Definition of the word of wisdom

For the Pentecostal usage of this term, see word of wisdom.

The «Word of Wisdom» is the common name of an 1833 section of the Doctrine and Covenants,^[1] a book considered by many churches within the Latter Day Saint movement to be a sacred text. The section defines beliefs regarding certain drugs, nutritious ingredients in general, and the counsel to eat meat sparingly; it also offers promises to those who follow the guidance of the Word of Wisdom.^[2]

As practiced by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), the largest Latter Day Saint denomination, the Word of Wisdom explicitly prohibits the consumption of alcohol, tobacco, tea, and coffee, and recreational drug use, and encourages healthy practices such as nutritious eating, the sparing use of meat, regular exercise, proper hygiene, and getting sufficient rest.^[2]

Compliance with the Word of Wisdom is necessary in the LDS Church to become a member and to participate in various church functions,^[3][4] however, violation of the code is not normally cause for a church membership council.^[5]

HistoryEdit

Beginnings under Joseph SmithEdit

According to Joseph Smith, founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, the Word of Wisdom was received on February 27, 1833, as a revelation from God.^[2] The Word of Wisdom was first published as a stand-alone broadsheet in December 1833. In 1835, it was included as Section LXXX^[6] in the first edition of the Doctrine and Covenants. Brigham Young stated after Smith’s death that the revelation was given in response to problems encountered while conducting meetings in the Smith family home:^[7]

When they assembled together in this room after breakfast, the first they did was to light their pipes, and, while smoking, talk about the great things of the kingdom, and spit all over the room, and as soon as the pipe was out of their mouths a large chew of tobacco would then be taken. Often when the Prophet [Joseph Smith] entered the room to give the school instructions he would find himself in a cloud of tobacco smoke. This, and the complaints of his wife at having to clean so filthy a floor, made the Prophet think upon the matter, and he inquired of the Lord relating to the conduct of the Elders in using tobacco, and the revelation known as the Word of Wisdom was the result of his inquiry.

In February 1834, Joseph Smith proposed a resolution before the high council of the church that stated, «No official member in this Church is worthy to hold an office after having the word of wisdom properly taught him; and he, the official member, neglecting to comply with and obey it.»^[8][9][10] This resolution was accepted unanimously by the council.^[8] The charge of «not observing the Word of Wisdom» was later one of five leveled against David Whitmer (who was an apostle, and one of the Three Witnesses) on April 13, 1838, which led to his excommunication.^[11]

Joseph Smith is however recorded at various times drinking wine,^[12] beer,^[13] and tea,^[14] and using tobacco.^[15] One account by Amasa Lyman, a member of the First Presidency under Smith, reports that Smith once finished preaching a sermon on the Word of Wisdom and immediately afterward rode through the streets smoking a cigar.^[16][17] Similarly, Almon W. Babbitt stated «that he had taken the liberty to break the Word of Wisdom, from the example of President Joseph Smith, Jun., and others, but acknowledged that it was wrong» when he was brought before the church’s high council on August 19, 1835, on the charge of «not keeping the Word of Wisdom».^[18] Joseph Smith had also been operating a hotel/tavern in Far West, Missouri, in 1838, and in June of that year, the high council of Far West felt compelled to remind Smith’s family that there was a ban on the sale and consumption of «ardent spirits in the place».^[19]

Post-succession crisisEdit

In the LDS ChurchEdit

After Smith’s death, several factions emerged from the Latter Day Saint movement. The largest of these groups, the LDS Church, was led by Brigham Young. At a church general conference on September 9, 1851, Young called on the attendees to «leave off the use of» items mentioned in the Word of Wisdom:

The Patriarch [John Smith] again rose to speak on the Word of Wisdom, and urging on the brethren to leave off using tobacco, &c.

President Young rose to put the motion and called on all the sisters who will leave off the use of tea, coffee, &c., to manifest it by raising the right hand; seconded and carried.

And then put the following motion; calling on all the boys [sic] who were under ninety years of age who would covenant to leave off the use of tobacco, whisky, and all things mentioned in the Word of Wisdom, to manifest it in the same manner, which was carried unanimously.»

The Patriarch then said, may the Lord bless you and help you to keep all your covenants. Amen.

President Young amongst other things said he knew the goodness of the people, and the Lord bears with our weakness; we must serve the Lord, and those who go with me will keep the Word of Wisdom, and if the High Priests, the Seventies, the Elders, and others will not serve the Lord, we will sever them from the Church. I will draw the line, and know who is for the Lord and who is not, and those who will not keep the Word of Wisdom, I will cut off from the Church; I throw out a challenge to all men and women.^[20]

Though Young encouraged Mormons to follow the Word of Wisdom code, the church was tolerant of those who did not follow it. In 1860, Young counseled those chewing tobacco in church meetings to at least be discreet and not excessive, but did not charge users with sin.^[21] By 1870, he ended the practice of chewing and spitting tobacco in the Salt Lake Tabernacle.^[22]

Young also recognized a separation between using tobacco (which was discouraged), and selling it to non-Mormons as a business (which was encouraged).^[23] He also owned and maintained a bar in Salt Lake City for the sale of alcoholic beverages to non-Mormon travelers, on the theory that it was better for LDS Church authorities to run such establishments than for outsiders.^[24]

The modern LDS application of the Word of Wisdom has its beginnings in the presidency of Joseph F. Smith, who became LDS Church president in 1901 at a time when even notable church leaders drank alcohol and coffee. For example, George Albert Smith, apostle and later church president, «took brandy for medicinal reasons», Anthon H. Lund, First Counselor in the First Presidency, «enjoyed Danish beer and currant wine», Charles W. Penrose, Second Counselor in the First Presidency, «occasionally served wine», Matthias F. Cowley, apostle, «enjoyed Danish beer and currant wine», Brigham Young, Jr. and John Henry Smith, both apostles, argued in 1901 «that the Church ought not interdict beer, or at least not Danish beer», and Emmeline B. Wells, of the Relief Society presidency (and who was later president of the Relief Society), «drank an occasional cup of coffee». As church president, Joseph F. Smith emphasized the proscriptions on alcohol, tobacco, tea, and coffee. Adherence was still however not a prerequisite for entry into the temple, and in 1902 Smith encouraged stake presidents to be liberal when issuing temple recommends with old men who used tobacco and old ladies who drank tea. Of those who violated the revelation, it was mainly habitual drunkards that were excluded from the temple.^[25]

In 1921, LDS Church president Heber J. Grant finally made adherence to the Word of Wisdom a prerequisite for temple admission. Then, both the 1928 and 1934 editions of the Handbook — but not previous editions—listed «liquor drinking» and «bootlegging» among the «transgressions which are ordinarily such as to justify consideration by the bishop’s court.» To these the 1934 edition also added «drunkenness.»^[25] Violation of the Word of Wisdom is however not currently (no longer) cause for church discipline.^[5]

Popular applicationEdit

Adherence to the Word of Wisdom in the LDS Church is required for baptism^[3] and participation in the church (such as entry into the temple, full-time missionary service, and attendance at church schools),^[4] however the church instructs its leaders that violation of the Word of Wisdom is not normally cause for a church membership council and that church discipline «should not be [used] to discipline or threaten members who do not comply with the Word of Wisdom».^[5]

A 2019 study of attitudes among Mormons within the U.S. said that a quarter to a half of such individuals interpret the Word of Wisdom in variance with the official interpretation by the LDS Church in some manner,^[26] and LDS Church leaders have counseled church members that they should not have personal interpretations of, or become extreme in their observance of the Word of Wisdom. One church leader specifically warned that adding additional unauthorized requirements, emphasizing it with excess zeal, or making it a «gospel hobby» is a sign of spiritual immaturity and sometimes apostasy.^[27]

AlcoholEdit

LDS Church leaders teach that consumption of any form of alcohol, including beer, violates the Word of Wisdom,^[28][29][30] however, wine was used in the sacrament, and «mild drinks» (beers) were originally allowed.^{[25][31][32][33]}

TobaccoEdit

In the LDS Church, tobacco is not allowed in any form, including smoking, chewing, or vaping. This also extends to any use of nicotine.^[28]

Tea and coffeeEdit

The LDS Church prohibits tea and coffee, as interpreted from the mention of «hot drinks» in the scripture; it is also taught that it does not matter whether or not the drinks are hot.^[34]

There is generally thought to be no prohibition against drinking herbal tea, coffee substitutes such as Pero and Postum, hot chocolate, malt drinks such as Ovaltine and Milo, or hot water.^[35]

Definition of the term «hot drinks»Edit

«Hot drinks» is clarified for the LDS Church handbook:

The only official interpretation of «hot drinks» (D&C 89:9) in the Word of Wisdom is the statement made by early Church leaders that the term «hot drinks» means tea and coffee.^[36]

In 1842, Smith’s brother Hyrum, who was the Assistant President of the Church and its presiding patriarch, provided an interpretation of the Word of Wisdom’s proscription of «hot drinks»:

And again «hot drinks are not for the body, or belly;» there are many who wonder what this can mean; whether it refers to tea, or coffee, or not. I say it does refer to tea, and coffee.^[37]

According to a book written by LDS missionary and hymnographer Joel H. Johnson in 1881, Joseph Smith shared Hyrum’s interpretation:

I understand that some of the people are excusing themselves in using tea and coffee, because the Lord only said «hot drinks» in the revelation of the Word of Wisdom …. Tea and coffee … are what the Lord meant when He said «hot drinks».^[38][39]

Cola and other caffeinated beveragesEdit

A longstanding issue among members of the LDS Church is whether it is permissible to ingest drinks containing caffeine that are not tea or coffee. In 1918, Frederick J. Pack, a Mormon professor at the University of Utah, published an article in an official church magazine in which he reasoned that because Coca-Cola contained caffeine, which is also present in tea and coffee, Mormons should abstain from Coca-Cola in the same way that they abstain from the Word of Wisdom «hot drinks».^[40] Since Pack’s article, many Mormons have come to believe that the reason tea and coffee are proscribed is the presence of caffeine in the drinks. However, the church has never stated that this is the reason for the prohibition.

The church does not have an official position on the consumption of caffeinated beverages, apart from the general statement that the Word of Wisdom does not specifically mention it. In 2012, in response to a report on Mormonism on NBC’s Rock Center with Brian Williams, which claimed that LDS faithful were prohibited from drinking caffeine, the church wrote:

Despite what was reported, the Church revelation spelling out health practices (Doctrine and Covenants 89) does not mention the use of caffeine. The Church’s health guidelines prohibits alcoholic drinks, smoking or chewing of tobacco, and «hot drinks»—taught by Church leaders to refer specifically to tea and coffee.^[41]

In the past, a number of church leaders have discouraged the use of such products. For example, in 1922, church president Heber J. Grant counseled the Latter-day Saints:

I am not going to give any command, but I will ask it as a personal, individual favor to me, to let coca-cola [sic] alone. There are plenty of other things you can get at the soda fountains without drinking that which is injurious. The Lord does not want you to use any drug that creates an appetite for itself.^[42]

Two years after making this statement, Grant met with a representative of The Coca-Cola Company to discuss the church’s position on Coca-Cola; at the conclusion of their second meeting, Grant stated that he was «sure I have not the slightest desire to recommend that the people leave Coca-Cola alone if th[e] amount [of caffeine in Coca-Cola] is absolutely harmless, which they claim it is.»^[25] Grant never again spoke out against the use of cola drinks.

Approximately fifty years later, the church issued an official statement which stated:

With reference to cola drinks, the Church has never officially taken a position on this matter, but the leaders of the Church have advised, and we do now specifically advise, against the use of any drink containing harmful habit-forming drugs under circumstances that would result in acquiring the habit. Any beverage that contains ingredients harmful to the body should be avoided.^[43]

Because of such statements, some adherents believe that caffeine is officially prohibited under the Word of Wisdom.^[44][45] In the mid-1950s, the director of the food services for Brigham Young University, a college owned by the LDS Church, decided not to sell caffeine on campus. This changed in September 2017 when the director of BYU Dining Services announced that caffeinated beverages would be sold on campus. Wright said this was the result of a change in customer preferences.^[46] Official church publications have occasionally published articles by medical practitioners that warn of the health risks of consuming caffeine.^[47][48][49] However, in November 2010, the Salt Lake Tribune noted that in the 2010 church Handbook, which sets out the official position of the church on health and social issues, no position on drinking Coca-Cola or caffeinated drinks is included.^[50] The Salt Lake Tribune concluded that the church «takes no official position on caffeine».^[51]

MeatEdit

The Word of Wisdom states that «flesh also of beasts and of the fowls of the air … are to be used sparingly», and that «it is pleasing unto [God] that they should not be used, only in times of winter, or of cold, or famine.»^[52]

Many LDS Church leaders have expressed their views on the subject of meat. In 1868, church president Brigham Young counseled, «Flesh should be used sparingly, in famine and in cold.»^[53] In 1868, apostle George Q. Cannon said, «We are told that flesh of any kind is not suitable to man in the summer time, and ought to be eaten sparingly in the winter.»^[54] From 1897 to 1901, apostle and then church president Lorenzo Snow repeatedly emphasized the importance of eating meat sparingly, teaching that church members should refrain from eating meat except in case of dire necessity, and that this should be seen in light of Smith’s teaching that animals have spirits.^[25] In 1895, Snow stated, «Unless famine or extreme cold is upon us we should refrain from the use of meat.»^[55] Apostle George Teasdale taught the same thing, and held that eating pork was a more serious breach of the Word of Wisdom than drinking tea or coffee.^[25] When Joseph F. Smith succeeded Snow as president of the church in 1901, he preached regularly against the «unnecessary destruction of life», and emphasized kindness to animals and the important stewardship humans have toward them.^[56]

Despite these statements, restricting meat consumption was not given an explicit mention for worthiness in the LDS Church as the standards for obedience to the Word of Wisdom were made increasingly central to LDS Church doctrine and practice in the early 20th century.^[57] The increased emphasis on the Word of Wisdom took place during the presidency of Heber J. Grant, a long-time enthusiastic promoter of the Word of Wisdom. Although Grant did not emphasize restricting meat consumption, he continued to interpret it as part of the counsel in the Word of Wisdom. In the 1937 General Conference, at 80 years old, Grant said he worked long hours «without fatigue and without feeling the least injury». He attributed his excellent health, in part, to eating very little meat.^[58]

In a 1948 LDS general conference address, apostle Joseph F. Merrill emphasized the importance of not eating meat as «freely as many Americans are doing».^[59] In 1950, apostle and plant scientist John A. Widtsoe wrote, in relation to meat consumption, «they who wish to be well and gain the promised reward stated in the Word of Wisdom must obey all of the law, not just part of it as suits their whim or their appetite, or their notion of its meaning.»^[60] As recently as 2012, official church spokesperson Michael Otterson stated «the church has also encouraged limiting meat consumption in favor of grains, fruits and vegetables.^[61]

To this day, the LDS Church’s hymnal includes a hymn with the following lyrics:

That the children may live long / And be beautiful and strong, / Tea and coffee and tobacco they despise, / Drink no liquor, and they eat / But a very little meat; / They are seeking to be great and good and wise.^[62]

A student manual published by the church has suggested that limiting the consumption of meat to the wintertime may be to some degree of the time in which the «Word of Wisdom» was delivered by Smith:

This verse has caused some to ask if meat should be eaten in the summer. Meat has more calories than fruits and vegetables, which some individuals may need fewer of in summer than winter. Also, before fruits and vegetables could be preserved, people often did not have enough other food to eat in winter. Spoiled meat can be fatal if eaten, and in former times meat spoiled more readily in summer than winter. Modern methods of refrigeration now make it possible to preserve meat in any season. The key word with respect to the use of meat is sparingly.^[63]

Refined grain productsEdit

In a pamphlet written in 1930 called The Word of Wisdom, LDS Church apostle John A. Widtsoe taught that refined flour was contrary to the Word of Wisdom.^[25] The church, however, has never prohibited the use of refined flour.

Other areasEdit

Speculation exists concerning the use of alcohol as a cooking ingredient or «alcohol-free» varieties of drinks.^[34] The LDS Church has taken no official stance on either.

Marijuana was banned by the LDS Church in August 1915.^[64] In 2019 the church clarified in New Era that medical marijuana should only be used «under the care of a competent physician.»^[65]

Members should not use any substance that contains illegal drugs. Nor should members use harmful or habit-forming substances except under the care of a competent physician.^[36]

Enstrom study regarding members of the LDS ChurchEdit

A 14-year selective study conducted by UCLA epidemiologist James E. Enstrom tracked the health of 10,000 moderately active LDS Church members in California and ended in 1987.

Of these non-smoking, monogamous non-drinkers, Enstrom concluded from the study «that LDS Church members who follow religious mandates barring smoking and drinking have one of the lowest death rates, including from cancer and cardiovascular diseases—close to half that of the general population. … Moreover, the healthiest LDS Church members enjoy a life expectancy eight to eleven years longer than that of the general white population in the United States.» For LDS high priests who exercised, had proper sleep, and never smoked cigarettes, the mortality rate was even lower.

The results were largely duplicated in a separate study of an LDS-like subgroup of white non-smoking churchgoers in Alameda County, California.^[66]

See alsoEdit

ReferencesEdit

BibliographyEdit

External linksEdit

• Getting into the Meat of the Word of Wisdom

Wisdom, sapience, or sagacity is the ability to contemplate and act productively using knowledge, experience, understanding, common sense, and insight.^[1] Wisdom is associated with attributes such as unbiased judgment, compassion, experiential self-knowledge, self-transcendence and non-attachment,^[2] and virtues such as ethics and benevolence.^[3][4]

Wisdom has been defined in many different ways,^[2][5][3] including several distinct approaches to assess the characteristics attributed to wisdom.^[6][7]

Definitions[edit]

The Oxford English Dictionary defines wisdom as «Capacity of judging rightly in matters relating to life and conduct; soundness of judgment in the choice of means and ends; sometimes, less strictly, sound sense, esp. in practical affairs: opp. to folly;» also «Knowledge (esp. of a high or abstruse kind); enlightenment, learning, erudition.»^[8] Charles Haddon Spurgeon defined wisdom as «the right use of knowledge».^[9] Robert I. Sutton and Andrew Hargadon defined the «attitude of wisdom» as «acting with knowledge while doubting what one knows». In social and psychological sciences, several distinct approaches to wisdom exist,^[3] with major advances made in the last two decades with respect to operationalization^[2] and measurement^[7] of wisdom as a psychological construct. Wisdom is the capacity to have foreknowledge of something, to know the consequences (both positive and negative) of all the available course of actions, and to yield or take the options with the most advantage either for present or future implication.^[10]

Mythological perspectives[edit]

The ancient Greeks considered wisdom to be an important virtue, personified as the goddesses Metis and Athena. Metis was the first wife of Zeus, who, according to Hesiod’s Theogony, had devoured her pregnant; Zeus earned the title of Mêtieta («The Wise Counselor») after that, as Metis was the embodiment of wisdom, and he gave birth to Athena, who is said to have sprung from his head.^[11][12] Athena was portrayed as strong, fair, merciful, and chaste.^[13] Apollo was also considered a god of wisdom, designated as the conductor of the Muses (Musagetes),^[14] who were personifications of the sciences and of the inspired and poetic arts; According to Plato in his Cratylus, the name of Apollo could also mean «Ballon» (archer) and «Omopoulon» (unifier of poles [divine and earthly]), since this god was responsible for divine and true inspirations, thus considered an archer who was always right in healing and oracles: «he is an ever-darting archer».^[15] Apollo was considered the god who prophesied through the priestesses (Pythia) in the Temple of Apollo (Delphi), where the aphorism «know thyself» (gnōthi seauton)^[a] was inscribed (part of the wisdom of the Delphic maxims).^[16] He was contrasted with Hermes, who was related to the sciences and technical wisdom, and, in the first centuries after Christ, was associated with Thoth in an Egyptian syncretism, under the name Hermes Trimegistus.^[17] Greek tradition recorded the earliest introducers of wisdom in the Seven Sages of Greece.^[18]

To Socrates and Plato, philosophy was literally the love of wisdom (philo-sophia). This permeates Plato’s dialogue; in The Republic the leaders of his proposed utopia are philosopher kings who understand the Form of the Good and possess the courage to act accordingly. Aristotle, in Metaphysics, defined wisdom as understanding why things are a certain way (causality), which is deeper than merely knowing things are a certain way.^[19] He was the first to make the distinction between phronesis and sophia.^[5]

According to Plato and Xenophon, the Pythia of the Delphic Oracle answered the question «who is the wisest man in Greece?» by stating Socrates was the wisest.^[20][21] According to Plato’s Apology, Socrates decided to investigate the people who might be considered wiser than him, concluding they lacked true knowledge:

[…] οὗτος μὲν οἴεταί τι εἰδέναι οὐκ εἰδώς, ἐγὼ δέ, ὥσπερ οὖν οὐκ οἶδα, οὐδὲ οἴομαι [I am wiser than this man; for neither of us really knows anything fine and good, but this man thinks he knows something when he does not, whereas I, as I do not know anything, do not think I do either.]

— Apology to Socrates 21d

Thus it became popularly immortalized in the phrase «I know that I know nothing» that it is wise to recognize one’s own ignorance^[22] and to value epistemic humility.^[23]

The ancient Romans also valued wisdom which was personified in Minerva, or Pallas. She also represents skillful knowledge and the virtues, especially chastity. Her symbol was the owl which is still a popular representation of wisdom, because it can see in darkness. She was said to be born from Jupiter’s forehead.^[24]

In Buddhist traditions, developing wisdom plays a central role where comprehensive guidance on how to develop wisdom is provided.^[25][26] In the Inuit tradition, developing wisdom was one of the aims of teaching. An Inuit Elder said that a person became wise when they could see what needed to be done and did it successfully without being told what to do.

In many cultures, the name for third molars, which are the last teeth to grow, is etymologically linked with wisdom, e.g., as in the English wisdom tooth. It has its nickname originated from the classical tradition, which in the Hippocratic writings has already been called sóphronistér (in Greek, related to the meaning of moderation or teaching a lesson), and in Latin dens sapientiae (wisdom tooth), since they appear at the age of maturity in late adolescence and early adulthood.^[27]

Educational perspectives[edit]

Public schools in the US have an approach to character education. Eighteenth century thinkers such as Benjamin Franklin, referred to this as training wisdom and virtue. Traditionally, schools share the responsibility to build character and wisdom along with parents and the community.^[28]

Nicholas Maxwell, a contemporary philosopher in the United Kingdom, advocates that academia ought to alter its focus from the acquisition of knowledge to seeking and promoting wisdom.^[29] This he defines as the capacity to realize what is of value in life, for oneself and others.^[30] He teaches that new knowledge and technological know-how increase our power to act. Without wisdom though, Maxwell claims this new knowledge may cause human harm as well as human good. He argues that the pursuit of knowledge is indeed valuable and good, but that it should be considered apart of the broader task of improving wisdom.^[31]

Psychological perspectives[edit]

Psychologists have begun to gather data on commonly held beliefs or folk theories about wisdom.^[32] Initial analyses indicate that although «there is an overlap of the implicit theory of wisdom with intelligence, perceptiveness, spirituality and shrewdness, it is evident that wisdom is an expertise in dealing with difficult questions of life and adaptation to the complex requirements.»^[33]

Such implicit theories stand in contrast to the explicit theories and empirical research on resulting psychological processes underlying wisdom.^[34]
[3] Opinions on the exact psychological definitions of wisdom vary,^[3] but there is some consensus that critical to wisdom are certain meta-cognitive processes affording life reflection and judgment about critical life matters.^[35][2] These processes include recognizing the limits of one’s own knowledge, acknowledging uncertainty and change, attention to context and the bigger picture, and integrating different perspectives of a situation.^[36] Cognitive scientists suggest that wisdom requires coordinating such reasoning processes, as they may provide insightful solutions for managing one’s life.^[37] Notably, such reasoning is both theoretically and empirically distinct from general intelligence. Robert Sternberg^[38] has suggested that wisdom is not to be confused with general (fluid or crystallized) intelligence. In line with this idea, researchers have shown empirically that wise reasoning is distinct from IQ.^[39][40] Several more nuanced characterizations of wisdom are listed below.

Baltes and colleagues in Wisdom: its structure and function in regulating lifespan successful development^[41] defined wisdom as «the ability to deal with the contradictions of a specific situation and to assess the consequences of an action for themselves and for others. It is achieved when in a concrete situation, a balance between intrapersonal, inter- personal and institutional interests can be prepared».^[42] Balance itself appears to be a critical criterion of wisdom. Empirical research started to provide support to this idea, showing that wisdom-related reasoning is associated with achieving balance between intrapersonal and interpersonal interests when facing personal life challenges, and when setting goals for managing interpersonal conflicts.^[7][43]

Researchers in the field of positive psychology have defined wisdom as the coordination of «knowledge and experience» and «its deliberate use to improve well being.»^[44] Under this definition, wisdom is further defined with the following facets:^[45]

• Problem Solving with self-knowledge and sustainable actions.
• Contextual sincerity to the circumstances with knowledge of its negative (or constraints) and positive aspects.
• Value based consistent actions with knowledge of diversity in ethical opinions.
• Tolerance towards uncertainty in life with unconditional acceptance.
• Empathy with oneself to understand one’s own emotions (or to be emotionally oriented), morals…etc. and others feelings including the ability to see oneself as part of a larger whole.

This theoretical model has not been tested empirically, with an exception of a broad link between wisdom-related reasoning and well-being.^[46][47][48]

Grossmann and colleagues have synthesized prior psychological literature, indicating that in the face of ill-defined life situations wisdom involves certain cognitive processes affording unbiased, sound judgment: (i) intellectual humility or recognition of limits of own knowledge; (ii) appreciation of perspectives broader than the issue at hand; (iii) sensitivity to the possibility of change in social relations; and (iv) compromise or integration of different perspectives.^[49][50] Grossmann found that habitual speaking and thinking of oneself in the third person increases these characteristics, which means that such a habit makes a person wiser.^[51] Importantly, Grossmann highlights the fundamental role of contextual factors, including the role of culture, experiences, and social situations for understanding, development, and propensity of showing wisdom, with implications for training and educational practice.^[2][49] This situated account of wisdom ushered a novel phase of wisdom scholarship, using rigorous evidence-based methods to understand contextual factors affording sound judgment. For instance, Grossmann and Kross have identified a phenomenon they called «the Solomon’s paradox» — wiser reflections on other people’s problems as compared to one’s own. It is named after King Solomon, the third leader of the Jewish Kingdom, who has shown a great deal of wisdom when making judgments about other people’s dilemmas but lacked insight when it came to important decisions in his own life.^[52]

Empirical scientists have also begun to focus on the role of emotions in wisdom.^[53] Most researchers would agree that emotions and emotion regulation would be key to effectively managing the kinds of complex and arousing situations that would most call for wisdom. However, much empirical research has focused on the cognitive or meta-cognitive aspects of wisdom, assuming that an ability to reason through difficult situations would be paramount. Thus, although emotions would likely play a role in determining how wisdom plays out in real events and on reflecting on past events, only recently has empirical evidence started to provide robust evidence on how and when different emotions improve or harm a person’s ability to deal wisely with complex events. One notable finding concerns the positive relationship between diversity of emotional experience and wise reasoning, irrespective of emotional intensity.^[54]

Measuring wisdom[edit]

Measurement of wisdom often depends on a researcher’s theoretical position about the nature of wisdom. A major distinction exists between viewing wisdom as a stable personality trait or a context-bound process.^[55] The former approach often capitalizes on single-shot questionnaires. However, recent studies indicate that such single-shot questionnaires produce biased responses,^[7][56] something that is antithetical to the wisdom construct^[57] and neglects the notion that wisdom is best understood in the contexts where it is most relevant, namely, in complex life challenges. In contrast, the latter approach advocates for measuring wisdom-related features of cognition, motivation, and emotion on the level of a specific situation.^[58][55] Use of such state-level measures provides less biased responses as well as greater power in explaining meaningful psychological processes.^[7] Furthermore, a focus on the level of the situation has allowed wisdom researchers to develop a fuller understanding of the role of context itself for producing wisdom.^[55] Specifically, studies have shown evidence of cross-cultural^[59] and within-cultural variability,^[60] and systematic variability in reasoning wisely across contexts^[7][52] and in daily life.^[47]

Many, but not all, studies find that adults’ self-ratings of perspective and wisdom do not depend on age.^[45][61] This belief stands in contrast to the popular notion that wisdom increases with age.^[61] The answer to the question of age–wisdom association depends on how one defines wisdom and the methodological framework used to evaluate theoretical claims. Most recent work suggests that the answer to this question also depends on the degree of experience in a specific domain, with some contexts favoring older adults, others favoring younger adults, and some not differentiating age groups.^[55] Notably, rigorous longitudinal work is necessary to fully unpack the question of age–wisdom relationship, and such work is still outstanding, with most studies relying on cross-sectional observations.^[10]

The Jeste-Thomas Wisdom Index^[62] is based on a 28-question survey (SD-WISE-28) created by researchers at the University of California San Diego to determine how wise a person is. In 2021 Dr. Dilip V. Jeste and his colleages created a much shorter 7-question test (SD-WISE-7) consisting of seven components: acceptance of diverse perspectives, decisiveness, emotional regulation, prosocial behaviors, self-reflection, social advising, and (to a lesser degree) spirituality.^[63]

Sapience[edit]

«Sapience» redirects here. Not to be confused with Sentience.

Sapience (latin), «sophia» (greek) is often defined as «transcendent wisdom», «ultimate reality», or the ultimate truth of things.^[5][4][64] Sapiential perspective of wisdom is said to lie in the heart of every religion, where it is often acquired through intuitive knowing.^[5][4] This type of wisdom is described as going beyond mere practical wisdom and includes self-knowledge, interconnectedness, conditioned origination of mind-states and other deeper understandings of subjective experience.^[25][5][4] This type of wisdom can also lead to the ability of an individual to act with appropriate judgment, a broad understanding of situations and greater appreciation/compassion towards other living beings.^[25]

The word sapience is derived from the Latin sapientia, meaning «wisdom».^[65]
The corresponding verb sapere has the original meaning of «to taste», hence «to perceive, to discern» and «to know»; its present participle sapiens was chosen by Carl Linnaeus for the Latin binomial for the human species, Homo sapiens.

Religious perspectives[edit]

Ancient Near East[edit]

In Mesopotamian religion and mythology, Enki, also known as Ea, was the God of wisdom and intelligence. Divine Wisdom allowed the provident designation of functions and the ordering of the cosmos, and it was achieved by humans in following me-s (in Sumerian, order, rite, righteousness), restoring the balance.^[66] In addition to hymns to Enki or Ea dating from the third millennium BC., there is amongst the clay tablets of Abu Salabikh from 2600 BC, considered as being the oldest dated texts, an «Hymn to Shamash», in which it is recorded written:^[67]

Wide is the courtyard of Shamash night chamber, (just as wide is the womb of) a wise pregnant woman! Sin, his warrior, wise one, heard of the offerings and came down to his fiesta. He is the father of the nation and the father of intelligence

The concept of Logos or manifest word of the divine thought, a concept also present in the philosophy and hymns of Egypt and Ancient Greece^[68] (being central to the thinker Heraclitus), and substantial in the Abrahamic traditions, seems to have been derived from Mesopotamian culture.^[69]

Sia represents the personification of perception and thoughtfulness in the traditional mythology adhered to in Ancient Egypt. Thoth, married to Maat (in ancient Egyptian, meaning order, righteousness, truth), was also important and regarded as a national introducer of wisdom.^[70][68]

Zoroastrianism[edit]

In the Avesta hymns traditionally attributed to Zoroaster, the Gathas, Ahura Mazda means «Lord» (Ahura) and «Wisdom» (Mazda), and it is the central deity who embodies goodness, being also called «Good Thought» (Vohu Manah).^[71] In Zoroastrianism in general, the order of the universe and morals is called Asha (in Avestan, truth, righteousness), which is determined by the designations of this omniscient Thought and also considered a deity emanating from Ahura (Amesha Spenta); it is related to another ahura deity, Spenta Mainyu (active Mentality).^[72] It says in Yazna 31:^[73]

To him shall the best befall, who, as one that knows, speaks to me Right’s truthful word of Welfare and of Immortality; even the Dominion of Mazda which Good Thought shall increase for him. About which he in the beginning thus thought, «let the blessed realms be filled with Light», he it is that by his wisdom created Right.

Hebrew Bible and Judaism[edit]

The word wisdom (חכם) is mentioned 222 times in the Hebrew Bible. It was regarded as one of the highest virtues among the Israelites along with kindness (חסד) and justice (צדק). Both the books of Proverbs and Psalms urge readers to obtain and to increase in wisdom.^{[citation needed]}

In the Hebrew Bible, wisdom is represented by Solomon, who asks God for wisdom in 2 Chronicles 1:10. Much of the Book of Proverbs, which is filled with wise sayings, is attributed to Solomon. In Proverbs 9:10, the fear of the Lord is called the beginning of wisdom. In Proverbs 1:20, there is also reference to wisdom personified in female form, «Wisdom calls aloud in the streets, she raises her voice in the marketplaces.» In Proverbs 8:22–31, this personified wisdom is described as being present with God before creation began and even taking part in creation itself.

The Talmud teaches that a wise person is a person who can foresee the future. Nolad is a Hebrew word for «future,» but also the Hebrew word for birth, so one rabbinic interpretation of the teaching is that a wise person is one who can foresee the consequences of his/her choices (i.e. can «see the future» that he/she «gives birth» to).^[74]

Hellenistic religion and Gnosticism[edit]

Christian theology[edit]

In Christian theology, «wisdom» (From Hebrew: חכמה transliteration: chokmâh pronounced: khok-maw’, Greek: Sophia, Latin: Sapientia) describes an aspect of God, or the theological concept regarding the wisdom of God.^{[citation needed]}

There is an oppositional element in Christian thought between secular wisdom and Godly wisdom. Paul the Apostle states that worldly wisdom thinks the claims of Christ to be foolishness. However, to those who are «on the path to salvation» Christ represents the wisdom of God (1 Corinthians 1:17–31). Wisdom is considered one of the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit according to Anglican, Catholic, and Lutheran belief.^[75] 1 Corinthians 12:8–10 gives an alternate list of nine virtues, among which wisdom is one.

The book of Proverbs in the Old Testament of the Bible primarily focuses on wisdom, and was primarily written by one of the wisest kings according to Jewish history, King Solomon. Proverbs is found in the Old Testament section of the Bible and gives direction on how to handle various aspects of life; one’s relationship with God, marriage, dealing with finances, work, friendships and persevering in difficult situations faced in life.^[76]

^[77] According to King Solomon, wisdom is gained from God, «For the Lord gives wisdom; from His mouth come knowledge and understanding» Proverbs 2:6. And through God’s wise aide, one can have a better life: «He holds success in store for the upright, he is a shield to those whose walk is blameless, for he guards the course of the just and protects the way of his faithful ones» Proverbs 2:7-8. «Trust in the LORD with all your heart and lean not on your own understanding; in all your ways submit to him, and he will make your paths straight» Proverbs 3:5-6. Solomon basically states that with the wisdom one receives from God, one will be able to find success and happiness in life.

^[78] There are various verses in Proverbs that contain parallels of what God loves, which is wise, and what God does not love, which is foolish. For example, in the area of good and bad behaviour Proverbs states, «The way of the wicked is an abomination to the Lord, But He loves him who pursues righteousness (Proverbs 15:9). In relation to fairness and business it is stated that, «A false balance is an abomination to the Lord, But a just weight is His delight» (Proverbs 11:1; cf. 20:10,23). On the truth it is said, «Lying lips are an abomination to the Lord, But those who deal faithfully are His delight» (12:22; cf. 6:17,19). These are a few examples of what, according to Solomon, are good and wise in the eyes of God, or bad and foolish, and in doing these good and wise things, one becomes closer to God by living in an honorable and kind manner.

^[77] King Solomon continues his teachings of wisdom in the book of Ecclesiastes, which is considered one of the most depressing books of the Bible. Solomon discusses his exploration of the meaning of life and fulfillment, as he speaks of life’s pleasures, work, and materialism, yet concludes that it is all meaningless. «‘Meaningless! Meaningless!» says the Teacher [Solomon]. ‘Utterly meaningless! Everything is meaningless’…For with much wisdom comes much sorrow, the more knowledge, the more grief» (Ecclesiastes 1:2,18) Solomon concludes that all life’s pleasures and riches, and even wisdom, mean nothing if there is no relationship with God.

^[79] The book of James, written by the apostle James, is said to be the New Testament version of the book of Proverbs, in that it is another book that discusses wisdom. It reiterates Proverbs message of wisdom coming from God by stating, «If any of you lacks wisdom, you should ask God, who gives generously to all without finding fault, and it will be given to you.» James 1:5. James also explains how wisdom helps one acquire other forms of virtue, «But the wisdom that comes from heaven is first of all pure; then peace-loving, considerate, submissive, full of mercy and good fruit, impartial and sincere.» James 3:17. In addition, through wisdom for living James focuses on using this God-given wisdom to perform acts of service to the less fortunate.

Apart from Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and James, other main books of wisdom in the Bible are Job, Psalms, and 1 and 2 Corinthians, which give lessons on gaining and using wisdom through difficult situations.

Indian religions[edit]

In the Indian traditions, wisdom can be called prajña or vijñana.

Developing wisdom is of central importance in Buddhist traditions, where the ultimate aim is often presented as «seeing things as they are» or as gaining a «penetrative understanding of all phenomena», which in turn is described as ultimately leading to the «complete freedom from suffering».^[25][26] In Buddhism, developing wisdom is accomplished through an understanding of what are known as the Four Noble Truths and by following the Noble Eightfold Path.^[25][26] This path lists mindfulness as one of eight required components for cultivating wisdom.^[25]

Buddhist scriptures teach that a wise person is usually endowed with good and maybe bodily conduct, and sometimes good verbal conduct, and good mental conduct.(AN 3:2) A wise person does actions that are unpleasant to do but give good results, and doesn’t do actions that are pleasant to do but give bad results (AN 4:115). Wisdom is the antidote to the self-chosen poison of ignorance. The Buddha has much to say on the subject of wisdom including:

• He who arbitrates a case by force does not thereby become just (established in Dhamma). But the wise man is he who carefully discriminates between right and wrong.^[80]
• He who leads others by nonviolence, righteously and equitably, is indeed a guardian of justice, wise and righteous.^[81]
• One is not wise merely because he talks much. But he who is calm, free from hatred and fear, is verily called a wise man.^[82]
• By quietude alone one does not become a sage (muni) if he is foolish and ignorant. But he who, as if holding a pair of scales, takes the good and shuns the evil, is a wise man; he is indeed a muni by that very reason. He who understands both good and evil as they really are, is called a true sage.^[83]

To recover the original supreme wisdom of self-nature (Buddha-nature or Tathagata) covered by the self-imposed three dusty poisons (the kleshas: greed, anger, ignorance) Buddha taught to his students the threefold training by turning greed into generosity and discipline, anger into kindness and meditation, ignorance into wisdom. As the Sixth Patriarch of Chán Buddhism, Huineng, said in his Platform Sutra, «Mind without dispute is self-nature discipline, mind without disturbance is self-nature meditation, mind without ignorance is self-nature wisdom.» In Mahayana and esoteric Buddhist lineages, Mañjuśrī is considered as an embodiment of Buddha wisdom.

In Hinduism, wisdom is considered a state of mind and soul where a person achieves liberation.

The god of wisdom is Ganesha and the goddess of knowledge is Saraswati.^{[citation needed]}

The Sanskrit verse to attain knowledge is:

असतो मा सद्गमय । Asatō mā sadgamaya
तमसो मा ज्योतिर्गमय । tamasō mā jyōtirgamaya
मृत्योर्मा अमृतं गमय । mr̥tyōrmā amr̥taṁ gamaya
ॐ शान्तिः शान्तिः शान्तिः ॥ Om śāntiḥ śāntiḥ śāntiḥ
— Br̥hadāraṇyakopaniṣat 1.3.28

«Lead me from the unreal to the real.

Lead me from darkness to light.

Lead me from death to immortality.

May there be peace, peace, and peace».

Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.3.28.

Wisdom in Hinduism is knowing oneself as the truth, basis for the entire Creation, i.e., of Shristi.^{[clarification needed]} In other words, wisdom simply means a person with Self-awareness as the one who witnesses the entire creation in all its facets and forms. Further it means realization that an individual may, through right conduct and right living, come to realize their true relationship with the creation and the Paramatma.^{[citation needed]}

Islam[edit]

The Islamic term for wisdom is hikmah. Prophets of Islam are believed by Muslims to possess high wisdom. The term occurs a number of times in the Quran, notably in Chapter 2:269, Chapter 22:46: as well as Chapter 6:151.

The Sufi philosopher Ibn Arabi considers al-Hakim («The Wise») as one of the names of the Creator.^[84] Wisdom and truth, considered divine attributes, were concepts related and valued in the Islamic sciences and philosophy since their beginnings, and the first Arab philosopher, Al-Kindi says at the beginning of his book:^[85]

We must not be ashamed to admire the truth or to acquire it, from wherever it comes. Even if it should come from far-flung nations and foreign peoples, there is for the student of truth nothing more important than the truth, nor is the truth demeaned or diminished by the one who states or conveys it; no one is demeaned by the truth, rather all are ennobled by it.

Chinese religion[edit]

The Buddhist term Prajñā was translated into Chinese as
智慧 (pinyin zhìhuì, characters 智 «knowledge» and 慧 «bright, intelligent»).

According to the Doctrine of the Mean, Confucius said:

«Love of learning is akin to wisdom. To practice with vigor is akin to humanity. To know to be shameful is akin to courage (zhi, ren, yong.. three of Mengzi’s sprouts of virtue).»^{[citation needed][dubious – discuss]}

Compare this with the Confucian classic Great Learning, which begins with: «The Way of learning to be great consists in manifesting the clear character, loving the people, and abiding in the highest good.» One can clearly see the correlation with the Roman virtue prudence, especially if one interprets «clear character» as «clear conscience». (From Chan’s Sources of Chinese Philosophy).^{[citation needed]}

In Taoism, wisdom is construed as adherence to the Three Treasures (Taoism): charity, simplicity, and humility.^{[citation needed]}
«He who knows other men is discerning [智]; he who knows himself is intelligent [明].» (知人者智，自知者明。Tao Te Ching 33).^[86]

In Chinese Buddhism, the idea of wisdom will however remain closely linked to its Indian equivalent as it appears for instance in certain conceptual continuities that exists between Asanga, Vasubandhu and Xuanzang.^[87]

Others[edit]

In Norse mythology, the god Odin is especially known for his wisdom, often acquired through various hardships and ordeals involving pain and self-sacrifice. In one instance he plucked out an eye and offered it to Mímir, guardian of the well of knowledge and wisdom, in return for a drink from the well.^[88]
In another famous account, Odin hanged himself for nine nights from Yggdrasil, the World Tree that unites all the realms of existence, suffering from hunger and thirst and finally wounding himself with a spear until he gained the knowledge of runes for use in casting powerful magic.^[89] He was also able to acquire the mead of poetry from the giants, a drink of which could grant the power of a scholar or poet, for the benefit of gods and mortals alike.^[88]

In Baháʼí Faith scripture, «The essence of wisdom is the fear of God, the dread of His scourge and punishment, and the apprehension of His justice and decree.»^[90] Wisdom is seen as a light, that casts away darkness, and «its dictates must be observed under all circumstances».^[91] One may obtain knowledge and wisdom through God, his Word, and his Divine Manifestation and the source of all learning is the knowledge of God.^[92]

In the Star Wars universe, wisdom is valued in the narrative of the films, in which George Lucas figured issues of spirituality and morals, recurrent in mythological and philosophical themes; one of his inspirations was Joseph Campbell’s The Hero of a Thousand Faces.^[93] Master Yoda is generally considered a popular figure of wisdom, evoking the image of an «Oriental Monk»,^[94][95] and he is frequently quoted, analogously to Chinese thinkers or Eastern sages in general.^[96][97][98] Psychologist D. W. Kreger’s book «The Tao of Yoda» adapts the wisdom of the Tao Te Ching in relation to Yoda’s thinking.^[98] Knowledge is canonically considered one of the pillars of the Jedi, which is also cited in the non-canon book The Jedi Path,^[99][100] and wisdom can serve as a tenet for Jediism. The Jedi Code also states: «Ignorance, yet knowledge.»^[101] In a psychology populational study published by Grossmann and team in 2019, master Yoda is considered wiser than Spock, another fictional character (from the Star Trek series), due to his emodiversity trait, which was positively associated to wise reasoning in people:^[102] «Yoda embraces his emotions and aims to achieve a balance between them. Yoda is known to be emotionally expressive, to share a good joke with others, but also to recognize sorrow and his past mistakes».^[103]

Wisdom is learning how to understand, who to be and how to live^[104]

See also[edit]

Further reading[edit]

• Liguori, Alphonus (1882). «Sermon V.—Sunday within the Octave of the Nativity: In what true wisdom consists» . Sermons for all the Sundays in the year. Dublin.

Notes[edit]

References[edit]

External links[edit]

• Wisdom at PhilPapers
• Wisdom at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
• Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). «Wisdom». Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• Center for Practical Wisdom at the University of Chicago

English[edit]

Proper noun[edit]

Word of Wisdom

1. (Mormonism) The health code contained in the Doctrine and Covenants. It specifically prohibits the consumption of alcohol, tobacco, hot drinks (usually interpreted/construed as coffee and/or tea), and excessive amounts of meat.

   • 2005 July, James E. Faust, quoting Marion G. Romney, “He Healeth the Broken in Heart”, in Liahona‎^[1], page 2:

     The Word of Wisdom promises that those who remember to keep this counsel and walk in obedience to the commandments “shall receive health in their navel and marrow to their bones.”

   • 2007 May, John B. Dickson, “Commitment to the Lord”, in Ensign‎^[2], pages 14-15:

     As a young man he decided that he would always keep the Word of Wisdom and never use alcohol or tobacco.

Translations[edit]

References[edit]

• Word of Wisdom on LDS.org.

words of wisdom

Words that are especially wise, sagacious, or informative. Can also be used sarcastically to imply that what is said is banal, useless, or uninformative. Our father loved feeling like he was passing down his knowledge to his kids, so he was always ready with words of wisdom whenever an opportunity presented itself. Wow, thanks for the words of wisdom, Jake. Did you pull that out of a fortune cookie or something?

See also: of, wisdom, word

Farlex Dictionary of Idioms. © 2022 Farlex, Inc, all rights reserved.

See also:

• nugget of wisdom
• this just in
• nugget
• nugget of information
• wise soul
• wise old soul
• a (real) winner
• take (something) under consideration
• crying towel
• a (fat) lot of good that does