Define denotation of a word

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In linguistics and philosophy, the denotation of an expression is its literal meaning. For instance, the English word «warm» denotes the property of being warm. Denotation is contrasted with other aspects of meaning including connotation. For instance, the word «warm» may evoke calmness or cosiness, but these associations are not part of the word’s denotation. Similarly, an expression’s denotation is separate from pragmatic inferences it may trigger. For instance, describing something as «warm» often implicates that it is not hot, but this is once again not part of the word’s denotation.

Denotation plays a major role in several fields. Within philosophy of language, denotation is studied as an important aspect of meaning. In mathematics and computer science, assignments of denotations are assigned to expressions are a crucial step in defining interpreted formal languages. The main task of formal semantics is to reverse engineer the computational system which assigns denotations to expressions of natural languages.

In linguistic semantics[edit]

In natural language semantics, denotations are conceived of as the outputs of the semantic component of the grammar. For example, the denotation of the word «blue» is the property of being blue and the denotation of the word «Barack Obama» is the person who goes by that name. Phrases also have denotations which are computed according to the principle of compositionality. For instance, the verb phrase «passed the class» denotes the property of having passed the class. Depending on one’s particular theory of semantics, denotations may be identified either with terms’ extensions, intensions, or other structures such as context change potentials.^[1][2][3][4]

When uttered in discourse, expressions may convey other associations which are not computed by the grammar and thus are not part of its denotation. For instance, depending on the context, saying «I ran five miles» may convey that you ran exactly five miles and not more. This content is not part of the sentence’s denotation, but is rather pragmatic inferences arrived at by applying social cognition to its denotation.^[1]

Denotation, meaning, and reference[edit]

Linguistic discussion of the differences between denotation, meaning, and reference is rooted in the work of Ferdinand de Saussure, specifically in his theory of semiotics written in the book Course in General Linguistics.^[5] Philosophers Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russell have also made influential contributions to this subject.^[6]

Denotation and reference[edit]

Although they have similar meanings, denotation should not be confused with reference.^[7] A reference is a specific person, place, or thing that a speaker identifies when using a word.^[5] Vocabulary from John Searle’s speech act theory can be used to define this relationship.^[8] According to this theory, the speaker action of identifying a person, place, or thing is called referring. The specific person, place, or thing identified by the speaker is called the referent. Reference itself captures the relationship between the referent and the word or phrase used by the speaker. For referring expressions, the denotation of the phrase is most likely the phrase’s referent. For content words, the denotation of the word can refer to any object, real or imagined, to which the word could be applied.^[1]

Denotation and meaning[edit]

In «On Sense and Reference», philosopher Gottlob Frege began the conversation about distinctions between meaning and denotation when he evaluated words like the German words «Morgenstern» and «Abendstern».^[5] Author Thomas Herbst uses the words «kid» and «child» to illustrate the same concept.^[5] According to Herbst, these two words have the same denotation, as they have the same member set; however, «kid» may be used in an informal speech situation whereas «child» may be used in a more formal speech situation.

In other fields[edit]

• In computer science, denotational semantics is contrasted with operational semantics.
• In media studies terminology, denotation is an example of the first level of analysis: what the audience can visually see on a page. Denotation often refers to something literal, and avoids being a metaphor. Here it is usually coupled with connotation which is the second level of analysis, being what the denotation represents.

See also[edit]

• Connotation
• Denotationalism
• Linguistic competence
• Principle of compositionality
• Reference
• Sense and reference

References[edit]

External links[edit]

• Semiotics for Beginners
• VirtuaLit Elements of Poetry

Confused about the difference between connotation and denotation? Not sure how it’s possible for one word to have many connotations? Connotation and denotation both refer to word meanings, but they’re very different concepts. Read this guide to learn the denotation definition, connotation definition, how you can remember which is which, and what connotation and denotation examples look like.

Denotation Definition

Denotation is the literal meaning of a word. It’s the definition you would find in the dictionary. For example, if you were to look up the word “proud” in the dictionary, a typical entry would read, “having or showing self-respect or self-esteem” That’s the denotation of the word.

Connotation Definition

What does connotation mean? Connotation refers to the emotions or ideas that you think of when you read or hear a word. Let’s look at the word “proud” again. While it has a clear-cut denotation, the word can have different connotations for different people. If you hear the word proud, you might associate it with negative meanings, such as egotistical, show-off, etc. It could also have positive connotations, such as self-confidence, talent, etc. Writers will often use words with strong connotations in order to evoke certain moods in their readers.

Sometimes words can develop such strong negative connotations that they are considered offensive and are no longer widely used. For example, people with physical impairments used to be known as cripples in the past, but this word became so associated with the idea of someone being damaged/incapable/less than other people that the word is no longer considered polite to use and has been almost entirely replaced by “handicapped” and other synonyms.

How do connotation and denotation differ? Denotation is the literal definition of the word, one that basically everyone agrees on. It’s the blurb you read in the dictionary. There isn’t a lot of debate or nuance to it.

Connotation, on the other hand, is much more subjective, as it refers to the emotions a word evokes. While the dictionary definition of a word like “cheap” is set, you could have a positive connotation of the word and associate it with frugality and good value, while someone else could have a negative connotation of the word and associate it with stinginess and poor quality.

One easy way to remember which word means what is that “denotation” and “dictionary” both begin with the letter “d,” and denotation is the dictionary definition of a word.

Examples of Connotation and Denotation

Want to see more examples of connotation vs denotation? Below are four groups of words. Each group has a similar denotation, but many of the words have very different connotations. As you read through them, think about if your connotations of the words match what we’ve written. Because connotation is subjective, you might have a different feeling associated with a word.

Word Group 1: Slender, Scrawny, Bony, Gaunt

• Denotation: All of these words are synonyms of thin and are used to describe someone or something without much body fat.

• Connotation: Slender is often used as a way to describe someone who is both thin and attractive, while scrawny is often associated with weakness. Bony usually conjures up images of someone who is unattractive and hard-looking, while gaunt is often associated with hunger and malnutrition.

Word Group 2: Serene, Laid-Back, Lackadaisical, Dreamy

• Denotation: These are all words to describe someone who is relaxed and not troubled by worries.

• Connotation: While serene and laid-back generally have positive connotations of someone who is calm and in control, lackadaisical and dreamy have more negative connotations of someone who is relaxed but unable to get important things done.

Word Group 3: Home, House, Shelter

• Denotation: These words all refer to a place where people live.

• Connotation: House has a pretty neutral connotation, and most people just associate it with the structure of the building. Shelter has more of a negative connotation of something that only covers basic needs and doesn’t provide additional warmth, while home has a much more positive connotation and is often associated with family and positive memories made in the house.

Word Group 4: Grin, Beam, Sneer, Simper 

• Denotation: These are all synonyms for smile.

• Connotation: Both grin and beam have positive connotations and are generally associated with someone who is genuinely happy. Sneer has a negative connotation and is usually associated with someone being cruel or scornful, while simper also has a negative connotation, but is usually associated with someone weak or unintelligent.

Summary: Connotation Definition and Denotation Definition

Denotation is the dictionary definition of a word, while connotation is the feelings associated with a word. While the denotation of a word is pretty cut and dry, one word can have many connotations for different people, and those connotations could be neutral, positive, or negative. One easy way to keep these two concepts straight is that “denotation” and “dictionary” both begin with the letter “d,” and denotation is the dictionary definition of a word.

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The definition of denotation refers to the direct or dictionary meaning of a word, in contrast to its figurative or associated meanings (connotations). To understand the difference, think of how words would be used in writing about science or legal matters (with a precision of meaning) vs. how words would be used in poetry (rich with allusion, metaphor, and other shades of meaning than just their straight dictionary meanings).

As a verb, the term is to denote, and as an adjective, something is denotative. The concept is also called extension or reference. Denotative meaning is sometimes called cognitive meaning, referential meaning, or conceptual meaning.

Denotation and Connotation: House versus Home

Look at the simple words house vs. home. Both have a denotative meeting as a place where you live. But you can tap more connotations with home than house, which is a word that’s more cut-and-dried.

Say you are writing ad copy and want to have connotations that include a feeling of belonging, of privacy, of safety, of coziness. You’d choose home over house to be able to include those emotions in your copy just by this one word choice. If you’re writing an article for a construction trade magazine, you’d probably refer to the place as a house because you wouldn’t need any extra «warm and fluffy» layers in your copy. A real estate agent would use home rather than house for the same reasons—sales to homebuyers are full of emotions.

Slang, Social, and Cultural References

Remember to consider denotation vs. connotation as it impacts cultural sensitivity. Or, call it political correctness—which can be what people call the same concept when they feel it goes overboard.

Sometimes it takes a while for the language to catch up with society and for people to catch up with change. For example, the workplace in the past 50 years has expanded for women and men, with both genders moving into jobs previously held solely by members of one gender or the other. An officer of the law isn’t a «policeman» or a «policewoman.» They’re both «police officers.» You no longer call a nurse who’s a man a «male nurse.» He’s a nurse, just like a female. Today, if you’d use those gender-specific terms, it would show you are out of date and may make people think you’re sexist.

If you’re creating an elderly fictional character, the fact that the language changes over time can be used effectively. You’d want that person to have the diction of his or her age. He or she wouldn’t be calling someone «woke» or say, «That gives me life» in ordinary diction—it’d be for effect only. 

In another arena, consider professional sports team names that are under scrutiny and being debated for revision. Some sports fans may know that the name of the football team out of Washington, the Redskins, is a pejorative term for Native Americans, but because they don’t have a history of the term being applied to them, don’t give it much thought. It’s just a word without connotations for them, just the simple denotation of the name of the football team. However, for Native Americans, the term is offensive, as it was a word applied to their people in relation to a bounty paid for killing them.

Denotation and Connotation in Literature

When analyzing poetry, look for connotations of words to expose the deeper meanings and metaphors evoked through word choice. Let’s examine a William Wordsworth poem for examples. 

«A Slumber Did My Spirit Seal»
by William Wordsworth (1880)

A slumber did my spirit seal;
I had no human fears—
She seemed a thing that could not feel
The touch of earthly years.

No motion has she now, no force;
She neither hears nor sees;
Roll’d round in earth’s diurnal course
With rocks, and stones, and trees.

In the last line, Wordsworth is indeed literally talking about denotative rocks, stones, and trees. However, the connotative implication of the rocks, stones, and trees is that the active, lively girl of the first stanza is now dead and buried in the second.

«Mending Wall» by Robert Frost

In «Mending Wall» by Robert Frost, he literally talks about the annual chore of mending a stone wall (the denotative meaning of a wall) that lies between his and his neighbor’s property. He also ponders what he and his neighbor are fencing in or out, under what circumstances it’s not needed, and the statement by his cohort, «Good fences make good neighbors.»

In the figurative sense, his neighbor is saying that not only can walls and fences clearly mark property lines and alleviate land disputes before they start, but also it’s good to have figurative boundaries with the people you live next to day in and day out. With the annual mending, they have a tradition together, the need to cooperate to fix it up, and joint satisfaction of a job well done when it’s completed.

These poems represent just two of myriad examples from literature, as anytime a writer means something literally, he or she is using denotative language. Understanding the connotative layers is often the trick to understanding the piece of literature overall, but all readers need to start with a clear picture of the denotative words first, else the symbolism from the additional meanings will be lost.

Definition of Denotation

A word’s denotation is its literal, dictionary definition. Denotation is the objective meaning of a word, with no associated emotion. Every word that has a dictionary definition has a denotation, no matter the language or part of speech. It’s also possible for similar words to denote the same thing and have the same dictionary definition.  In addition, denotation is objective; it is not dependent upon a person’s interpretation or experience. However, denotation isn’t necessarily neutral since its definition can be inherently positive or negative.

Denotation is an important literary device in that it allows a writer to choose an exact word to describe or convey something to the reader. Careful word selection gives writers an opportunity to be as clear, direct, and precise as possible. Any word substitution can completely change the feeling, tone, and meaning of an expression.

For example, the novel Slaughterhouse-Five by Kurt Vonnegut, Jr., begins with this line:

All this happened, more or less.

The first phrase appears absolute with the word “all.” However, the following phrase “more or less” denotes to the reader that the first phrase is, in fact, not absolute and that there is a sense of doubt as to the truth of the events portrayed in the story. Without that denotation, the reader would begin the novel by assuming that what is said to have happened, did happen.

Common Examples of Denotation in Everyday Speech

People often speak in generalities, which can lead to confusion and misinterpretation. Denotation brings clarity to everyday speech. Here are some common examples of generalities and how denotation and specific wording helps avoid misunderstanding or confusion in everyday speech:

• I enjoy watching movies. / I enjoy watching thrillers.
• Do you feel ill? / Do you feel nauseous?
• I’m looking for a book. / I’m looking for a biography.
• John is learning a Mozart piano piece. / John is learning a Mozart piano sonata.
• The box is from the United States. / The box is from Kansas.
• My class is studying science. / My class is studying biology.
• Mary is interested in helping animals. / Mary is interested in fostering animals.
• Do you enjoy Mexican food? / Do you enjoy enchiladas?
• Joe told Karen that she is looking bigger. / Joe told Karen that she is looking taller.
• Bill told John that he swims often. / Bill told John that he swims competitively.

Famous Examples of Denotation in Speeches and Quotes

Denotation is an effective literary device for creating memorable speeches and quotes. Denotation brings clarity and precision to a speaker’s message, which makes it more impactful. Here are some famous examples of denotation in well-known speeches and quotes:

• The only thing we have to fear is fear itself (Franklin D. Roosevelt)
• But those values upon which our success depends – honesty and hard work, courage and fair play, tolerance and curiosity, loyalty and patriotism – these things are old. These things are true. (Barack Obama)
• The greatest danger to our future is apathy. (Jane Goodall)
• There are no secrets to success. It is the result of preparation, hard work, and learning from failure. (Colin Powell)
• Women will only have true equality when men share with them the responsibility of bringing up the next generation. (Ruth Bader Ginsburg)
• Racism is man’s gravest threat to man – the maximum of hatred for a minimum of reason. (Abraham Joshua Heschel)
• Good writers define reality; bad ones merely restate it. A good writer turns fact into truth; a bad writer will, more often than not, accomplish the opposite. (Edward Albee)
• I think there’s just one kind of folks. Folks. (Harper Lee)

Difference Between Denotation and Connotation

The relationship between denotation and connotation as literary devices is both contrasting and complementary. Whereas denotation signifies a word’s literal meaning, connotation signifies a word’s associated meaning(s). Connotation is a feeling or emotion that a word evokes or carries, and this affects the way a reader understands its use. For example, the words lady and broad have the same denotations. However, lady has a positive connotation in terms of politeness and refinement; whereas broad has a negative connotation in terms of slang and its pejorative nature. Therefore, lady and broad have the same literal meaning but evoke different emotions and reactions in a reader due to their associated meanings.

Writers utilize denotation when the specific and literal meaning of a word is needed for clarity. Though denotation is straightforward, it can restrict creativity in a literary work if it is overused. Connotation enhances detail, development, and variety in literature, in addition to eliciting an emotional reaction and interpretation from the reader. Therefore, both denotation and connotation are essential literary devices. Though they are contrasts, they are also complementary in that a reader’s grasp of denotative meanings increases their ability to understand the connotative meanings of words.

What is Denotation Important in Literature? 

Although connotations play an important role in literature, denotation is equally significant. Its significance lies when writers want to be clear, authentic, and direct. They do not want to convey various shades of meanings of words. Hence, denotation comes in handy when they want to be direct with their readers and want them to understand the message correctly. It is mostly used in technical writing such as in presentations, manuals, process writings, resumes, reports, and research.

How to Use Denotation?

Using a term or word as a denotation is a critical task. Even if a word is used in a single meaning, sometimes it conveys different meanings. Therefore, a writer not only takes audiences into account but also the purpose of the writing, context, content, and other words when using a word as a denotation. Although it is easy to use just a single denotation as a referent when it is an action verb it could confuse the readers or audiences. It often happens when the context is, somewhat, ambiguous. Therefore, when using a denotation, a writer must be aware of the purpose of his writing, his audience, his message, and above all the use of the word.

When to Use Denotation?

To use a denotation, a writer must keep the following points in mind.

1. The referent: What he is referring to through the word?
2. The context: Where the word is being used? What precedes and succeeds it? What are its neighboring words?
3. The audience: Who are the main audience, primary audience, tertiary audience, and secondary audience?
4. The usage: What is the actual usage of the denotation?
5. The message: What is the actual message to be conveyed?

 Use of Denotation in Sentences 

1. Sandra is being really pushy. (She is actually pushing someone)
2. My dad has been always frugal. (He is really careful while spending money)
3. The blueberry is blue. (It is the color blue)
4. Ben wore a brilliant shade of purple today. (It is the color purple)
5. Jane is very clever. (It is her trait)

Examples of Denotation in Literature

Word choice, perhaps, has the strongest and most powerful influence on a reader in a work of literature. Therefore, denotation as the literal meaning of a word is an essential literary device for creating meaning in a literary work. In general, context is helpful in establishing connotative meaning in a literary work. However, denotation reflects a standardized meaning that is usually independent of the context in literature.

Overall, denotation allows writers to be explicitly clear in their expression so that readers, regardless of their personal experience, are allowed a direct understanding of their meaning. This enhances the accuracy of literary interpretation as well. Here are some examples of denotation in literature:

Example 1: I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings by Maya Angelou

There is no greater agony than bearing an untold story inside you.

In her autobiography, Angelou utilizes both denotation and connotation to reveal her story and address violence, racism, and other experiences that formed her identity. In this quote, Angelou is careful in her wording and relies on denotation as a literary device so that her reader understands her exact and explicit meaning. For example, her use of the word “agony” denotes extreme physical or mental suffering. This word choice is intentional so that the reader understands and identifies with Angelou’s need and drive to tell her story. In addition, through this denotation, Angelou is offering reciprocal understanding and empathy to her readers and their untold stories. This can effectively inspire others to follow Angelou’s path and share their own stories.

Example 2: The Sun Also Rises by Ernest Hemingway

You’re an expatriate. You’ve lost touch with the soil. You get precious. Fake European standards have ruined you. You drink yourself to death. You become obsessed with sex. You spend all your time talking, not working. You are an expatriate, see? You hang around cafes.

In this passage from his novel, Hemingway utilizes the literal meaning of expatriate, a person who lives outside their native country, to establish the impact this life choice has had on the protagonist, Jake Barnes. Jake is literally an expatriate in Europe, yet he is not simply living outside his native country. He is changed by his expatriate status, and Hemingway expands the denotation of the word so that the reader clearly understands how this status has affected Jake and his identity. As an expatriate, Jake is untethered to meaningful aspects of his life and is, instead, displaced mentally and emotionally as well as physically. Therefore, Jake is an expatriate in every sense of the word’s denotation.

Example 3: One Perfect Rose by Dorothy Parker

A single flow’r he sent me, since we met.
All tenderly his messenger he chose;
Deep-hearted, pure, with scented dew still wet –
One perfect rose.

I knew the language of the floweret;
‘My fragile leaves,’ it said, ‘his heart enclose.’
Love long has taken for his amulet
One perfect rose.

Why is it no one ever sent me yet
One perfect limousine, do you suppose?
Ah no, it’s always just my luck to get
One perfect rose.

Parker’s use of “limousine” and its literal definition demonstrates an ironic twist to what appears to be a romantic poem about a single perfect rose. The denotation of the limousine as a large, luxurious automobile, typically driven by a chauffeur who is separated from the passengers by a partition, is in dramatic contrast to the images and feelings associated with a rose–both outside the context of the poem and within it as well. Parker’s intentional, literal use of the word limousine is effective in making the meaning of the poem clear for the reader.

Example 4: To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee

We know all men are not created equal in the sense some people would have us believe- some people are smarter than others, some people have more opportunity because they’re born with it, some men make more money than others, some ladies make better cakes than others- some people are born gifted beyond the normal scope of men.
But there is one way in this country in which all men are created equal- there is one human institution that makes a pauper the equal of a Rockefeller, the stupid man the equal of an Einstein, and the ignorant man the equal of any college president. That institution, gentlemen, is a court.

In this passage from Lee’s novel, the character Atticus Finch is speaking to a white, male jury in defense of his client Tom Robinson, a black man accused of sexually assaulting a white woman. In his speech, Atticus acknowledges that the word “equal” does not have an applicable denotation in terms of individual humans and their inherent characteristics, abilities, and opportunities. However, by establishing the denotation of equal, Atticus is able to apply it to his client in terms of implementation of the law in court.

Through Atticus’s denotative words, Lee is able to illustrate to her readers that though people as individuals are not inherently equal, they are (ideally) equal in a court as far as the law and justice. Therefore, Tom Robinson’s life is and should be equal in a judicial court to everyone else’s, no matter the color of his skin. This denotation of equality as it applies to justice and protection under the law is one of the central themes of Lee’s novel.

Synonyms of Denotation

As a literary device, denotation does not have a direct meaning. The following words have nearest meanings: appellation, denomination, designation, handle, cognomen, or appellative. But one thing that must be kept in mind is that they are not substitutes when it is used as a literary device.

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