Definition of the word learning

Learning is the process of acquiring new understanding, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, attitudes, and preferences.^[1] The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals, and some machines; there is also evidence for some kind of learning in certain plants.^[2] Some learning is immediate, induced by a single event (e.g. being burned by a hot stove), but much skill and knowledge accumulate from repeated experiences.^[3] The changes induced by learning often last a lifetime, and it is hard to distinguish learned material that seems to be «lost» from that which cannot be retrieved.^[4]

Human learning starts at birth (it might even start before^[5] in terms of an embryo’s need for both interaction with, and freedom within its environment within the womb.^[6]) and continues until death as a consequence of ongoing interactions between people and their environment. The nature and processes involved in learning are studied in many established fields (including educational psychology, neuropsychology, experimental psychology, cognitive sciences, and pedagogy), as well as emerging fields of knowledge (e.g. with a shared interest in the topic of learning from safety events such as incidents/accidents,^[7] or in collaborative learning health systems^[8]). Research in such fields has led to the identification of various sorts of learning. For example, learning may occur as a result of habituation, or classical conditioning, operant conditioning or as a result of more complex activities such as play, seen only in relatively intelligent animals.^[9][10] Learning may occur consciously or without conscious awareness. Learning that an aversive event cannot be avoided or escaped may result in a condition called learned helplessness.^[11] There is evidence for human behavioral learning prenatally, in which habituation has been observed as early as 32 weeks into gestation, indicating that the central nervous system is sufficiently developed and primed for learning and memory to occur very early on in development.^[12]

Play has been approached by several theorists as a form of learning. Children experiment with the world, learn the rules, and learn to interact through play. Lev Vygotsky agrees that play is pivotal for children’s development, since they make meaning of their environment through playing educational games. For Vygotsky, however, play is the first form of learning language and communication, and the stage where a child begins to understand rules and symbols.^[13] This has led to a view that learning in organisms is always related to semiosis,^[14] and often associated with representational systems/activity.^[15]

Types[edit]

Non-associative learning[edit]

Non-associative learning refers to «a relatively permanent change in the strength of response to a single stimulus due to repeated exposure to that stimulus.»^[16] This definition exempt the changes caused by sensory adaptation, fatigue, or injury.^[17]

Non-associative learning can be divided into habituation and sensitization.

Habituation[edit]

Habituation is an example of non-associative learning in which one or more components of an innate response (e.g., response probability, response duration) to a stimulus diminishes when the stimulus is repeated. Thus, habituation must be distinguished from extinction, which is an associative process. In operant extinction, for example, a response declines because it is no longer followed by a reward. An example of habituation can be seen in small song birds—if a stuffed owl (or similar predator) is put into the cage, the birds initially react to it as though it were a real predator. Soon the birds react less, showing habituation. If another stuffed owl is introduced (or the same one removed and re-introduced), the birds react to it again as though it were a predator, demonstrating that it is only a very specific stimulus that is habituated to (namely, one particular unmoving owl in one place). The habituation process is faster for stimuli that occur at a high rather than for stimuli that occur at a low rate as well as for the weak and strong stimuli, respectively.^[18] Habituation has been shown in essentially every species of animal, as well as the sensitive plant Mimosa pudica^[19] and the large protozoan Stentor coeruleus.^[20] This concept acts in direct opposition to sensitization.^[18]

Sensitization[edit]

Sensitization is an example of non-associative learning in which the progressive amplification of a response follows repeated administrations of a stimulus.^[21] This is based on the notion that a defensive reflex to a stimulus such as withdrawal or escape becomes stronger after the exposure to a different harmful or threatening stimulus.^[22] An everyday example of this mechanism is the repeated tonic stimulation of peripheral nerves that occurs if a person rubs their arm continuously. After a while, this stimulation creates a warm sensation that can eventually turn painful. This pain results from a progressively amplified synaptic response of the peripheral nerves. This sends a warning that the stimulation is harmful.^{[23][clarification needed]} Sensitization is thought to underlie both adaptive as well as maladaptive learning processes in the organism.^{[24][citation needed]}

Active learning[edit]

Active learning occurs when a person takes control of his/her learning experience. Since understanding information is the key aspect of learning, it is important for learners to recognize what they understand and what they do not. By doing so, they can monitor their own mastery of subjects. Active learning encourages learners to have an internal dialogue in which they verbalize understandings. This and other meta-cognitive strategies can be taught to a child over time. Studies within metacognition have proven the value in active learning, claiming that the learning is usually at a stronger level as a result.^[25] In addition, learners have more incentive to learn when they have control over not only how they learn but also what they learn.^[26] Active learning is a key characteristic of student-centered learning. Conversely, passive learning and direct instruction are characteristics of teacher-centered learning (or traditional education).

Associative learning[edit]

Associative learning is the process by which a person or animal learns an association between two stimuli or events.^[27] In classical conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a reflex-eliciting stimulus until eventually the neutral stimulus elicits a response on its own. In operant conditioning, a behavior that is reinforced or punished in the presence of a stimulus becomes more or less likely to occur in the presence of that stimulus.

Operant conditioning[edit]

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement (by reward) or instead a punishment is given after a given behavior, changing the frequency and/or form of that behavior. Stimulus present when the behavior/consequence occurs come to control these behavior modifications.

Classical conditioning[edit]

The typical paradigm for classical conditioning involves repeatedly pairing an unconditioned stimulus (which unfailingly evokes a reflexive response) with another previously neutral stimulus (which does not normally evoke the response). Following conditioning, the response occurs both to the unconditioned stimulus and to the other, unrelated stimulus (now referred to as the «conditioned stimulus»). The response to the conditioned stimulus is termed a conditioned response. The classic example is Ivan Pavlov and his dogs.^[22] Pavlov fed his dogs meat powder, which naturally made the dogs salivate—salivating is a reflexive response to the meat powder. Meat powder is the unconditioned stimulus (US) and the salivation is the unconditioned response (UR). Pavlov rang a bell before presenting the meat powder. The first time Pavlov rang the bell, the neutral stimulus, the dogs did not salivate, but once he put the meat powder in their mouths they began to salivate. After numerous pairings of bell and food, the dogs learned that the bell signaled that food was about to come, and began to salivate when they heard the bell. Once this occurred, the bell became the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the salivation to the bell became the conditioned response (CR). Classical conditioning has been demonstrated in many species. For example, it is seen in honeybees, in the proboscis extension reflex paradigm.^[28] It was recently also demonstrated in garden pea plants.^[29]

Another influential person in the world of classical conditioning is John B. Watson. Watson’s work was very influential and paved the way for B.F. Skinner’s radical behaviorism. Watson’s behaviorism (and philosophy of science) stood in direct contrast to Freud and other accounts based largely on introspection. Watson’s view was that the introspective method was too subjective and that we should limit the study of human development to directly observable behaviors. In 1913, Watson published the article «Psychology as the Behaviorist Views», in which he argued that laboratory studies should serve psychology best as a science. Watson’s most famous, and controversial, experiment was «Little Albert», where he demonstrated how psychologists can account for the learning of emotion through classical conditioning principles.

Observational learning[edit]

Observational learning is learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others. It is a form of social learning which takes various forms, based on various processes. In humans, this form of learning seems to not need reinforcement to occur, but instead, requires a social model such as a parent, sibling, friend, or teacher with surroundings.

Imprinting[edit]

Imprinting is a kind of learning occurring at a particular life stage that is rapid and apparently independent of the consequences of behavior. In filial imprinting, young animals, particularly birds, form an association with another individual or in some cases, an object, that they respond to as they would to a parent. In 1935, the Austrian Zoologist Konrad Lorenz discovered that certain birds follow and form a bond if the object makes sounds.

Play[edit]

Play generally describes behavior with no particular end in itself, but that improves performance in similar future situations. This is seen in a wide variety of vertebrates besides humans, but is mostly limited to mammals and birds. Cats are known to play with a ball of string when young, which gives them experience with catching prey. Besides inanimate objects, animals may play with other members of their own species or other animals, such as orcas playing with seals they have caught. Play involves a significant cost to animals, such as increased vulnerability to predators and the risk of injury and possibly infection. It also consumes energy, so there must be significant benefits associated with play for it to have evolved. Play is generally seen in younger animals, suggesting a link with learning. However, it may also have other benefits not associated directly with learning, for example improving physical fitness.

Play, as it pertains to humans as a form of learning is central to a child’s learning and development. Through play, children learn social skills such as sharing and collaboration. Children develop emotional skills such as learning to deal with the emotion of anger, through play activities. As a form of learning, play also facilitates the development of thinking and language skills in children.^[30]

There are five types of play:

1. Sensorimotor play aka functional play, characterized by the repetition of an activity
2. Roleplay occurs starting at the age of three
3. Rule-based play where authoritative prescribed codes of conduct are primary
4. Construction play involves experimentation and building
5. Movement play aka physical play^[30]

These five types of play are often intersecting. All types of play generate thinking and problem-solving skills in children. Children learn to think creatively when they learn through play.^[31] Specific activities involved in each type of play change over time as humans progress through the lifespan. Play as a form of learning, can occur solitarily, or involve interacting with others.

Enculturation[edit]

Enculturation is the process by which people learn values and behaviors that are appropriate or necessary in their surrounding culture.^[32] Parents, other adults, and peers shape the individual’s understanding of these values.^[32] If successful, enculturation results in competence in the language, values, and rituals of the culture.^[32] This is different from acculturation, where a person adopts the values and societal rules of a culture different from their native one.

Multiple examples of enculturation can be found cross-culturally. Collaborative practices in the Mazahua people have shown that participation in everyday interaction and later learning activities contributed to enculturation rooted in nonverbal social experience.^[33] As the children participated in everyday activities, they learned the cultural significance of these interactions. The collaborative and helpful behaviors exhibited by Mexican and Mexican-heritage children is a cultural practice known as being «acomedido».^[34] Chillihuani girls in Peru described themselves as weaving constantly, following behavior shown by the other adults.^[35]

Episodic learning[edit]

Episodic learning is a change in behavior that occurs as a result of an event.^[36] For example, a fear of dogs that follows being bitten by a dog is episodic learning. Episodic learning is so named because events are recorded into episodic memory, which is one of the three forms of explicit learning and retrieval, along with perceptual memory and semantic memory.^[37] Episodic memory remembers events and history that are embedded in experience and this is distinguished from semantic memory, which attempts to extract facts out of their experiential context^[38] or – as some describe – a timeless organization of knowledge.^[39] For instance, if a person remembers the Grand Canyon from a recent visit, it is an episodic memory. He would use semantic memory to answer someone who would ask him information such as where the Grand Canyon is. A study revealed that humans are very accurate in the recognition of episodic memory even without deliberate intention to memorize it.^[40] This is said to indicate a very large storage capacity of the brain for things that people pay attention to.^[40]

Multimedia learning[edit]

Multimedia learning is where a person uses both auditory and visual stimuli to learn information (Mayer 2001). This type of learning relies on dual-coding theory (Paivio 1971).

E-learning and augmented learning[edit]

Electronic learning or e-learning is computer-enhanced learning. A specific and always more diffused e-learning is mobile learning (m-learning), which uses different mobile telecommunication equipment, such as cellular phones.

When a learner interacts with the e-learning environment, it’s called augmented learning. By adapting to the needs of individuals, the context-driven instruction can be dynamically tailored to the learner’s natural environment. Augmented digital content may include text, images, video, audio (music and voice). By personalizing instruction, augmented learning has been shown to improve learning performance for a lifetime.^[41] See also minimally invasive education.

Moore (1989)^[42] purported that three core types of interaction are necessary for quality, effective online learning:

• Learner–learner (i.e. communication between and among peers with or without the teacher present),
• Learner–instructor (i.e. student-teacher communication), and
• Learner–content (i.e. intellectually interacting with content that results in changes in learners’ understanding, perceptions, and cognitive structures).

In his theory of transactional distance, Moore (1993)^[43] contented that structure and interaction or dialogue bridge the gap in understanding and communication that is created by geographical distances (known as transactional distance).

Rote learning[edit]

Rote learning is memorizing information so that it can be recalled by the learner exactly the way it was read or heard. The major technique used for rote learning is learning by repetition, based on the idea that a learner can recall the material exactly (but not its meaning) if the information is repeatedly processed. Rote learning is used in diverse areas, from mathematics to music to religion. Although it has been criticized by some educators, rote learning is a necessary precursor to meaningful learning.

Meaningful learning[edit]

Meaningful learning is the concept that learned knowledge (e.g., a fact) is fully understood to the extent that it relates to other knowledge. To this end, meaningful learning contrasts with rote learning in which information is acquired without regard to understanding. Meaningful learning, on the other hand, implies there is a comprehensive knowledge of the context of the facts learned.^[44]

Evidence-based learning[edit]

Evidence-based learning is the use of evidence from well designed scientific studies to accelerate learning. Evidence-based learning methods such as spaced repetition can increase the rate at which a student learns.^[45]

Formal learning[edit]

Formal learning is learning that takes place within a teacher-student relationship, such as in a school system. The term formal learning has nothing to do with the formality of the learning, but rather the way it is directed and organized. In formal learning, the learning or training departments set out the goals and objectives of the learning.^[46]

Nonformal learning[edit]

Nonformal learning is organized learning outside the formal learning system. For example, learning by coming together with people with similar interests and exchanging viewpoints, in clubs or in (international) youth organizations, workshops.

Informal learning[edit]

Informal learning is less structured than «nonformal» one. It may occur through the experience of day-to-day situations (for example, one would learn to look ahead while walking because of the danger inherent in not paying attention to where one is going). It is learning from life, during a meal at the table with parents, play, exploring, etc.

Nonformal learning and combined approaches[edit]

The educational system may use a combination of formal, informal, and nonformal learning methods. The UN and EU recognize these different forms of learning (cf. links below). In some schools, students can get points that count in the formal-learning systems if they get work done in informal-learning circuits. They may be given time to assist international youth workshops and training courses, on the condition they prepare, contribute, share, and can prove this offered valuable new insight, helped to acquire new skills, a place to get experience in organizing, teaching, etc.

To learn a skill, such as solving a Rubik’s Cube quickly, several factors come into play at once:

• Reading directions helps a player learn the patterns that solve the Rubik’s Cube.
• Practicing the moves repeatedly helps build «muscle memory» and speed.
• Thinking critically about moves helps find shortcuts, which speeds future attempts.
• Observing the Rubik’s Cube’s six colors help anchor solutions in the mind.
• Revisiting the cube occasionally helps retain the skill.

Tangential learning[edit]

Tangential learning is the process by which people self-educate if a topic is exposed to them in a context that they already enjoy. For example, after playing a music-based video game, some people may be motivated to learn how to play a real instrument, or after watching a TV show that references Faust and Lovecraft, some people may be inspired to read the original work.^[47] Self-education can be improved with systematization. According to experts in natural learning, self-oriented learning training has proven an effective tool for assisting independent learners with the natural phases of learning.^[48]

Extra Credits writer and game designer James Portnow was the first to suggest games as a potential venue for «tangential learning».^[49] Mozelius et al.^[50] points out that intrinsic integration of learning content seems to be a crucial design factor, and that games that include modules for further self-studies tend to present good results. The built-in encyclopedias in the Civilization games are presented as an example – by using these modules gamers can dig deeper for knowledge about historical events in the gameplay. The importance of rules that regulate learning modules and game experience is discussed by Moreno, C.,^[51] in a case study about the mobile game Kiwaka. In this game, developed by Landka in collaboration with ESA and ESO, progress is rewarded with educational content, as opposed to traditional education games where learning activities are rewarded with gameplay.^[52][53]

Dialogic learning[edit]

Dialogic learning is a type of learning based on dialogue.

Incidental learning[edit]

In incidental teaching learning is not planned by the instructor or the student, it occurs as a byproduct of another activity — an experience, observation, self-reflection, interaction, unique event (e.g. in response to incidents/accidents), or common routine task. This learning happens in addition to or apart from the instructor’s plans and the student’s expectations. An example of incidental teaching is when the instructor places a train set on top of a cabinet. If the child points or walks towards the cabinet, the instructor prompts the student to say «train». Once the student says «train», he gets access to the train set.

Here are some steps most commonly used in incidental teaching:^[54]

• An instructor will arrange the learning environment so that necessary materials are within the student’s sight, but not within his reach, thus impacting his motivation to seek out those materials.
• An instructor waits for the student to initiate engagement.
• An instructor prompts the student to respond if needed.
• An instructor allows access to an item/activity contingent on a correct response from the student.
• The instructor fades out the prompting process over a period of time and subsequent trials.

Incidental learning is an occurrence that is not generally accounted for using the traditional methods of instructional objectives and outcomes assessment. This type of learning occurs in part as a product of social interaction and active involvement in both online and onsite courses. Research implies that some un-assessed aspects of onsite and online learning challenge the equivalency of education between the two modalities. Both onsite and online learning have distinct advantages with traditional on-campus students experiencing higher degrees of incidental learning in three times as many areas as online students. Additional research is called for to investigate the implications of these findings both conceptually and pedagogically.^[55]

Domains[edit]

Benjamin Bloom has suggested three domains of learning in his taxonomy which are:

• Cognitive: To recall, calculate, discuss, analyze, problem solve, etc.
• Psychomotor: To dance, swim, ski, dive, drive a car, ride a bike, etc.
• Affective: To like something or someone, love, appreciate, fear, hate, worship, etc.

These domains are not mutually exclusive. For example, in learning to play chess, the person must learn the rules (cognitive domain)—but must also learn how to set up the chess pieces and how to properly hold and move a chess piece (psychomotor). Furthermore, later in the game the person may even learn to love the game itself, value its applications in life, and appreciate its history (affective domain).^[56]

Transfer[edit]

Transfer of learning is the application of skill, knowledge or understanding to resolve a novel problem or situation that happens when certain conditions are fulfilled. Research indicates that learning transfer is infrequent; most common when «… cued, primed, and guided…»^[57] and has sought to clarify what it is, and how it might be promoted through instruction.

Over the history of its discourse, various hypotheses and definitions have been advanced. First, it is speculated that different types of transfer exist, including: near transfer, the application of skill to solve a novel problem in a similar context; and far transfer, the application of skill to solve a novel problem presented in a different context.^[58] Furthermore, Perkins and Salomon (1992) suggest that positive transfer in cases when learning supports novel problem solving, and negative transfer occurs when prior learning inhibits performance on highly correlated tasks, such as second or third-language learning.^[59] Concepts of positive and negative transfer have a long history; researchers in the early 20th century described the possibility that «…habits or mental acts developed by a particular kind of training may inhibit rather than facilitate other mental activities».^[60] Finally, Schwarz, Bransford and Sears (2005) have proposed that transferring knowledge into a situation may differ from transferring knowledge out to a situation as a means to reconcile findings that transfer may both be frequent and challenging to promote.^[61]

A significant and long research history has also attempted to explicate the conditions under which transfer of learning might occur. Early research by Ruger, for example, found that the «level of attention», «attitudes», «method of attack» (or method for tackling a problem), a «search for new points of view», a «careful testing of hypothesis» and «generalization» were all valuable approaches for promoting transfer.^[62] To encourage transfer through teaching, Perkins and Salomon recommend aligning («hugging») instruction with practice and assessment, and «bridging», or encouraging learners to reflect on past experiences or make connections between prior knowledge and current content.^[59]

Factors affecting learning[edit]

Genetics[edit]

Some aspects of intelligence are inherited genetically, so different learners to some degree have different abilities with regard to learning and speed of learning.^{[citation needed]}

Socioeconomic and physical conditions[edit]

Problems like malnutrition, fatigue, and poor physical health can slow learning, as can bad ventilation or poor lighting at home, and unhygienic living conditions.^[63][64]

The design, quality, and setting of a learning space, such as a school or classroom, can each be critical to the success of a learning environment. Size, configuration, comfort—fresh air, temperature, light, acoustics, furniture—can all affect a student’s learning. The tools used by both instructors and students directly affect how information is conveyed, from the display and writing surfaces (blackboards, markerboards, tack surfaces) to digital technologies. For example, if a room is too crowded, stress levels rise, student attention is reduced, and furniture arrangement is restricted. If furniture is incorrectly arranged, sightlines to the instructor or instructional material are limited and the ability to suit the learning or lesson style is restricted. Aesthetics can also play a role, for if student morale suffers, so does motivation to attend school.^[65][66]

Psychological factors and teaching style[edit]

Intrinsic motivation, such a student’s own intellectual curiosity or desire to experiment or explore, has been found to sustain learning more effectively than extrinsic motivations such as grades or parental requirements. Rote learning involves repetition in order to reinforce facts in memory, but has been criticized as ineffective and «drill and kill» since it kills intrinsic motivation. Alternatives to rote learning include active learning and meaningful learning.

The speed, accuracy, and retention, depend upon aptitude, attitude, interest, attention, energy level, and motivation of the students. Praising students who answer a question properly or give good results should be praised. This encouragement increases their ability and helps them produce better results. Certain attitudes, such as always finding fault in a student’s answer or provoking or embarrassing the student in front of a class are counterproductive.^{[67][68][need quotation to verify]}

Certain techniques can increase long-term retention:^[69]

• The spacing effect means that lessons or studying spaced out over time (spaced repetition) are better than cramming
• Teaching material to other people
• «Self-explaining» (paraphrasing material to oneself) rather than passive reading
• Low-stakes quizzing

Epigenetic factors[edit]

The underlying molecular basis of learning appears to be dynamic changes in gene expression occurring in brain neurons that are introduced by epigenetic mechanisms. Epigenetic regulation of gene expression involves, most notably, chemical modification of DNA or DNA-associated histone proteins. These chemical modifications can cause long-lasting changes in gene expression. Epigenetic mechanisms involved in learning include the methylation and demethylation of neuronal DNA as well as methylation, acetylation and deacetylation of neuronal histone proteins.

During learning, information processing in the brain involves induction of oxidative modification in neuronal DNA followed by the employment of DNA repair processes that introduce epigenetic alterations. In particular, the DNA repair processes of non-homologous end joining and base excision repair are employed in learning and memory formation.^[70][71]

[edit]

Adult learning vs children’s learning[edit]

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2023)

Learning is often more efficient in children and takes longer or is more difficult with age.

A study using neuroimaging identified rapid GABA boosting as a major potential explanation-component for why that is.^[77][78]

Children’s brains contain more «silent synapses» that are inactive until recruited as part of neural plasticity and flexible learning or memories.^[79][80]

Neuroplasticity is heightened during critical or sensitive periods of brain development, mainly referring to brain development during child development.^[81]

What humans learn at the early stages, and what they learn to apply, sets humans on course for life or has a disproportional impact.^[82] Adults usually have a higher capacity to select what they learn, to what extent and how. For example, children may learn the given subjects and topics of school curricula via classroom blackboard-transcription handwriting, instead of being able to choose specific topics/skills or jobs to learn and the styles of learning. For instance, children may not have developed consolidated interests, ethics, interest in purpose and meaningful activities, knowledge about real-world requirements and demands, and priorities.

In animal evolution[edit]

Animals gain knowledge in two ways. First is learning—in which an animal gathers information about its environment and uses this information. For example, if an animal eats something that hurts its stomach, it learns not to eat that again. The second is innate knowledge that is genetically inherited. An example of this is when a horse is born and can immediately walk. The horse has not learned this behavior; it simply knows how to do it.^[83] In some scenarios, innate knowledge is more beneficial than learned knowledge. However, in other scenarios the opposite is true—animals must learn certain behaviors when it is disadvantageous to have a specific innate behavior. In these situations, learning evolves in the species.

Costs and benefits of learned and innate knowledge[edit]

In a changing environment, an animal must constantly gain new information to survive. However, in a stable environment, this same individual needs to gather the information it needs once, and then rely on it for the rest of its life. Therefore, different scenarios better suit either learning or innate knowledge.
Essentially, the cost of obtaining certain knowledge versus the benefit of already having it determines whether an animal evolved to learn in a given situation, or whether it innately knew the information. If the cost of gaining the knowledge outweighs the benefit of having it, then the animal does not evolve to learn in this scenario—but instead, non-learning evolves. However, if the benefit of having certain information outweighs the cost of obtaining it, then the animal is far more likely to evolve to have to learn this information.^[83]

Non-learning is more likely to evolve in two scenarios. If an environment is static and change does not or rarely occurs, then learning is simply unnecessary. Because there is no need for learning in this scenario—and because learning could prove disadvantageous due to the time it took to learn the information—non-learning evolves. Similarly, if an environment is in a constant state of change, learning is also disadvantageous, as anything learned is immediately irrelevant because of the changing environment.^[83] The learned information no longer applies. Essentially, the animal would be just as successful if it took a guess as if it learned. In this situation, non-learning evolves. In fact, a study of Drosophila melanogaster showed that learning can actually lead to a decrease in productivity, possibly because egg-laying behaviors and decisions were impaired by interference from the memories gained from the newly learned materials or because of the cost of energy in learning.^[84]

However, in environments where change occurs within an animal’s lifetime but is not constant, learning is more likely to evolve. Learning is beneficial in these scenarios because an animal can adapt to the new situation, but can still apply the knowledge that it learns for a somewhat extended period of time. Therefore, learning increases the chances of success as opposed to guessing.^[83] An example of this is seen in aquatic environments with landscapes subject to change. In these environments, learning is favored because the fish are predisposed to learn the specific spatial cues where they live.^[85]

In plants[edit]

In recent years, plant physiologists have examined the physiology of plant behavior and cognition. The concepts of learning and memory are relevant in identifying how plants respond to external cues, a behavior necessary for survival. Monica Gagliano, an Australian professor of evolutionary ecology, makes an argument for associative learning in the garden pea, Pisum sativum. The garden pea is not specific to a region, but rather grows in cooler, higher altitude climates. Gagliano and colleagues’ 2016 paper aims to differentiate between innate phototropism behavior and learned behaviors.^[29] Plants use light cues in various ways, such as to sustain their metabolic needs and to maintain their internal circadian rhythms. Circadian rhythms in plants are modulated by endogenous bioactive substances that encourage leaf-opening and leaf-closing and are the basis of nyctinastic behaviors.^[86]

Gagliano and colleagues constructed a classical conditioning test in which pea seedlings were divided into two experimental categories and placed in Y-shaped tubes.^[29] In a series of training sessions, the plants were exposed to light coming down different arms of the tube. In each case, there was a fan blowing lightly down the tube in either the same or opposite arm as the light. The unconditioned stimulus (US) was the predicted occurrence of light and the conditioned stimulus (CS) was the wind blowing by the fan. Previous experimentation shows that plants respond to light by bending and growing towards it through differential cell growth and division on one side of the plant stem mediated by auxin signaling pathways.^[87]

During the testing phase of Gagliano’s experiment, the pea seedlings were placed in different Y-pipes and exposed to the fan alone. Their direction of growth was subsequently recorded. The ‘correct’ response by the seedlings was deemed to be growing into the arm where the light was «predicted» from the previous day.  The majority of plants in both experimental conditions grew in a direction consistent with the predicted location of light based on the position of the fan the previous day.^[29] For example, if the seedling was trained with the fan and light coming down the same arm of the Y-pipe, the following day the seedling grew towards the fan in the absence of light cues despite the fan being placed in the opposite side of the Y-arm. Plants in the control group showed no preference to a particular arm of the Y-pipe. The percentage difference in population behavior observed between the control and experimental groups is meant to distinguish innate phototropism behavior from active associative learning.^[29]

While the physiological mechanism of associative learning in plants is not known, Telewski et al. describes a hypothesis that describes photoreception as the basis of mechano-perception in plants.^[88] One mechanism for mechano-perception in plants relies on MS ion channels and calcium channels. Mechanosensory proteins in cell lipid bilayers, known as MS ion channels, are activated once they are physically deformed in response to pressure or tension. Ca2+ permeable ion channels are «stretch-gated» and allow for the influx of osmolytes and calcium, a well-known second messenger, into the cell. This ion influx triggers a passive flow of water into the cell down its osmotic gradient, effectively increasing turgor pressure and causing the cell to depolarize.^[88] Gagliano hypothesizes that the basis of associative learning in Pisum sativum is the coupling of mechanosensory and photosensory pathways and is mediated by auxin signaling pathways. The result is directional growth to maximize a plant’s capture of sunlight.^[29]

Gagliano et al. published another paper on habituation behaviors in the mimosa pudica plant whereby the innate behavior of the plant was diminished by repeated exposure to a stimulus.^[19] There has been controversy around this paper and more generally around the topic of plant cognition. Charles Abrahmson, a psychologist and behavioral biologist, says that part of the issue of why scientists disagree about whether plants have the ability to learn is that researchers do not use a consistent definition of «learning» and «cognition».^[89] Similarly, Michael Pollan, an author, and journalist, says in his piece The Intelligent Plant that researchers do not doubt Gagliano’s data but rather her language, specifically her use of the term «learning» and «cognition» with respect to plants.^[90] A direction for future research is testing whether circadian rhythms in plants modulate learning and behavior and surveying researchers’ definitions of «cognition» and «learning».

Machine learning[edit]

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (February 2020)

Machine learning, a branch of artificial intelligence, concerns the construction and study of systems that can learn from data. For example, a machine learning system could be trained on email messages to learn to distinguish between spam and non-spam messages. Most of the Machine Learning models are based on probabilistic theories where each input (e.g. an image ) is associated with a probability to become the desired output.

Types[edit]

Phases[edit]

See also[edit]

Information theory[edit]

Types of education[edit]

• Andragogy – Methods, principles and theory of Andragogy used in adult education and training,
• Heutagogy – Independent education without the guidance of teachers
• Pedagogy – Theory and practice of education

References[edit]

Notes[edit]

Further reading[edit]

• Ulrich Boser (2019). Learn Better: Mastering the Skills for Success in Life, Business, and School, or How to Become an Expert in Just About Anything. Rodale Books. ISBN 978-0593135310.

External links[edit]

• How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School (expanded edition) published by the National Academies Press
• Applying Science of Learning in Education: Infusing Psychological Science into the Curriculum published by the American Psychological Association

Learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour or potential behaviour as a result of direct or indirect experience. Learning is thus a change in behaviour as a result of experience.

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Learning Definition

Learning is any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience.

Stephen P. Robbins

Learning is the process of having one’s behaviour modified, more or less permanently, by what he does and the consequences of his action, or by what he observes.

Munn N.L.

Learning can be defined as relatively permanent change in behaviour potentially that results from reinforced practice or experience.

Steers and Porter

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Meaning of Learning

There are two primary elements in meaning of learning:

1. Change must be relatively permanent: This means that after “learning” our behavior must be different, either better or worse as compared to our behaviour prior to this learning experience.

   For example, you “learn” to drive a car or have learned how to use a computer.

2. This change must occur due to some kind of experience or practice. This learning is not caused by biological maturation.

   For example, a child does not learn to walk, it is a natural biological phenomenon. We do not learn to eat or drink.

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Nature of Learning

Learning is a relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior that results from practice or experience. There are several key points in this definition.

1. Learning comes change
2. Change in knowledge or behavior has to be relatively permanent or long-lasting
3. Learning takes place as a result of practice or through experience

Learning comes change

For example, when you learn a second language, your knowledge about how to communicate evolves, and your behavior changes when communicating with native speakers of the language.

Change in knowledge or behavior has to be relatively permanent or long-lasting

For example, If you attempt to communicate with someone in another language by looking up words in a dictionary that you quickly forget once the interaction is complete, learning did not take place because there was no permanent change in your knowledge of the second language.

Learning takes place as a result of practice or through experience

For example, Learning a second language requires much practice in pronunciation, word usage, and grammar.

Read: Motivation Definition | Types of Motivation | Importance of Motivation

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Elements of Learning

Elements of learning are:

1. Motivation
2. Cues
3. Response
4. Reinforcement

Motivation

Motivation is based on need and goals. Motivation acts as a spur to learning, with needs and goals serving as stimuli. Uncovering consumer motives is one of the prime task of marketers. Marketers educate motivated consumer segments why their product will best fulfill their needs.

Marketers use motivation research to unearth consumer motives and use it in developing marketing program.

Cues

Cues are the stimuli that give direction to those motives. In the market, marketing mix (place, price, packaging, styling, advertising and displays) serve as cues to help consumers fulfill their needs in product specific ways.

Cues serve to direct consumer drives when they are consistent with consumer expectations. Marketers must be careful to provide cues that do not upset those expectations.

For example, consumer expects high fashion stores to carry designer clothing at high prices thus; a high fashion designer should distribute his or her clothing only through exclusive stores and advertise only in quality fashion magazines..

Response

How an individual reacts to a drive or cue constitutes his or her response. Learning can occur even if responses are not overt. The carpet manufacturer who provides consistent cues to a consumer may not always succeed in stimulating a purchase, even if that individual is motivated to buy.

Instead, the manufacturer may succeed only in forming a favorable image of the carpet in the consumer’s mind i.e. evoking a tendency to respond by buying.

Reinforcement

Reinforcement increases the likelihood that a specific response will occur in the future as the result of particular cues or stimuli. Many marketers instinctively find that reinforcement serves to teach their customers a desired behavior. For example, telephone companies that give cash discounts to customers who pay their bill promptly are acting to ensure prompt payment in the future.

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Types of Learners

There are following types of learners:

1. Visual Learners
2. Auditory Learners
3. Kinesthetic Learners

Visual Learners

• Visual learners learn primarily through the written word.
• They tend to be readers who diligently take down every word.

Auditory Learners

• Auditory learners learn primarily through listening.
• They focus their ears and attention on your words, listening carefully to everything you say.
• They like to talk rather than write and relish the opportunity to discuss what they’ve heard.

Kinesthetic Learners

• Kinesthetic learners learn better by doing
• This group learns best when they can practice what they’re learning
• They want to have their hands on the keyboard, the hammer, or the test tube because they think in terms of physical action.

Read: Perception Definition | Importance of Perception | Perception Bias

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Characteristics of Learning

Characteristics of learning are:

1. Learning is Purposeful
2. Learning is a Result of Experience
3. Learning is Multifaceted
4. Learning is an Active Process

Learning is Purposeful

Each student sees a learning situation from a different viewpoint. Each student is a unique individual whose past experiences affect readiness to learn and understanding of the requirements involved.

Learning is a Result of Experience

Since learning is an individual process, the instructor cannot do it for the student. The student can learn only from personal experiences; therefore, learning and knowledge cannot exist apart from a person.

Learning is Multifaceted

Learning is multifaceted in still another way. While learning the subject at hand, students may be learning other things as well. They may be developing attitudes about aviation-good or bad-depending on what they experience.

Learning is an Active Process

Students do not soak up knowledge like a sponge absorbs water. The instructor cannot assume that students remember something just because they were in the classroom, shop, or airplane when the instructor presented the material.

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Learning Process

The learning process has the following steps:

1. Stimuli
2. Attention
3. Recognition
4. Translation
5. Reinforcement
6. Behavior
7. Reward
8. Habits
9. Motives
10. Efforts

Stimuli

Stimuli are any objects and language which draw the attention of people. Employees get stimuli from the actions of their superiors. Superiors tell and advice employees who pay attention to these stimuli. All the stimuli may not be fully attended to.

Attention

The degree of attention depends upon the nature of stimuli. All stimuli are not paid attention to. Technical and interesting stimuli are highly attended. Career-oriented stimuli are generally accepted by employees. The personality levels of employees influence their desires to learn, motives for need fulfilment and tension reduction.

Recognition

Attention-paid stimuli are recognised as acceptable factors of improvement and new life styles. Employees paying attention to stimuli are recognising the stimuli for learning purposes. The levels of recognition depend upon the levels of values, preferences, needs and desires of the employees.

Translation

The translation and evaluation process is a crucial point for implementing the stimuli in behaviour through reinforcement. Employees behave properly through attitude changes, objectivity, mental and physical development. It is observed in better performances.

Reinforcement

Reinforced perception is learning. The perception process includes stimuli, attention, recognition, translation and behaviour. Perception leads to learning, but perception itself is not learning unless it is reinforced.

Repeated action is reinforcement. Reinforcement may be
positive, negative, punishment and extinction. Learners learn as per their
perception levels. Generally positive reinforcement is more effective for
making permanent changes in behaviour.

Behavior

Learning changes behaviour through reinforcement of perceived knowledge. It makes permanent changes in behaviour. A temporary change in behaviour is not learning. Positive behaviour gives rewards to employees.

Reward

Employees expect rewards for learning. If the translated behaviour provides a reward, it is accepted, otherwise it is not accepted. Employees develop their behaviour into habits. Rewards may be monetary or non-monetary.

Habits

A permanent change in behaviour becomes a habit which helps continuous improvement in behaviour and performance. Employees develop the habit of selfappraisal and development. It helps to instil creativity and confidence in employees who are encouraged to behave properly again and again.

Motives

Motives depend on the level of satisfaction. Employees getting more satisfaction through learning develop high motives. Less satisfied learners have low motives. Learning is complete only when motives are fully realised and translated into efforts.

Efforts

Habits help achieve good efforts and performance. This is a continuous process. Efforts are the automatic outcome of good habits which are acquired through the learning process. Self-development is possible through self-effort. Employees willing to develop themselves are self-motivated and effort-oriented.

Read: Personality Definition | Determinants of Personality | Personality Characteristics

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Principles for Learning

Over the years, educational psychologists have identities several principles which seem generally applicable to the learning process. They provide additional insight into what makes people learn most effectively.

6 Most important principles for learning are:

1. Readiness
2. Exercise
3. Effect
4. Primacy
5. Intensity
6. Recency

Readiness

Readiness implies a degree of single-mindedness and eagerness. When students are ready to learn, they meet the instructor at least halfway, and this simplifies the instructor’s job.

Exercise

The principle of exercise states that those things most often repeated are best remembered. It is the basis of drill and practice. The human memory is fallible. The mind can rarely retain, evaluate, and apply new concepts or practices after a single exposure.

Effect

The principle of effect is based on the emotional reaction of the student. It states that learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling, and that learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling.

Primacy

Primacy, the state of being first, often creates a strong, almost unshakable, impression. For the instructor, this means that what is taught must be right the first time.

Intensity

Intensity: A vivid, dramatic, or exciting learning experience teaches more than a routine or boring experience. A student is likely to gain greater understanding of slow flight and stalls by performing them rather than merely reading about them.

Recency

The principle of recency states that things most recently learned are best remembered. Conversely, the further a student is removed time-wise from a new fact or understanding, the more difficult it is to remember.

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Factors Affecting Learning

The key factors affecting learning include:

• Their resources
• Their image of learning
• The rewards associated with any learning activity
• The availability of information about learning opportunities
• The availability of appropriate learning environments, possibly virtual learning
• The climate in which learning takes place, especially that created by government and employers.

Read: What is Assessment Centre | Use of Assessment Centre | Assessment Centre Method

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Application of Learning

Some of the behaviour modification techniques are given below which may be used in the organization:

1. Use of Lotteries to reduce Absenteeism
2. Work pay Vs sick pay
3. Training and Development
4. Discipline
5. Self-Management

Use of Lotteries to reduce Absenteeism

Attractive prizes can be included in a lottery that can be used gainfully to achieve a reduction in absenteeism.

Work pay Vs sick pay

Organizations have to leave policy. Apart from other leave, there is a provision for a few days of sick leave in a year.

Training and Development

Training and development programmes must be run systematically and in a preplanned manner.

Discipline

Behavior modification can be achieved by laying down the minimum standard of discipline in the organization. Defence organizations are most disciplined organizations because they do not compromise on the standards, be it related to training, work, supervision, accounting or disbursement of salary and wages etc.

Self-Management

Learning concepts are meant for modifying the behaviour of others. These theories are also applicable for self-management. Individuals should lay down personal standards, objectives relating to personal growth, identify various courses of action to adopt and modify self-attitude and behaviour.

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Theories of Learning

Theories of learning have been developed as models of learning which explain the learning process by which employees acquire a pattern of behavior. There are four theories of learning discussed below.

1. Classical conditioning theory
2. Operant conditioning theory
3. Cognitive learning theory
4. Social learning theory

Read Complete: Theories of Learning

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Measures of Consumer Learning

For marketers, the dual goals of consumer learning are increased market share and brand-loyal consumers. These goals are interdependent.

Thus, it is important for marketers to measure how effectively consumers have “learned” its message. Recognition and recall tests are conducted for measureing consumer learning.

1. Recognition and Recall
2. Brand Loyalty

Recognition and Recall

Recognition and Recall tests are conducted to determine whether consumers remember seeing an advertisement and the extent to which they have read it or seen it and can recall its content.

Recognition tests are based on aided recall, whereas recall tests use unaided recall. In recognition tests, the consumer is shown an ad and asked whether he or she remembers seeing it and can remember any of its salient points.

In recall tests, the consumer is asked whether he or she has read a specific magazine or watched a specific television show, and if so, can he or she recall any ads or commercials seen, the product advertised, the brand and any salient points about the product.

Brand Loyalty

Brand Loyalty is the ultimate desired outcome of consumer learning. Brand loyalty consists of both attitude and actual behaviours toward a brand and that both must be measured. Attitudinal measures are concerned with the consumers’ overall feelings about the product and the brand, and their purchase intentions.

Behavioural measures are based on observable, factual behaviours regarding the brand, such as quantity purchased, purchase frequency and repeated buying.

Behavioural scientists who favour the theory of instrumental conditioning believe that brand loyalty results from an initial product trial that is reinforced through satisfaction, leading to repeat purchase.

Cognitive researchers, on the other hand, emphasize the role of mental processes in building brand loyalty. They believe that the consumers engage in extensive problem-solving behaviour involving brand and attribute comparisons, leading to a strong brand preference and repeat purchase behaviour.

Therefore, brand loyalty is the synergy among such attitudinal components as perceived product superiority, customer satisfaction, and the purchase behaviour itself.

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Difference between Training, Education, Learning & Development

Training

Training is nothing but learning by doing. It is a well-planned program aimed at developing specific skills and knowledge of the manpower. It is a common concept of human resource development where an attempt is made to improve the performance, productivity and competency of the existing and potential employees through learning. The program is specially designed by the organisation to achieve definite goals.

An employee undergoing training is presumed to have had some formal education. No training program is complete without an element of education.

Education

It is theoretical learning in classrooms. The purpose of education is to teach theoretical concepts and develop a sense of reasoning and judgment. That any training and development program must contain an element of education is well understood by HR Specialists.

Any such program has resource persons to enlighten participants about theoretical knowledge of the topics proposed to discuss. In fact, organizations depute or encourage employees to do courses on a part-time basis. CEOs are known to attend refresher courses conducted by business schools.

Education is more important for managers and executives rather than low cadre workers. Anyways education is common to all employees, their grades notwithstanding.

Learning

Learning is the process of absorbing that information in order to increase skills and abilities and make use of it under a variety of contexts. Whatever the goals, the quality of the learning will rely largely on the quality of the training, and so the role of a trainer is very important as it can have a huge effect on the outcome of a course for the learner.

In essence, learning is all about equipping a person to tackle not just today’s issues, but preparing him/her to creatively come up with ways to tackle tomorrow’s issues.

Development

Development means those learning opportunities designed to help employees to grow. Development is not primarily skills-oriented. Instead, it provides the general knowledge and attitudes, which will be helpful to employers in higher positions.

Efforts towards development often depend on personal drive and ambition. Development activities such as those supplied by management development programs are generally voluntary in nature. The development provides knowledge about the business environment, management principles and techniques, human relations, specific industry analysis and the like is useful for better management of a company.

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Reference

1. Robbins, Stephen P. 2010. Organizational Behaviour. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall.
2. Caldwell, D.F., and C.A. O’ Reilly III, “Measuring Person-Job Fit with a profile-comparison Process,” Journal of Applied Psychology, December 1990, pp.648-57.

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As I take the matter, neither philosophy, nor any part of learning, is more necessary to poetry, (which, if you will believe the same author, is “the sum of all learning”) than to know the theory of light, and the several proportions and diversifications of it in particular colours, is to a good painter. ❋ Unknown (1909)

And though this poor Friar does not appear to have been very successful in this particular instance; if we take into account the fact that ‘the Tragedy was the thing,’ and that nothing but a tragedy would serve his purpose, and that all his learning was converged on that _effect_; if we take into account the fact that this is a scientific experiment, and that the characters are sacrificed for the sake of the useful conclusions, the success will not perhaps appear so questionable as to throw any discredit upon this new theory of the applicability of _learning_ to questions of this nature. ❋ Delia Bacon (1835)

•reading assignments •access the learning materials •Students know the general scope of • learning materials •access the reading the learning unit •learning activities •Students start thinking about the assignments •assignments •access the supplementary learning unit content ❋ Unknown (2009)

Before the 1960s, the term learning disabilities LD was unknown. ❋ Ph.D Natalie Rathvon (1996)

The term «learning» hsüeh points directly to the acquisition of knowledge with the belief that knowledge can provide humankind with the tools they need to understand themselves and their world. ❋ Ph.D. Rodney L. Taylor (2011)

The term «learning» hsüeh points directly to the acquisition of knowledge with the belief that knowledge can provide humankind with the tools they need to understand themselves and their world. ❋ Ph.D. Rodney L. Taylor (2011)

Yes; I was being flippant, and yes the term learning difficulties, is intended to cover as Dixon has stated “but is applied to people with very specific conditions such as Downs syndrome” and as Fergus would have it “covers a fair bit of waterfront”. ❋ Unknown (2010)

When re-thinking curriculum, how about throwing it out, putting in learning, letting the learners make the curriculum, and then analyzing whether the learning is happening? ❋ Unknown (2008)

But identifying and cataloging all the genes involved in learning is a daunting task. ❋ Unknown (2007)

For the United States, salvation lies in learning from the mistake, in looking at it clearly and being honest about it. ❋ Unknown (2004)

When I use the term learning, I do not refer to men who have graduated from some college and have a smattering knowledge of Greek, Latin, mathematics and a few school books, and have done nothing since but read the trashy articles of newspapers. ❋ John Wesley Edward (1896)

A wise man, by increasing in learning, is not only profitable to himself, but to others also, 1. ❋ Unknown (1721)

Though the modern Jews will not allow it to be spoken of the Messiah, yet their ancient doctors did so interpret it; and perhaps the eunuch knew this, and did partly understand it so himself, only he proposed this question, to draw on discourse with Philip; for the way to improve in learning is to consult the learned. ❋ Unknown (1721)

Kent Rubach is one of the senseis Barnes hired to guide them on what they call their learning journey. ❋ Unknown (2011)

[Learning] is as natural as [breathing] and is equally [essential]. ❋ Livitup (2012)

«I’ll [learn you] good!» ([Followed] by [a slap]) ❋ Milk Jester (2004)

[karate kid] [learns] how to fight, [the master] teaches ❋ Kiyus (2006)

I learned that smoking is bad — so I quit!
I am learning Spanish — Donde [estan] la [biblioteca]?
I slapped my [neices] hand when she touched the electrical socket, she learned that its painful to touch that. ❋ Steve1053 (2010)

Yes, we spent $500k on this pilot that didn’t produce any [measurable] results, but we have captured many [learnings] that will [propel] our next project forward. ❋ Pantlesschicken (2019)

Man, [I’m hungry], let’s learn.
I learned four [hamburgers] yesterday; afterwards I felt like an [Artur]. ❋ Bo Vanderpants (2005)

«[Dang son], you just got [learned]!»
Maybe next time, you’ll [pay attention] fool. [LEARNED]. ❋ IMretardo (2005)

The [learnings] [in the field] suggest we should go after [homeowners] over hoteliers. ❋ Pixelcruncher (2019)

[school] is very learnative. ❋ Victoria (2003)

[P1]: [learning] something [now] 😐 ❋ … Zjdbckdnznsjd (2019)