David (1999): The Penguin Dictionary of Language, Penguin Books, England.
- ^ Sobin, Nicholas (2011). Syntactic Analysis The Basics. West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 17–18. ISBN 978-1-4443-3895-9.
- Speech and Language Processing, Jurafsky, D. & Martin J.,H.