Define the types of word motivation

Types
of word meaning (classifications):

According
to the aspect relation of a word to the components of the situation
where it is used:

Referential
meaning — determined by the relation of linguistic sign to the
referent in the material world

Significative
meaning — determined by the relation of a linguistic sign to its
user, the speaker’s intention

Differential
(systematic) meaning — determined by the relation of the given
linguistic sign to other signs in the language system of speech

Another
typology is based on the conception of word meaning as specific
structure:

Part-of-speech
meaning (functional)Grammatical — may be defined as the component
of meaning recurrent in identical sets of individual forms of
different words, as, e.g., the tense meaning in the word-forms of
verbs (asked, thought, walked, etc.) or the case meaning in the
word-forms of various nouns (girl’s, boy’s, night’s,
etc.)Lexical — may be described as the component of meaning proper
to the word as a linguistic unit, i.e. recurrent in all the forms of
this word. E.g. the word-forms go, goes, went, going, gone possess
different grammatical meanings of tense, person and so on, but in
each of these forms we find one and the same semantic component
denoting the process of movement.

DENOTATIONAL
(reference of a word or other lexical unit to individual object or
concept) REVEALED IN THE DICTIONARY DEFINITION

CONNOTATIONAL
(includes ideas or emotions)

 Emotional
implications (personal, studied by pragmatics)

 Emotive
charge (may be inherent in word meaning or created by prefixes and
suffixes)

 Stylistic
reference (refers the word to a certain style register (neutral,
colloquial, literary) This may be best illustrated by comparing words
almost identical in their denotational meaning, e. g., ‘parent —
father — dad’. In comparison with the word father which is
stylistically neutral, dad stands out as colloquial and parent is
felt as bookish.

Motivation
is the suggestion of the meaning of the word by the lexical form of
the word.

Morphological
motivation implies a direct connection between the lexical meaning of
the component morphemes, the pattern of their arrangement and the
meaning of the word. The degree of morphological motivation may be
different varying from the extreme of complete motivation to lack of
motivation. (The words finger-ring and ring-finger, e.g., contain two
morphemes, the combined lexical meaning of which is the same; the
difference in the meaning of these words can be accounted for by the
difference in the arrangement of the component morphemes).

Phonetical
motivation implies a direct connection between the phonetic structure
of the word and its meaning. Phonetical motivation is not universally
recognised in modern linguistic science. It is argued that speech
sounds may suggest spatial and visual dimensions, shape, size, etc.
Experiments carried out by a group of linguists showed that back open
vowels are suggestive of big size, heavy weight, dark colour, etc.

Words
as swish, sizzle, boom, splash, etc. may be defined as phonetically
motivated because the soundclusters [swi∫, sizl, bum, splæ∫] are
a direct imitation of the sounds these words denote.

Semantic
motivation implies a direct connection between the central and
marginal meanings of the word. This connection may be regarded as a
metaphoric extension of the central meaning based on the similarity
of different classes of referents denoted by the word. (For example,
a woman who has given birth is called a mother; by extension, any act
that gives birth is associated with being a mother,Cf. also mother
country, a mother’s mark (=a birthmark), mother tongue, etc.)

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Word Meaning Lecture # 6 Grigoryeva M.

Word Meaning Approaches to word meaning Meaning and Notion (понятие) Types of word meaning Types of morpheme meaning Motivation

Each word has two aspects: the outer aspect ( its sound form) cat the inner aspect (its meaning) long-legged, fury animal with sharp teeth and claws

Sound and meaning do not always constitute a constant unit even in the same language EX a temple a part of a human head a large church

Semantics (Semasiology) Is a branch of lexicology which studies the meaning of words and word equivalents

Approaches to Word Meaning The Referential (analytical) approach The Functional (contextual) approach Operational (information-oriented) approach

The Referential (analytical) approach formulates the essence of meaning by establishing the interdependence between words and things or concepts they denote distinguishes between three components closely connected with meaning: the sound-form of the linguistic sign, the concept the actual referent

Basic Triangle concept – flower concept (thought, reference) – the thought of the object that singles out its essential features referent – object denoted by the word, part of reality sound-form (symbol, sign) – linguistic sign sound-form [rәuz] referent

In what way does meaning correlate with each element of the triangle ? • In what relation does meaning stand to each of them? •

Meaning and Sound-form are not identical different EX. dove — [dΛv] English [golub’] Russian [taube] German sound-forms BUT the same meaning

Meaning and Sound-form nearly identical sound-forms have different meanings in different languages EX. [kot] Russian – a male cat [kot] English – a small bed for a child identical sound-forms have different meanings (‘homonyms) EX. knight [nait]

Meaning and Sound-form even considerable changes in sound-form do not affect the meaning EX Old English lufian [luvian] – love [l Λ v]

Meaning and Concept concept is a category of human cognition concept is abstract and reflects the most common and typical features of different objects and phenomena in the world meanings of words are different in different languages

Meaning and Concept identical concepts may have different semantic structures in different languages EX. concept “a building for human habitation” – English Russian HOUSE ДОМ + in Russian ДОМ “fixed residence of family or household” In English HOME

Meaning and Referent one and the same object (referent) may be denoted by more than one word of a different meaning cat pussy animal tiger

Meaning is not identical with any of the three points of the triangle – the sound form, the concept the referent BUT is closely connected with them.

Functional Approach studies the functions of a word in speech meaning of a word is studied through relations of it with other linguistic units EX. to move (we move, move a chair) movement (movement of smth, slow movement) The distriution ( the position of the word in relation to others) of the verb to move and a noun movement is different as they belong to different classes of words and their meanings are different

Operational approach is centered on defining meaning through its role in the process of communication EX John came at 6 Beside the direct meaning the sentence may imply that: He was late He failed to keep his promise He was punctual as usual He came but he didn’t want to The implication depends on the concrete situation

Lexical Meaning and Notion denotes the Lexical meaning is reflection in the realization of a mind of real objects notion by means of a definite language system Notion is a unit of Word is a language thinking unit

Lexical Meaning and Notions are Meanings are internationally limited especially with the nations of the same EX GO (E) —- ИДТИ(R) cultural level “To move” BUT !!! To GO by bus (E) ЕХАТЬ (R) EX Man -мужчина, человек Она – хороший человек (R) She is a good person (E)

Types of Meaning Types grammatical meaning of meaning lexico-grammatical meaning lexical meaning denotational connotational

Grammatical Meaning component of meaning recurrent in identical sets of individual forms of different words EX. girls, winters, toys, tables – grammatical meaning of plurality asked, thought, walked – meaning of past tense

Lexico-grammatical meaning (part –of- speech meaning) is revealed in the classification of lexical items into: major word classes (N, V, Adj, Adv) minor ones (artc, prep, conj) words of one lexico-grammatical class have the same paradigm

Lexical Meaning is the meaning proper to the given linguistic unit in all its forms and distributions EX. Go – goes — went lexical meaning – process of movement

PRACTICE Group the words into 3 column according to the grammatical, lexical or part-of –speech meaning • • Boy’s, nearest, at, beautiful, think, man, drift, wrote, tremendous, ship’s, the most beautiful, table, near, for, went, friend’s, handsome, thinking, boy, nearer, thought, boys, lamp, go, during.

• Grammatical 1. The case of nouns: boy’s, ship’s, friend’s 2. The degree of comparison of adj: nearest, the most beautiful 3. The tense of verbs: wrote, went, thought • Lexical 1. Think, thinking, thought 2. Went, go 3. Boy’s, boys 4. Nearest, nearer 5. At, for, during (“time”) 6. Beautiful, the most beautiful • Part-of-speech Nouns—verbs—adj—-prep

Aspects of Lexical meaning The denotational aspect The connotational aspect The pragmatic aspect

Denotational Meaning “denote” – to be a sign of, stand as a symbol for” establishes the correlation between the name and the object makes communication possible EX booklet “a small thin book that gives info about smth”

PRACTICE Explain denotational meaning • • A lion-hunter To have a heart like a lion To feel like a lion To roar like a lion To be thrown to the lions The lion’s share To put your head in lion’s mouth

PRACTICE • A lion-hunter A host that seeks out celebrities to impress guests • To have a heart like a lion To have great courage • To feel like a lion To be in the best of health • To roar like a lion To shout very loudly • To be thrown to the lions To be criticized strongly or treated badly • The lion’s share Much more than one’s share • To put your head in lion’s mouth

Connotational Meaning reflects the attitude of the speaker towards what he speaks about it is optional – a word either has it or not Connotation gives additional information and includes: The emotive charge EX Daddy (for father) Intensity EX to adore (for to love) Imagery EX to wade through a book “ to walk with an effort”

PRACTICE Give possible interpretation of the sentences • She failed to buy it and felt a strange pang. • Don’t be afraid of that woman! It’s just barking! • He got up from his chair moving slowly, like an old man. • The girl went to her father and pulled his sleeve. • He was longing to begin to be generous. • She was a woman with shiny red hands and workswollen finger knuckles.

PRACTICE Give possible interpretation of the sentences • She failed to buy it and felt a strange pang. (pain—dissatisfaction that makes her suffer) • Don’t be afraid of that woman! It’s just barking! (make loud sharp sound—-the behavior that implies that the person is frightened) • He got up from his chair moving slowly, like an old man. (to go at slow speed—was suffering or was ill) • The girl went to her father and pulled his sleeve. (to move smth towards oneself— to try to attract smb’s attention) • He was longing to begin to be generous. (to start doing— hadn’t been generous before) • She was a woman with shiny red hands and work-swollen finger knuckles. (colour— a labourer involved into physical work , constant contact with water)

The pragmatic aspect of lexical meaning the situation in which the word is uttered, the social circumstances (formal, informal, etc. ), social relationships between the interlocutors (polite, rough, etc. ), the type and purpose of communication (poetic, official, etc. ) EX horse (neutral) steed (poetic) nag (slang) gee-gee (baby language)

PRACTICE State what image underline the meaning • I heard what she said but it didn’t sink into my mind. • You should be ashamed of yourself, crawling to the director like that. • They seized on the idea. • Bill, chasing some skirt again? • I saw him dive into a small pub. • Why are you trying to pin the blame on me? • He only married her for her dough.

PRACTICE State what image underline the meaning • I heard what she said but it didn’t sink into my mind. • (to understand completely) • You should be ashamed of yourself, crawling to the director like that. (to behave humbly in order to win favour) • They seized on the idea. (to be eager to take and use) • Bill, chasing some skirt again? (a girl) • I saw him dive into a small pub. (to enter suddenly) • Why are you trying to pin the blame on me? (to blame smb unfairly) • He only married her for her dough. (money)

Types of Morpheme Meaning lexical differential functional distributional

Lexical Meaning in Morphemes root-morphemes that are homonymous to words possess lexical meaning EX. boy – boyhood – boyish affixes have lexical meaning of a more generalized character EX. –er “agent, doer of an action”

Lexical Meaning in Morphemes has denotational and connotational components EX. –ly, -like, -ish – denotational meaning of similiarity womanly , womanish connotational component – -ly (positive evaluation), -ish (deragotary) женственный женоподобный

Differential Meaning a semantic component that serves to distinguish one word from all others containing identical morphemes EX. cranberry, blackberry, gooseberry

Functional Meaning found only in derivational affixes a semantic component which serves to refer the word to the certain part of speech EX. just, adj. – justice, n.

Distributional Meaning the meaning of the order and the arrangement of morphemes making up the word found in words containing more than one morpheme different arrangement of the same morphemes would make the word meaningless EX. sing- + -er =singer, -er + sing- = ?

Motivation denotes the relationship between the phonetic or morphemic composition and structural pattern of the word on the one hand, and its meaning on the other can be phonetical morphological semantic

Phonetical Motivation when there is a certain similarity between the sounds that make up the word and those produced by animals, objects, etc. EX. sizzle, boom, splash, cuckoo

Morphological Motivation when there is a direct connection between the structure of a word and its meaning EX. finger-ring – ring-finger, A direct connection between the lexical meaning of the component morphemes EX think –rethink “thinking again”

Semantic Motivation based on co-existence of direct and figurative meanings of the same word EX a watchdog – ”a dog kept for watching property” a watchdog – “a watchful human guardian” (semantic motivation)

• PRACTICE

Analyze the meaning of the words. Define the type of motivation a) morphologically motivated b) semantically motivated • Driver • Leg • Horse • Wall • Hand-made • Careless • piggish

Analyze the meaning of the words. Define the type of motivation a) morphologically motivated b) semantically motivated • Driver Someone who drives a vehicle morphologically motivated • Leg The part of a piece of furniture such as a table semantically motivated • Horse A piece of equipment shaped like a box, used in gymnastics semantically motivated

• Wall Emotions or behavior preventing people from feeling close semantically motivated • Hand-made Made by hand, not machine morphologically motivated • Careless Not taking enough care morphologically motivated • Piggish Selfish semantically motivated

what she said but it didn’t sink in my mind “do down to the bottom” ‘to be accepted by mind” semantic motivation I heard Why are you trying to pin the blame on me? “fasten smth somewhere using a pin” – ”to blame smb” semantic motivation I was following the man when he dived into a pub. “jump into deep water” – ”to enter into suddenly” semantic motivation You should be ashamed of yourself, crawling to the director like that “to move along on hands and knees close to the ground” – “to behave very humbly in order to win favor” semantic motivation

Motivation is defined as inner burning passion caused by need, wants and desire which propels an individual to exert his physical and mental energy to achieve desired objectives.

Motivation is goal-directed behavior. People are motivated when they expect that a course of action is likely to lead to the attainment of a goal and a valued reward – one that satisfies their needs and wants.

Three Components of Motivation

1. Direction: what a person is trying to do.
2. Effort: how hard a person is trying.
3. Persistence: how long a person keeps on trying.

Read: What is Organizational Behavior?

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Dynamics of Motivation

Motivation is triggered by the psychological tension comes due to the unfulfilled need and drive consumers to buy. Consumers strive consciously and unconsciously to bring down their tension by selecting goals in anticipation of fulfilling their needs.

Basic idea of marketing is to identify and fulfill the needs. Marketers tend to fulfill unfelt or dormant needs. Basic needs of consumer do not change but the product fulfilling the need may change.

A product-focused towards the consumer need ensures that companies remain in forefront of the search for new and effective solutions. This helps companies to survive and grow even in tough competition.

Level of motivation

The level of motivation would depend on the intensity and urgency of need. Consumer motivational levels may vary from low to high depending on how important is that purchase. Besides, various Influences affecting consumers’ buying include familiarity with the purchase, status factors and overall expense & value.

Where fulfillment rewards are low, as with routine purchases like salt, sugar, tea, shampoo etc., motivation levels are also relatively low and involve little decision-making behavior.

On the other hand, with a complex, risky and emotionally-charged process such as buying a new car, the drive to achieve the best result is high.

Motivational behavior

The behavioral aspect of consumer motivation concerns the actions we take before purchasing and consuming goods or services. We might do a lot of research-evaluating alternatives, testing, and sampling before making a purchase decision.

Marketers aim to gain the most impact and eventual sales by linking their products and services to clearly defined consumer needs and by understanding what motivates people to buy.

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Motivation Definition

Motivation is the willingness to exert high levels of effort toward organisational goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual needs.

Stephen P Robbins

It is the desire within an individual that stimulates him or her to action.

George R. Terry

It is the way in which urges, drives, desires, aspirations, strivings or needs direct, control or explains the behaviour of human beings.

D.E. McFarland

It is a process of stimulating people to action to accomplish desired goals.

Scot

It is the way in which urges, drives, desires, aspirations, strivings need direct, control or explain the behaviour of human beings.

Mc Farland

It is a willingness to expand energy to achieve a goal or reward. It is a force that activates dormant energies and sets in motion the action of the people. It is the function that kindles a burning passion for action among the human beings of an organisation.

C.B. Mamoria

It is steering one’s actions toward certain goals and committing a certain part of one’s energies to reach them.

S.W Gellerman

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Motivation Meaning

Motivation comes from the Latin word “movere” which means, “to move”.

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Concept of Motivation

Read: What is Learning?

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Types of Motivation

The two types of motivation are:

1. Intrinsic motivation
2. Extrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation can arise from self-generated factors that influence people’s behaviour. It is not created by external incentives.

It can take the form of motivation by the work itself when
individuals feel that their work is important, interesting and challenging and
provides them with a reasonable degree of autonomy (freedom to act),
opportunities to achieve and advance, and scope to use and develop their skills
and abilities.

Extrinsic motivation

Extrinsic motivation occurs when things are done to or for people to motivate them.

These include rewards, such as incentives, increased pay,
praise, or promotion; and punishments, such as disciplinary action, withholding
pay, or criticism. Extrinsic motivators can have an immediate and powerful
effect, but will not necessarily last long.

Now, let’s move further and try to understand importance of motivation and its Characteristics of motivation.

Read: What is Attitude?

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Characteristics of Motivation

Characteristics of motivation are briefly explained below:

1. Motivation is a psychological phenomenon
2. Motivation is a continuous process
3. Motivation is caused due to anticipated perceived value from an action
4. Motivation varies from person to person and time to time
5. An individual is motivated by positive or negative motivation

Motivation is a psychological phenomenon

It is the inner desire of an individual to achieve something more. More is the individual motivated better performance and organization relations.

Motivation is a continuous process

Since need and desire are endless so the need is a continuous phenomenon if one need is satisfied the other need emerges.

Motivation is caused due to anticipated perceived value from an action

Perceived value is the probability or expectancy. motivation= value × expectancy.

Motivation varies from person to person and time to time

Motivation is different for different persons and it also varied according to time and place because wants are different for different people, according to time and places.

An individual is motivated by positive or negative motivation

Positive motivation is based on incentives or rewards. Incentives can be monetary and non-monetary.
Negative motivation is based on penalties, calling for explanation, threats, fear, etc. Fear of losing the job or promotion

Read: What is Assessment Centre?

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Importance of Motivation

Broadly, the importance of motivation is as follow:

1. High level of performance
2. Low employee turn over and absenteeism
3. Acceptance of organization change
4. Organizational image

High level of performance

Organizations must ensure that the employees have a high degree of motivation. A highly motivated employee put extra effort into work and have a sense of belonging for the organization.

The efficiency of work will be improved, wastage will be minimum which will result in increased productivity, and performance level will be high.

Low employee turn over and absenteeism

Low level of motivation is a root cause of low turnover and absenteeism. High level of absenteeism causes a low level of production, poor quality, wastages and disruption in production schedules.

Increased turnover is disastrous for any organization as it puts a strain on the financial position of the organization due to additional recruitment, selection, training and development.

Acceptance of organization change

Social change and technology evolution happens in the external environment have greater impact on the motivation of the employee. Management must ensure that the changes are introduced in the organization and its benefits explained to the employees so that there is no resistance to change and organizational growth is achieved.

Re-engineering, empowerment, job enrichment, job rotation, the introduction of new technology and processes will go a long way to boost employee morale and achieve a high degree of motivation.

Organizational image

Employees are the mirrors of any organization. Regular training & development programmes should be organized to keep employees updated with the latest skills. It will have a positive impact on the employees and the image of the organization will be improved.

The high organizational image will contribute towards the brand image of the product and services the organization is marketing.

Read: Theories of Personality

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Tools of Motivation to Boost Employee Morale

It is very important for an organization to have a happy and satisfied workforce. A discontented and unmotivated staff may drastically impact the productivity and work relationship of the organization. Hence organizations use different motivational tools to boost the morale of their employees.

These can be physical or monetary rewards, or internal and intrinsic that uses psychological measures to enhance the self-esteem of the employees.

Some of the motivational tools applied by the organizations are discussed below:

• Job Characteristic Model
• Job Redesign
• Alternative Work Arrangements
• Empowerment
• Participative Management
• Quality of Work Life (QWL)
• Motivation Through Variable Pay Programs
• Mentoring
• Employee Counseling

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Motivation Theories

Motivation theories are categories into two: content and process theories.

Content theory

Content theories try to figure “what” motivates people. Following are the motivation theories in content theory perspective.

• Maslow’s need Hierarchy
• Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
• McClelland’s Needs Theory
• Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Process theory

Process theories try to figure “How” the motivation occurs. Following are the motivation theories in process theory perspective.

• Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
• Adam’s Equity Theory
• Reinforcement Theory
• Carrot and Stick Approach to Motivation

Read: Motivation Theories

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Reference

1. Anne Bruce and James S. Pepitone, Motivating Employees, McGraw-Hill.
2. Barry Silverstein, Motivating Employees: Bringing Out the Best in Your People, Collins Business.

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