Combination of two words to form one word

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A portmanteau word, or portmanteau (, ) is a blend of words^[1] in which parts of multiple words are combined into a new word,^[1][2][3] as in smog, coined by blending smoke and fog,^[2][4] or motel, from motor and hotel.^[5] In linguistics, a portmanteau is a single morph that is analyzed as representing two (or more) underlying morphemes.^[6][7][8][9] When portmanteaus shorten established compounds, they can be considered clipped compounds.^[10]

A portmanteau word is similar to a contraction, but contractions are formed from words that would otherwise appear together in sequence, such as do and not to make don’t, whereas a portmanteau is formed by combining two or more existing words that all relate to a single concept. A portmanteau also differs from a compound, which does not involve the truncation of parts of the stems of the blended words. For instance, starfish is a compound, not a portmanteau, of star and fish, as it includes both words in full. If it were called a «stish» or a «starsh», it would be a portmanteau.

Origin[edit]

The word portmanteau was introduced in this sense by Lewis Carroll in the book Through the Looking-Glass (1871),^[11] where Humpty Dumpty explains to Alice the coinage of unusual words used in «Jabberwocky».^[12] Slithy means «slimy and lithe» and mimsy means «miserable and flimsy». Humpty Dumpty explains to Alice the practice of combining words in various ways, comparing it to the then-common type of luggage, which opens into two equal parts:

You see it’s like a portmanteau—there are two meanings packed up into one word.

In his introduction to his 1876 poem The Hunting of the Snark, Carroll again uses portmanteau when discussing lexical selection:^[12]

Humpty Dumpty’s theory, of two meanings packed into one word like a portmanteau, seems to me the right explanation for all. For instance, take the two words «fuming» and «furious». Make up your mind that you will say both words, but leave it unsettled which you will say first … if you have the rarest of gifts, a perfectly balanced mind, you will say «frumious».

In then-contemporary English, a portmanteau was a suitcase that opened into two equal sections. According to the OED Online, a portmanteau is a «case or bag for carrying clothing and other belongings when travelling; (originally) one of a form suitable for carrying on horseback; (now esp.) one in the form of a stiff leather case hinged at the back to open into two equal parts».^[13] According to The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (AHD), the etymology of the word is the French porte-manteau, from porter, «to carry», and manteau, «cloak» (from Old French mantel, from Latin mantellum).^[14] According to the OED Online, the etymology of the word is the «officer who carries the mantle of a person in a high position (1507 in Middle French), case or bag for carrying clothing (1547), clothes rack (1640)».^[13] In modern French, a porte-manteau is a clothes valet, a coat-tree or similar article of furniture for hanging up jackets, hats, umbrellas and the like.^[15][16][17]

An occasional synonym for «portmanteau word» is frankenword, an autological word exemplifying the phenomenon it describes, blending «Frankenstein» and «word».^[18]

Examples in English[edit]

Many neologisms are examples of blends, but many blends have become part of the lexicon.^[12] In Punch in 1896, the word brunch (breakfast + lunch) was introduced as a «portmanteau word».^[19] In 1964, the newly independent African republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar chose the portmanteau word Tanzania as its name. Similarly Eurasia is a portmanteau of Europe and Asia.

Some city names are portmanteaus of the border regions they straddle: Texarkana spreads across the Texas-Arkansas-Louisiana border, while Calexico and Mexicali are respectively the American and Mexican sides of a single conurbation. A scientific example is a liger, which is a cross between a male lion and a female tiger (a tigon is a similar cross in which the male is a tiger).

Many company or brand names are portmanteaus, including Microsoft, a portmanteau of microcomputer and software; the cheese Cambozola combines a similar rind to Camembert with the same mould used to make Gorgonzola; passenger rail company Amtrak, a portmanteau of America and track; Velcro, a portmanteau of the French velours (velvet) and crochet (hook); Verizon, a portmanteau of veritas (Latin for truth) and horizon; and ComEd (a Chicago-area electric utility company), a portmanteau of Commonwealth and Edison.

Jeoportmanteau! is a recurring category on the American television quiz show Jeopardy! The category’s name is itself a portmanteau of the words Jeopardy and portmanteau. Responses in the category are portmanteaus constructed by fitting two words together.

Portmanteau words may be produced by joining proper nouns with common nouns, such as «gerrymandering», which refers to the scheme of Massachusetts Governor Elbridge Gerry for politically contrived redistricting; the perimeter of one of the districts thereby created resembled a very curvy salamander in outline. The term gerrymander has itself contributed to portmanteau terms bjelkemander and playmander.

Oxbridge is a common portmanteau for the UK’s two oldest universities, those of Oxford and Cambridge. In 2016, Britain’s planned exit from the European Union became known as «Brexit».

The word refudiate was famously used by Sarah Palin when she misspoke, conflating the words refute and repudiate. Though the word was a gaffe, it was recognized as the New Oxford American Dictionary‘s «Word of the Year» in 2010.^[20]

The business lexicon includes words like «advertainment» (advertising as entertainment), «advertorial» (a blurred distinction between advertising and editorial), «infotainment» (information about entertainment or itself intended to entertain by its manner of presentation), and «infomercial» (informational commercial).

Company and product names may also use portmanteau words: examples include Timex (a portmanteau of Time [referring to Time magazine] and Kleenex),^[21] Renault’s Twingo (a combination of twist, swing and tango),^[22] and Garmin (portmanteau of company founders’ first names Gary Burrell and Min Kao). «Desilu Productions» was a Los Angeles–based company jointly owned by actor couple Desi Arnaz and Lucille Ball. Miramax is the combination of the first names of the parents of the Weinstein brothers.

Name-meshing[edit]

Two proper names can also be used in creating a portmanteau word in reference to the partnership between people, especially in cases where both persons are well-known, or sometimes to produce epithets such as «Billary» (referring to former United States president Bill Clinton and his wife, former United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton). In this example of recent American political history, the purpose for blending is not so much to combine the meanings of the source words but «to suggest a resemblance of one named person to the other»; the effect is often derogatory, as linguist Benjamin Zimmer states.^[23] For instance, Putler is used by critics of Vladimir Putin, merging his name with Adolf Hitler. By contrast, the public, including the media, use portmanteaus to refer to their favorite pairings as a way to «…giv[e] people an essence of who they are within the same name.»^[24] This is particularly seen in cases of fictional and real-life «supercouples». An early known example, Bennifer, referred to film stars Ben Affleck and Jennifer Lopez. Other examples include Brangelina (Brad Pitt and Angelina Jolie) and TomKat (Tom Cruise and Katie Holmes).^[24] On Wednesday, 28 June 2017, The New York Times crossword included the quip, «How I wish Natalie Portman dated Jacques Cousteau, so I could call them ‘Portmanteau'».^[25]

Holidays are another example, as in Thanksgivukkah, a portmanteau neologism given to the convergence of the American holiday of Thanksgiving and the first day of the Jewish holiday of Hanukkah on Thursday, 28 November 2013.^[26][27] Chrismukkah is another pop-culture portmanteau neologism popularized by the TV drama The O.C., merging of the holidays of Christianity’s Christmas and Judaism’s Hanukkah.

In the Disney film Big Hero 6, the film is situated in a fictitious city called «San Fransokyo», which is a portmanteau of two real locations, San Francisco and Tokyo.^[28]

Other languages[edit]

Modern Hebrew[edit]

Modern Hebrew abounds with blending. Along with CD, or simply דיסק (disk), Hebrew has the blend תקליטור (taklitór), which consists of תקליט (taklít, ‘phonograph record’) and אור (or, ‘light’). Other blends in Hebrew include the following:^[29]

• ערפיח (arpíakh, ‘smog’), from ערפל (arafél, ‘fog’) and פיח (píakh, ‘soot’)
• מדרחוב (midrakhov, ‘pedestrian-only street’), from מדרכה (midrakhá, ‘sidewalk’) and רחוב (rekhóv, ‘street’)
• מחזמר (makhazémer, ‘musical’), from מחזה (makhazé, ‘theatre play’) and זמר (zémer, ‘singing’ [gerund])
• מגדלור (migdalór, ‘lighthouse’), from מגדל (migdál, ‘tower’) and אור (or, ‘light’)
• קרנף (karnáf, ‘rhinoceros’), from קרן (kéren, ‘horn’) and אף (af, ‘nose’)
• רמזור (ramzór, ‘traffic light’), from רמז (rémez, ‘indication’) and אור (or, ‘light’)
• חוטיני (khutíni, ‘thong bikini’), from חוט‎ (khut, ‘string’) and ביקיני (bikíni, ‘bikini’)

Sometimes the root of the second word is truncated, giving rise to a blend that resembles an acrostic:

• תפוז (tapúz, ‘orange’ (fruit)), from תפוח (tapúakh, ‘apple’) and זהב (zaháv, ‘gold’)
• תפוד (tapúd, ‘potato’), from תפוח (tapúakh, ‘apple’) and אדמה (adamá, ‘soil’ or ‘earth’), but the full תפוח אדמה (tapúakh adamá, ‘apple of the soil’ or ‘apple of the earth’) is more common

Irish[edit]

A few portmanteaus are in use in modern Irish, for example:

• Brexit is referred to as Breatimeacht (from Breatain, «Britain», and imeacht, «leave») or Sasamach (from Sasana, «England», and amach, «out»)^[30][31]
• The resignation of Tánaiste (deputy prime minister) Frances Fitzgerald was referred to as Slánaiste (from slán, «goodbye» and Tánaiste)^{[32][33][failed verification]}
• Naíonra, an Irish-language preschool (from naíonán, «infants», and gasra, «band»)^[34]
• The Irish translation of A Game of Thrones refers to Winterfell castle as Gheimhsceirde (from gheimhridh, «winter», and sceird, «exposed to winds»)^[35]
• Jailtacht (from English jail and Gaeltacht, «Irish-speaking region»): the community of Irish-speaking republican prisoners.^[36]

Icelandic[edit]

There is a tradition of linguistic purism in Icelandic, and neologisms are frequently created from pre-existing words. For example, tölva ‘computer’ is a portmanteau of tala ‘digit, number’ and völva ‘oracle, seeress’.^[37]

Indonesian[edit]

In Indonesian, portmanteaus and acronyms are very common in both formal and informal usage.

Malaysian[edit]

In the Malaysian national language of Bahasa Melayu, the word jadong was constructed out of three Malay words for evil (jahat), stupid (bodoh) and arrogant (sombong) to be used on the worst kinds of community and religious leaders who mislead naive, submissive and powerless folk under their thrall.^{[citation needed]}

Japanese[edit]

A very common type of portmanteau in Japanese forms one word from the beginnings of two others (that is, from two back-clippings).^[38] The portion of each input word retained is usually two morae, which is tantamount to one kanji in most words written in kanji.

The inputs to the process can be native words, Sino-Japanese words, gairaigo (later borrowings), or combinations thereof. A Sino-Japanese example is the name 東大 (Tōdai) for the University of Tokyo, in full 東京大学 (Tōkyō daigaku). With borrowings, typical results are words such as パソコン (pasokon), meaning personal computer (PC), which despite being formed of English elements does not exist in English; it is a uniquely Japanese contraction of the English personal computer (パーソナル・コンピュータ, pāsonaru konpyūta). Another example, Pokémon (ポケモン), is a contracted form of the English words pocket (ポケット, poketto) and monsters (モンスター, monsutā).^[39] A famous example of a blend with mixed sources is karaoke (カラオケ, karaoke), blending the Japanese word for empty (空, kara) and the Greek word orchestra (オーケストラ, ōkesutora). The Japanese fad of egg-shaped keychain pet toys from the 1990s, Tamagotchi, is a portmanteau combining the two Japanese words tamago (たまご), which means «egg», and uotchi (ウオッチ) «watch». The portmanteau can also be seen as a combination of tamago (たまご), «egg», and tomodachi (友だち), which means «friend».

Some titles also are portmanteaus, such as Hetalia (ヘタリア). It came from Hetare (ヘタレ), which means «idiot», and Italia (イタリア) which means Italy. Another example is Servamp,
which came from the English words Servant (サーヴァント) and Vampire (ヴァンパイア).

Portuguese[edit]

In Brazilian Portuguese, portmanteaus are usually slang, including:

• Cantriz, from cantora (female singer) and atriz (actress), which defines women that both sing and act.^[40][41]
• Aborrescente, from aborrecer (annoy) and adolescente (teenager), which is a pejorative term for teenagers.^[42][43]
• Pescotapa, from pescoço (neck) and tapa (slap), which defines a slap on the back of the neck.^[44][45]

In European Portuguese, portmanteaus are also used. Some of them include:

• Telemóvel, which means mobile phone, comes from telefone (telephone) and móvel (mobile).^[46]
• Cantautor, which means Singer-songwriter, and comes from cantor (singer) and autor (songwriter).

Spanish[edit]

Although traditionally uncommon in Spanish, portmanteaus are increasingly finding their way into the language, mainly for marketing and commercial purposes. Examples in Mexican Spanish include cafebrería from combining cafetería «coffee shop» and librería «bookstore», or teletón ‘telethon’ from combining televisión and maratón. Portmanteaus are also frequently used to make commercial brands, such as «chocolleta» from «chocolate» + «galleta.» They are also often used to create business company names, especially for small, family-owned businesses, where owners’ names are combined to create a unique name (such as Rocar, from «Roberto» + «Carlos», or Mafer, from «María» + «Fernanda»). These usages are helpful for registering of a distinguishable trademark.

Other examples:

• Cantautor, which means Singer-songwriter, and comes from cantante (singer) and autor (songwriter).^[47]
• Mecatrónica^{[citation needed]} and Ofimática two Neologisms that are blends of mecánica (mechanical) with electrónica (electronics), and oficina (office) with informática (informatics) respectively.
• Espanglish, interlanguage that combines words from both Spanish (Español) and English.
• Metrobús, blend of metro (subway) and autobús.
• Autopista, blend of automóvil (car) and pista (highway).
• Company names and brands with portmanteaus are common in Spanish. Some examples of Spanish portmanteaus for Mexican companies include: The Mexican flag carrier Aeroméxico, (Aerovías de México), Banorte (Bank and North), Cemex (Cement and Mexico), Jumex (Jugos Mexicanos or Mexican Juice), Mabe (from founders Egon MAbardi and Francisco BErrondo), Pemex (Petróleos Mexicanos or Mexican Oil), Softtek (portmanteau and stylization of Software and technology), and Telmex (Teléfonos de Mexico). Gamesa (Galletera Mexicana, S.A. or Mexican Biscuit Company, Inc.) and Famsa (fabricantes Muebleros, S.A.) are examples of portmanteaus of four words, including the «S.A.» (Sociedad Anónima).
• Many more portmanteaus in Spanish come from Anglicisms, which are words borrowed from English, like módem, transistor, códec, email, internet or emoticon.

A somewhat popular example in Spain is the word gallifante,^[48] a portmanteau of gallo y elefante (cockerel and elephant). It was the prize on the Spanish version of the children TV show Child’s Play (Spanish: Juego de niños) that ran on the public television channel La 1 of Televisión Española (TVE) from 1988 to 1992.^[49]

Portmanteau morph[edit]

In linguistics, a blend is an amalgamation or fusion of independent lexemes, while a portmanteau or portmanteau morph is a single morph that is analyzed as representing two (or more) underlying morphemes.^[6] For example, in the Latin word animalis, the ending -is is a portmanteau morph because it is used for two morphemes: the singular number and the genitive case.^{[citation needed]} In English, two separate morphs are used: of an animal. Other examples include French: à le → au [o] and de le → du [dy].^[6]

See also[edit]

• Amalgamation (names)
• Hybrid word
• List of geographic portmanteaus
• List of portmanteaus
• Portmanteau sentence
• Syllabic abbreviation
• Pidgin

References[edit]

External links[edit]

In linguistics, a blend word is a word formed from parts of two or more other words. The process is called blending and the result is a blend word.

A portmanteau word typically combines both sounds and meanings, as in smog, coined by blending smoke and fog. More generally, it may refer to any term or phrase that combines two or more meanings, for instance, the term «wurly» when describing hair that is both wavy and curly.

The word «portmanteau» was first used in this context by Lewis Carroll in the book Through the Looking-Glass (1871).

I’m not entirely sure if there is a technical distinction between portmanteaus and blends or if the latter is a hypernym of the former. There is some suggestion that portmanteaux specifically combine the beginning of the first word and the ending of the second. But I’ve been unable to confirm the validity of this distinction and I’ve found that they’re mostly used interchangeably. Any information on this matter is welcome.

P.S. ELU has tags for both these terms: portmanteau-words, blend-words.

There are various classes of words in the English Language ranging from nouns to prepositions. All these have been discussed in the post, Parts of Speech. However, some words are regarded as compound words. This post gives 1000 Compound Words Examples out of the several thousands of examples of compound words in English.

There is no end to how many compound words there are in English; but with these 1000 Compound Words Examples in English, though not exhaustive, you can research further on other compound words not captured here or, probably, generate your own.

Before I list the 1000 Compounds Word Examples in English, it would be great to describe compound words. The question then comes: what is a compound word? Let us proffer an answer to this important question…

What is a Compound Word?

Compound words in English are usually formed when we join two or more words together. In other, words, a compound word is the combination of two or more free morphemes to form a new word.

Compounding: A Word Formation Process

This takes us to the concept of Compounding, which is one of the word formation processes in English. Compounding takes place when two or more free morphemes that can stand severally on their own are brought together to create a new word. It could happen that the meaning of a compound word could be related to or different from the meaning or connotation it its constituent parts when considered severally.

Types of Compound Words

There are three types of compound words and these include: closed compound words, hyphenated compound words and open compound words. See more…

Closed Compound Words

In the closed compound words, the words involved are combined together. Closed compound words, most likely, are usually monosyllabic units already established in the language for a long time. Examples include: flowerpot, keyboard, notebook, bookstore, basketball, etc.

Hyphenated Compound Words

For the hyphenated compound words, a hyphen is used to join the words involved; for example: mother-in-law, merry-go-round, off-the-cuff, etc. The use of a hyphen in this instance helps to prevent ambiguity.

Open Compound Words

In the open compound words, there is a space between the compound words that are written together such as school bus, living room, carbon dioxide, snow white, blood red, etc.

What Determines Types of Compound Words

What determines if a compound word is classified as closed, hyphenated or open could depends on whether we use it as a noun, adjective or verb.

Verbs are usually open. For example:

• You must always back up the files on your computer.
• It is not good for students to carry over their courses
• Police usually follow up on a new lead.

Adjectives and nouns are usually closed or hyphenated. For instance:

1. You can access backup copies of your files in case of any eventuality.
2. The students had many carryovers in their courses.
3. The police had already worked on the follow-up lead.

Adjective–adjective compounds, as well as, verb–verb compounds, such as blue-green and freeze-dried, are often hyphenated. Compounds that contain articles, prepositions or conjunctions, such as rent-a-cop, mother-of-pearl and salt-and-pepper, salt-and-sugar, hard-and-fast, etc. are also often hyphenated.

Longer words usually fall under the category of open compound words such as distance learning, player piano, lawn tennis, etc.

It is important to note that usage or forms of compound words in American English and British English Usage varies and is usually contingent on the individual choice of the writer rather than on a hard-and-fast rule; therefore, it is possible to encounter closed, hyphenated, and open forms for the same compound noun, such as the trio of:

• Container ship, container-ship or containership
• Particle board, particle-board or Particleboard.

Classifications of Compound Words

The constituent words in a compound word can be classified based on their Word Classes or Parts of Speech. We can call this type of classification a Syntactic Classification. The constituent words may be from similar Part of Speech or may be of different parts of speech. Let us see some examples:

Noun-Noun

This is an instance where both constituent words in the compound words are nouns. Examples include: airport, wallpaper, textbook, doorknob, waterbed, wastebasket, football, cufflinks, housewife, lawsuit, wallpaper, basketball, sodium chloride, classroom, workstation, tapeworm, crankshaft, etc.

Noun-Verb

The noun-verb compound word has a noun as the first constituent and a verb as the second constituent. For example: browbeat, sidestep, manhandle, safeguard, water borne, value-added, rocket-propelled, sunbathe, airlift, etc.

Noun-Adjective

The noun-adjective combination has a noun as the first constituent and an adjective as the second constituent. Examples include: snow white, world population, overcoat, trustworthy, blood red, handpicked, world famous, heartbroken, heart problem, prize worthy, lead strong, worldwide, lifelong, tax-free, sky blue, self-important, spoon-fed, praiseworthy, water-repellant, air-tight, bulletproof, etc.

Adjective-Noun

This is an instance where the first constituent word in the compound word is an adjective and the other one a noun. Examples include: blackboard, smartphone, whiteboard, badmouth, blue sky, red light, four wheel, full-time, long-term, etc.

Adjective-Verb

This instance is when the first constituent is an adjective while the second word in the compound word is a verb. Examples of this instance include: whitewash, blacklist, highlight, proofread, shortlist, etc.

Verb-Verb

In this instance, both constituents of the compound words are verbs. Examples include: typewrite, test-drive, freeze-dry, etc.

Verb-Noun

This is an instance where the first constituent word in the compound word is a verb and the other one a noun. Examples include: dreadnought, typewriter, breakfast, cutthroat, pickpocket, killjoy, spoilsport, know-nothing, breakwater, carrycot, etc.

Verb-Preposition

In this instance, we have a combination of a verb and a preposition forming the compound word respectively. Examples of this instance include: Roll off, roll on, stick on, walk on, stand by, walk through, see through, lay by, cut through, lookout, Work on, take down, take away, tear up, etc. Some of these examples also pass for Phrasal Verbs. You can take a look at the over 500 Phrasal Verbs discussed here.

Preposition-Noun

In this combination of compound words, we have a preposition coming first and followed by a noun. Examples of this combination include: overview, downsize, upgrade, underworld, oversight, undergraduate under-development, etc.

Preposition Noun (Phrase) Combinations

Examples of Preposition-Noun Phrase include: Off-the-record, over-the-counter, off-the-cuff, round-the-block, off-the-deep-end, off the hook, off the wall, off-your-head, off-your-own-bat, off-your-rocker, round-the-twist, round-the-corner, etc.

Preposition-Verb

This combination comprises a preposition and a verbs in the first and second constituents respectively. Examples include: overhang, counterattack, undercut, overpay, counterbalance, overrate, underlie, outrun, outvote, overreact, oversleep, overwork, undersell, undervalue, etc.

Other Combinations

There are other possible combinations like:

• Adjective-adjective (blue-green)
• Adverb-preposition (forthwith)
• Verb-adverb (tumbledown)
• Preposition-adjective (overripe, off-white)
• Verb-adverb (takeout)
• Preposition-adverb (without)
• Compound Adverbs (moreover, however, nonetheless, furthermore, meanwhile)
• Determiner-Noun Combinations or wh-forms (anyhow, somewhere, nowhere, sometimes, anytime)

You can attempt to fit the 1000 examples of compound words provided below into their appropriate combinations. I’m sure that should not be difficult for you to do.

It is also important to note that compound words in English, save for exceptions, are usually stressed on their first words.

1000 Compound Words Examples

It is really impossible to give an exhaustive list of all the compound words in English; especially, those that fall under the open class segment as there is no end to compound words that could be therein generated. But the list below contains 1000 Compound Words Examples in English. For emphasis, there are thousands of other examples. So, the list is not limited to what is provided below. Take a look…

1000 Compound Words Examples (A-D)

• Above-board
• Afterglow
• Afterimage
• Afterlife
• Afternoon
• Airbag
• Airbase
• Airborne
• Aircraft
• Airfield
• Airlift
• Airline
• Airmen
• Airplane
• Airport
• Airtight
• Airtime
• All-over
• Allspice
• Alongside
• Anybody
• Anyhow
• Anymore
• Anyone
• Anyplace
• Anytime
• Anyway
• Arm-twist
• Ashtray
• Baby bed
• Baby boom
• Baby boomers
• Baby carriage
• Baby-faced
• Babyhood
• Babyminder
• Babysit
• Babysitter
• Backache
• Backbeat
• Backbench
• Backbenchers
• Backbend
• Backbite
• Backblast
• Backbone
• Backbreaker
• Backdrop
• Backfire
• Background
• Backhand
• Backlash
• Backlog
• Backpack
• Backside
• Backslap
• Backslide
• Backspace
• Backspin
• Backstage
• Backstroke
• Backtrack
• Backward
• Ballpark
• Ballroom
• Bandwagon
• Bankbook
• Bankroll
• Baseball
• Basketball
• Beachcomb
• Bedclothes
• Bed lamp
• Bedrock
• Bedroll
• Bedroom
• bedspread
• Bellbottom
• Bellboy
• Bellhop
• Below
• Berrylike
• Billboard
• Billhook
• Bitterroot
• Bittersweet
• Bitterweed
• Bitterwood
• Blackball
• Blackberries
• Blackbird
• Blackboard
• Blackjack
• Blacklist
• Blackmail
• Blackout
• Blackpool
• Blacksmith
• Blacktop
• Blowgun
• Bluebell
• Blueberry
• Bluebird
• Bluefish
• Bluegrass
• Blueprint
• Boardwalk
• Body bag
• Body-boarding
• Body blow
• Bodybuilder
• Body hair
• Bodywork
• Bodyguard
• Bodywork
• Boldface
• Bookcase
• Bookend
• Bookkeeper
• Bookmark
• Bookmobile
• Bookseller
• Bookshelf
• Bookstore
• Bookworm
• Bootstrap
• Bowlegs
• Bowtie
• Brainchild
• Brainwash
• Brotherhood
• Brow beat
• Bugspray
• Butterball
• Buttercup
• Butterfingers
• Butterflies
• Buttermilk
• Butternut
• Butterscotch
• Bypass
• Cabdriver
• Candlelight
• Candlestick
• Candyfloss
• Candytuft
• Cardboard
• Cardsharp
• Cardstock
• Carefree
• Caretaker
• Careworn
• Carfare
• Cargo
• Carhop
• Carload
• Carpetbagger
• Carpool
• Carport
• Carrack
• Carryall
• Carsick
• Cartwheel
• Catchword
• Cattail
• Catwalk
• Caveman
• Centercut
• Cheeseburger
• Cheesecake
• Classmates
• Classroom
• Clockwise
• cocksure
• Coffeemaker
• Comeback
• Comedown
• Commonplace
• Commonwealth
• Cornmeal
• Counterattack
• Counterproductive
• Courthouse
• Courtyard
• Crewcut
• Crossbow
• Crossbreed
• Crosscut
• Crossover
• Crosswalk
• Dairymaid
• Daisywheel
• Daybed
• Daybook
• Daybreak
• Daydream
• Daylight
• Daytime
• Deadbeat
• Dead body
• Deadbolt
• Dead drop
• Dead-end
• Deadeye
• Deadfall
• Dead heat
• Dead letter
• Deadlight
• Deadline
• Dead load
• Deadlock
• Deadlocked
• Dead mail
• Dead march
• Dead metaphor
• Dickhead
• Dick test
• Dishcloth
• Dishpan
• Dishwasher
• Dishwater
• Diskdrive
• Dog-tired
• Dogwood
• Doorstop
• Double agent
• Double-barrelled
• Double-bedded
• Double bond
• Doublecross

1000 Compound Words Examples (D-N)

• Double-date
• Double-decker
• Downbeat
• Downcast
• Downcourt
• Downtime
• Downtown
• Downtrodden
• Downunder
• Drawbridge
• Driveway
• Duckbill
• Duckpin
• Duckweed
• Earache
• Eardrop
• Eardrum
• Earring
• Earthbound
• Earthquake
• Earthward
• Earthworm
• Egghead
• Eggshell
• Elsewhere
• Everything
• Extraordinary
• Eyeballs
• Eyebath
• Eyebeam
• Eye-catching
• Eyeglasses
• Eyelash
• Eyelid
• Eyesight
• Eyewitness
• Fatherhood
• Fatherland
• Firearm
• Fireball
• Fireboat
• Firebomb
• Firebreak
• Firecracker
• Firefighter
• Fireflies
• Firehouse
• Fireproof
• Firewater
• Fishbowl
• Fisherman
• Fisheye
• Fishhook
• Fishlike
• Fishmonger
• Fishnet
• Fishpond
• Fishtail
• Football
• Foothill
• Footlights
• Footlocker
• Footnote
• Footprint
• Footprints
• Footrest
• Footwear
• Forbearer
• Forbid
• Forebode
• Forearm
• Forebear
• Forebrain
• Forecast
• Forecastle
• Foreclose
• Foreclosure
• Foredoom
• Forefather
• Forefeet
• Forefinger
• Forefoot
• Forego
• Foregone
• Foreground
• Forehand
• Forehead
• Foreknowledge
• Foreleg
• Foreman
• Foremost
• Forepaws
• Foresee
• Foreshadow
• Foresight
• Forestall
• Forethought
• Foretell
• Foretold
• Forever
• Forewarn
• Foreword
• Forget
• Forgive
• Forklift
• Format
• Fortnight
• Friendship
• Fruitcup
• Gearshift
• Glassmaking
• Goodbye
• Goodnight
• Grandaunt
• Grandchild
• Grandchildren
• Granddaughter
• Grandfather
• Grandmaster
• Grandmother
• Grandnephew
• Grandnieces
• Grandparent
• Grandson
• Grandstand
• Granduncle
• Grasshopper
• Grassland
• Graveyard
• Gumball
• Haircut
• Hamburger
• Hammerhead
• Handbook
• Handcuff
• Handgun
• Handmade
• Handout
• Headache
• Headdress
• Headlight
• Headline
• Headquarters
• Heaven-sent
• Heavenward
• Helpdesk
• Helpline
• Helpmate
• Hereafter
• Hereby
• Herein
• Hereupon
• Herself
• Highball
• Highchair
• Highland
• Highway
• Himself
• Homemade
• Hometown
• Honeybee
• Honeybees
• Honeycomb
• Honeycreeper
• Honeydew
• Honeymoon
• Honeypot
• Honeysuckle
• Hookup
• Hookworm
• Horseback
• Horsefly
• Horsehair
• Horseman
• Horseplay
• Horsepower
• Horseradish
• hotbed
• hothead
• Houseboat
• Household
• Housekeeper
• Housetop
• Housework
• However
• Intake
• Interstate
• Ironwork
• Itself
• Jackpot
• Jailbait
• Jellybean
• Jellyfish
• Jetliner
• Jetport
• Jumpshot
• Jumpstart
• Keyboard
• Keyhole
• Keynote
• Keypad
• Keypunch
• Keystone
• Keystroke
• Keyway
• Keyword
• Lacklustre
• Lifeblood
• Lifeboat
• Lifebuoy
• Lifeguard
• Lifejacket
• Lifelike
• Lifeline
• Lifelong
• Lifesaver
• Lifestyle
• Lily-livered
• Lifetime
• Lifework
• Limelight
• Limestone
• Longhand
• Longhouse
• Lukewarm
• Mainland
• Mainline
• Matchbox
• Meantime
• Meanwhile
• Moneybag
• Moneylender
• Moonbeam
• Moonflower
• Moonlight
• Moonlit
• Moonscape
• Moonshine
• Moonstruck
• Moonwalk
• Moorfields
• Moorfowl
• Moorland
• Mopboard
• Moreover
• Mothball
• Motherhood
• Motorcycle
• Nearby

1000 Compound Words Examples (N-S)

• Nevermore
• Newborn
• Newfound
• Newsboy
• Newsbreak
• Newscaster
• Newsdealer
• Newsletter
• Newsman
• Newspaper
• Newsperson
• Newsprint
• Newsreel
• Newsroom
• Newsstand
• Newsworthy
• Nightfall
• Noisemaker
• Northeast
• Notebook
• Noteworthy
• Nowhere
• Nursemaid
• Nutcracker
• Offbeat
• Off-record
• Oilbird
• Oilcan
• Oilcloth
• Oilfield
• Oilman
• Oil-rich
• Oneself
• Onetime
• Outbalance
• Outbid
• Outboard
• Outdoor
• Outflank
• Outflow
• Outlive
• Outnumber
• Overabundance
• Overboard
• Overcoat
• Overflow
• Overland
• Overshoes
• Overview
• Pacemaker
• Pancake
• Passbook
• Passkey
• Passover
• Paycheck
• Peppermint
• Pickup
• Pinhole
• Pinstripe
• Pinup
• Pinwheel
• Pipe-borne
• Play-actor
• Playback
• Playbill
• Playbook
• Playboy
• Play day
• Play dough
• Playground
• Playhouse
• Playthings
• Ponytail
• Popcorn
• Postcard
• Poverty grass
• Poverty level
• Poverty line
• Poverty trap
• Poverty-stricken
• Priesthood
• Punchbag
• Punchboard
• Punchbowl
• Racquetball
• Railroad
• Railway
• Rainbow
• Raincheck
• Raincoat
• Raindrop
• Rainstorm
• Rainwater
• Rattlesnake
• Rattletrap
• Repairman
• Riverbanks
• Rollerblade
• Rollercoaster
• Roller-skating
• Rubberband
• Sailboat
• Salesclerk
• Sand dune
• Sandlot
• Sandstone
• Saucepan
• Scapegoat
• Scarecrow
• Schoolbook
• Schoolboy
• Schoolbus
• Schoolhouse
• Schoolwork
• Seaport
• Seashore
• Setback
• Shadyside
• Sharecropper
• Sharpshooter
• Sheepskin
• Shipbottom
• Shoelace
• Shoemaker
• Shortbread
• Showoff
• Showplace
• Sideburns
• Sidekick
• Sideline
• Sideshow
• Sidestep
• Sidetrack
• Sidewalk
• Silver age
• Silver ash
• Silver beech
• Silver bell
• Silver berry
• Silver-blue
• Silver-bodied
• Silver bromide
• Silver-bush
• Silver cord
• Silver dollar
• Silver fern
• Silver fir
• Silverfish
• Silver grass
• Silver-gray
• Silver-green
• Silver-haired
• Silversmith
• Sisterhood
• Sixfold
• Skateboard
• Skintight
• Skylark
• Skylight
• Skyscraper
• Slapstick
• Slowdown
• Slumlord
• Smartphone
• Snakeskin
• Snowball
• Snowbank
• Snowbird
• Snowboard
• Snowdrift
• Snowfall
• Snowflakes
• Snowshovel
• Softball
• Software
• Somebody
• Someday
• Somehow
• Someone
• Someplace
• Something
• Sometimes
• Somewhat
• Somewhere
• Soulmate
• Soundproof
• Southeast
• Southwest
• Soybean
• Spacewalk
• Spearmint
• Spillway
• Spokesperson
• Stagehand
• Stage-manage
• Standby
• Standoff
• Standout
• Standpipe
• Standpoint
• Starfish
• Steamboat
• Steamship
• Stepson
• Stockroom
• Stonewall
• Stoplight
• Stopwatch
• Storerooms
• Stronghold
• Subway
• Sunbaked
• Sunbathe
• Sunbeams
• Sunbelt
• Sunberry
• Sunblock
• Sunburn
• Sunday
• Sundial
• Sundown
• Sunfish
• Sunflower
• Sunglasses
• Sunlit
• Sunrays
• Sunroof
• Sunup
• Supercargo
• Supercharge

1000 Compound Words Examples (S-W)

• Supercool
• Superego
• Superfine
• Supergiant
• Superhero
• Superhighways
• Superhuman
• Superimpose
• Superman
• Supermarket
• Supermen
• Supernatural
• Superpower
• Superscript
• Supersensitive
• Supersonic
• Superstar
• Superstrong
• Superstructure
• Supertanker
• Superweapon
• Superwoman
• Sweetheart
• Sweetmeat
• Swift-footed
• Swordfish
• Tablecloth
• Tablespoon
• Tabletop
• Tableware
• Tadpole
• Tagalong
• Tailbone
• Tailcoat
• Tailgate
• Taillight
• Taillike
• Tailpiece
• Tailspin
• Takeoff
• Takeout
• Takeover
• Talebearer
• Taleteller
• Tapeworm
• Taproom
• Taproot
• Taskmaster
• Taxicab
• Taxpayer
• Teacup
• Teammate
• Teamwork
• Teapot
• Teaspoon
• Teenager
• Telltale
• Tenderfoot
• Tenfold
• Textbook
• Themselves
• Therefore
• Throwaway
• Throwback
• Thunderbird
• Thunderbolt
• Thunderclap
• Thundercloud
• Thunderflash
• Thunderhead
• Thundershower
• Thunderstorm
• Thunderstruck
• Timekeeper
• Timepieces
• Timesaver
• Timesaving
• Timeshare
• Timetable
• Tonguefish
• Tongue-lash
• Toolbox
• Toothpaste
• Toothpick
• Touchdown
• Township
• Turnabout
• Turnaround
• Turnbuckle
• Turncoat
• Turndown
• Turnkey
• Turnoff
• Turntable
• Typewrite
• Typewriter
• Underachieve
• Underact
• Underage
• Underarm
• Underbelly
• Underbid
• Undercharge
• Underclothes
• Undercover
• Undercurrent
• Undercut
• Underdevelop
• Underdog
• Underestimate
• Underexpose
• Underfoot
• Underground
• Upbeat
• Upbringing
• Upcoming
• Upcourt
• Update
• Upend
• Upgrade
• Upheaval
• Upheld
• Uphill
• Uphold
• Upkeep
• Upland
• Uplift
• Uplink
• Upload
• Upmarket
• Uppercase
• Upperclassman
• Uppercut
• Uppermost
• Upright
• Uprising
• Uproar
• Uproot
• Upscale
• Upset
• Upshot
• Upside
• Upstage
• Upstairs
• Upstanding
• Upstart
• Upstate
• Upstream
• Upstroke
• Uptake
• Upthrust
• Uptight
• Uptime
• Uptown
• Upturn
• Upward
• Upwind
• Vainglory
• Viewpoint
• Vineyard
• Violin cello
• Volleyball
• Voltmeter
• Vouchsafe
• Waistline
• Walkways
• Walleyed
• Wallpaper
• Wardroom
• Warehouse
• War advocacy
• War baby
• War bride
• War chest
• War cloud
• War correspondent
• War crime
• War criminal
• War cry
• Warfare
• Warlike
• Warmonger
• Warmblooded
• Warpath
• Washboard
• Washbowl
• Washcloth
• Washhouse
• Washout
• Washrag
• Washroom
• Washstand
• Washtub
• Wastebag
• Wastebasket
• Wastebin
• Wasteland
• Wastepaper
• Wastewater
• Watchband
• Watchdog
• Watchmaker
• Watchman
• Watchtower
• Watchword
• Waterbed
• Water beetle
• Water birch
• Waterbird
• Water biscuit
• Waterboarding
• Water boatman
• Waterborne
• Waterbottle
• Water boy
• Water buck
• Water buffalo
• Water bug
• Watercolour
• Watercooler
• Watercourse
• Watercraft
• Waterfall
• Waterfowl
• Waterfront
• Waterline
• Waterlog

1000 Compound Words Examples (W-Z)

• Watermark
• Watermelon
• Waterpower
• Waterproof
• Waterscape
• Watershed
• Waterside
• Waterspout
• Watertight
• Waterway
• Waterwheel
• Waterworks
• Wavelength
• Wavelike
• Waxwork
• Waybill
• Wayfarer
• Waylaid
• Wayside
• Wayward
• Weathercock
• Weatherman
• Weatherproof
• Weekday
• Weekend
• Weeknight
• Wetland
• Whatever
• Whatsoever
• Wheelbarrow
• Wheelbase
• Wheelchair
• Wheelhouse
• Wheelhouse
• Whereabouts
• Whipcord
• Whip hand
• Whiplash
• Whiplike
• Whipsaw
• Whip snake
• Whipstitch
• Whipstock
• Whiptail
• Whip through
• Whip top
• Whiteboard
• Whitecap
• Whitefish
• Whitehall
• Whitehead
• Whitewall
• Whitewash
• Widespread
• Wipeout
• Wisplike
• Without
• Wood ant
• Woodblock
• Woodborer
• Wood-burning
• Woodcarver
• Woodcarving
• Woodchip
• Wood coal
• Woodcock
• Woodcraft
• Wood-creeper
• Woodcutter
• Wood duck
• Woodshop
• Yachtsman
• Yachtsman
• Yachtsmen
• Yachtsmen
• Yard bird
• Yard birds
• Yard land
• Yard lands
• Yard wand
• Yard wands
• Yard work
• Yard works
• Yardarms
• Yardman
• Yardmaster
• Yardmasters
• Yardstick
• Yardsticks
• Yearbook
• Yearbooks
• Yearlong
• Yellow fin
• Yellow fins
• Yellow ware
• Yellow wares
• Yellowhammer
• Yellowhammers
• Yellowlegs
• Yellowtail
• Yellowtails
• Yellowthroat
• Yellowthroats
• Yellowwood
• Yellowwoods
• Yokefellow
• Yokefellows
• Yokemate
• Yokemates
• Youngberries
• Youngberry
• Youth quake
• Zoo technical
• Zoogeographer
• Zoogeographers
• Zoogeographies
• Zoogeography
• Zookeeper
• Zoosperms
• Zootechnics

Closing Words and Related Posts

It is possible that some of these 1000 Compound Words Examples could be written differently in other instances where they appear; but remember that this also depends on the choice of the writer to select any of the three types of compound words that we have. However, there are some of these compound words that have to be written based on acceptable convention. You can check out other related posts as listed below:

9 Types of Nouns with Examples

10 Examples of Complex Sentences

100 Examples of Synonym Words

100 Examples of Compound Sentences in English

25 Examples of Complex Sentences

50 Examples of Simple Sentences

It’s
a process of creating new words from material available in the
language after a certain structural and semantic formulas and
pattern, forming words by combining root & affix morphemes.

2 Types of word formation:

1)
Compounding (словосложение)

2)
Word – derivation

Within
the types further distinction may be made between the ways of forming
words. The basic way of forming words is word-derivation affixation
and conversion apart from this shortening and a number of minor ways
of formal words such as back-forming, blending, sound imitation are
traditionally referred to formation.

Different types of word
formation:

Affixation
is
the formation of new words by means of suffixes and prefixes to
stemsbasis.

Affixes may be grouped

1) according to their
linguistic origin. We distinguish affixes of Germanic origin (full,
less), of Romanic origin (ion), of Greek origin (ise, izm);

2) according to the parts of
speech. We distinguish noun forming, adj. forming and verb forming
affixes;

3)
according to semantic functions. They may denote persons, quality,
negation. Many suffixes originated from separate words: hood
originated for the noun hood, which meant state or condition; full –
полный
(adj. In O.E) now it is suffix. Suffixes may change the part of
speech: critic (al).

All
suffixes are divided into lexical
and grammatical.

Lexical
suffixes build new word. Productive
affixes. For
ex: read-readable, happy-happiness, act-actor.

Grammatical
suffixes change the grammatical form of a word. Often used to create
neologisms and nonce-words (I
don’t like Sunday evenings: I feel so mondayish).

For ex: finish-finished, say-says, rose-roses.

Some
productive suffixes:

Noun
forming – er,
ing, is, ist, ance

Adj
– forming – y,
ish, ed, able, less

Adv
– forming – ly

Verb – forming — Ize, /ise,
ate

Prefixies
—
Un, die, re

Conversion
(zero derivation) it is one of the major ways of enriching EV &
referrers to the numerous cases of phonetic identity of word forms of
2 words belonging to different part of speech.. The new word has a
meaning which differs from that of original one though it can ><
be associated with it. nurse
(noun) to nurse – to feed

A certain stem is used for the
formation of a categorically different word without a derivative
element being added.

Bag
– to bag, Back – to back , Bottle – to bottle This
specific pattern is very productive in English

The
most popular types are noun →verb or verb→noun To
take off – a take off

Conversion
can be total
or partial.
Partial: the then
president (тогдашний).
An adverb is used as an adjective, only in this particular context.
Total: work
– to work

Conversion
may be the result of shading of English endings. The historical
changes may be briefly outlined as follows: in O.E. a verb and a noun
of the same root were distinguished by their endings. For ex: the
verb ‘to love’ had a form (Old Eng.) ‘lufian’. This verb had
personal conjunctions. The noun ‘love’ had the form ‘lufu’
with different case endings. But in the course of time, the personal
and case endings were lost. There are numerous pairs of words (e. g.
love, n. — to love, v.; work, n. — to work, v.; drink, n. — to
drink, v., etc.) which did, not occur due to conversion but coincided
as a result of certain historical processes (dropping of endings,
simplification of stems) when before that they had different forms
(e. g. O. E. lufu, n. — lufian, v.).

The
two categories of parts of speech especially affected by conversion
are nouns and verbs. Verbs made from nouns are the most numerous
amongst the words produced by conversion: e. g. to
hand, to back, to face, to eye, to mouth, to nose, to dog, to wolf,
to monkey, to can, to coal, to stage, to screen, to room, to floor,
to blackmail, to blacklist, to honeymoon,
and very many others.

Nouns
are frequently made from verbs: do (e. g. This
is the queerest do I»ve ever come across.
Do — event, incident), go (e. g. He
has still plenty of go at his age.
Go — energy), make,
run, find, catch, cut, walk, worry, show, move,
etc. Verbs can also be made from adjectives: to
pale, to yellow, to cool, to grey, to rough
(e. g. We
decided to rough it in the tents as the weather was warm),
etc.

Other
parts of speech are not entirely unsusceptible to conversion as the
following examples show: to
down, to out (as in a newspaper heading Diplomatist Outed from
Budapest), the ups and downs, the ins and outs, like, n, (as in the
like of me and the like of you).

Compounding
& word comparison. Compound
words are made of 2 derivational stems. The types of structure of CW:
neutral,
morphological &syntactic.

In
neutral
compound
the process is released without any linking elements sunflower.
There
are three types of neutral compounds simple compounds went a compound
consist of a simple affixes stems.

Derivate/
derivational compound
— has affixes babysitter.

Contracted
–
has a shorten stems. TV-set

Morphological
C –
few
in number. This type is non productive. Represented by words, where 2
stems are combined by a linking vowel/ consonant Anglo-Saxon,
statesman, craftsmanship.

Syntactic
C
– formed of segments of speech preserving articles, prepositions,
adverbs. Mother-in-law

Reduplication.
New
word are made by stem ether without any phonetic changes Bye-Bye
or variation of a root vowel or consonant ping-pong

Shortening.
There
are 2 ways of producing them:

1.
The word is formed from the syllable of the original word which in
term may loose its beginning –phone,
its ending vac
(vacation) or
both
fridge.

2.
The word is formed from the initial letter of a word group BB,
bf – boyfriend. Acronyms are
shorten words but read as one UNO
[ju:nou]

TYPES OF WF

Sound
imitation – words
are made by imitating different links of sounds that may be produced
by animals, birds…bark
– лаять,
mew – мяукать…some
names of animals, birds & insects are made by SI coo-coo
– кукушка,
crow – ворона.

To
glide, to slip are
supposed to convey the very sound of the smooth easy movement over a
slippery surface.

Back
formation a
verb is produced from a noun by subtraction (вычитание)
bagger
– to bag, babysitter – to babysit

Blending
— Is
blending part of two words to form one word (merging into one word),
combining letters/sounds they have in common as a connecting element.
Smoke
+ fog = smog, Breakfast + lunch = brunch, Smoke + haze = smaze
(дымка)

—
addictive type: they are transformable into a phrase consisting of
two words combined by a conjunction “and” smog
→ smoke & fog

—
blending of restrictive type: transformable into an attributive
phrase, where the first element serves as modifier of a second.
Positron
– positive electron,
Medicare
– medical care

Borrowings.
Contemporary
English is a unique mixture of Germanic & Romanic elements. This
mixing has resulted in the international character of the vocabulary.
In the comparison with other languages English possesses great
richness of vocabulary.

All languages are mixtures to
a greater or lesser extent, but the present day English vocabulary is
unique in this respect.

A brief look on various
historical strata of the English vocabulary:

1) through cultural contacts
with Romans partly already on the continent and all through the
influence of Christianity a very early stratum of Latin-Greek words
entered the language.

Their origin is no longer felt
by the normal speaker today in such word: pound, mint, mustard,
school, dish, chin, cleric, cheese, devil, pepper, street, gospel,
bishop.

The
same can be said about some Scandinavian words (from about the 10^th
century) that today belong to the central core of the vocabulary.

It
means that their frequency is very high. They,
their, them, sky, skin, skill, skirt, ill, dies, take… They
partly supersede the number of OE words OE
heofon – heaven (sky) Niman – take
Steorfan – die

A
more radical change & profound influence on the English
vocabulary occurred on 1066 (Norman Conquest). Until the 15^th
cent., a great number of French words were adopted. They belong to
the areas of court,
church, law, state.

Virtue, religion,
parliament, justice, noble, beauty, preach, honour…

The
influx of the words was the strongest up to the 15^th
cent., but continued up to the 17^th
cent.

Many French borrowings
retained their original pronunciation & stress

Champagne,
ballet, machine, garage…

Separate, attitude,
constitute, introduce…

Adjectives in English –
arrogant, important, patient

Sometimes with their
derivatives:

Demonstrative –
demonstration

Separate – separation

17-18 cc. due to the
establishing of cultural, trade relations many words were borrowed
from Italian, Spanish, Dutch, French.

Italian:
libretto,
violin, opera

Spanish:
hurricane, tomato, tobacco

Dutch:
yacht,
dog, landscape

French:
bouquet,
buffet

From the point of view of
their etymology formal words are normally of classical Romanic
origin, informal – Anglo-Saxon.

Nowadays many Americanisms
become familiar due to the increase of transatlantic travel & the
influence of broadcast media.

Even
in London (Heathrow airport) “baggage”
instead of “luggage”

The present day English
vocabulary is from being homogeneous.

6.
Neologisms new
word expressions are created for new things irrespective of their
scale of importance. They may be all important and concern some
social relationships (new form/ state)
People’s republic. Or
smth threatening the very existence of humanity nuclear
war
or the thing may be short lived. N
is
a newly coined word, phrase/ a new meaning for an existing word / a
word borrowed from another language.

The
development of science and industry technology: black
hole, internet, supermarket.

The
adaptive lexical system isn’t only adding new units but readjust
the ways & means of word formation radio
detection and ranging – RADAR

The
lex. System may adopt itself by combining several word-building
processes face-out
(noun) – the radioactive dust descending through the air after an
anatomic explosion. This
word was coined by composition/ compounding & conversion.

Teach
–in (n) –a student conference/ series of seminars on some burning
issue of the day, meaning some demonstration on protest. This
pattern is very frequent lis–in
, due-in
means protest demonstration when fluking traffic. Bionies
– the
combination of bio & electron.

Back
formation:
air-condion
– air-conditioner – air-conditioning

Semi-affixes
(могут
быть
как
самостоятельные
слова)
chairman
used
to be not numerous and might be treated as exceptions now, evolving
into separate set.

Some
N abscessed with smth and containing the elements mad
& happy: powermad, moneymad, auto-happy.

Conversion, composition,
semantic change are in constant use when coining N

The
change of meaning rather an introduction of a new additional meaning
may be illustrated by the word NETWORK
– stations for simultaneous broadcast of the same program.

Once
accepted N may become a basis for further word formation. ZIP
– to zip – zipper –
zippy.

The
lex. System is unadaptive system, developing for many centuries and
reflecting the changing needs, servicing only in special context.
Archaism
& historisms.

Archaism
–
once common but are now replaced by synonyms. Mostly they are poetic:
morn
– arch, morning – new word, hapless – arch, unlucky – modern.

Historism
– when
the causes of the word’s disappearance are extralinguistic, eg. The
thing named is no longer used. They are very numerous as names for
social relations, institutions, objects of material culture of the
past, eg. many types of sailing craft belong to the past: caravels,
galleons.A
great many of
H
denotes various types of weapons in historical novels: blunderbuss
— мушкетер,
breastplate. Many
of them are in Voc in some figurative meaning: shiel
– щит,
sword. – меч.

7.
Homonymy.
Different
in meaning, but identical in sound or spelling form

Sources:

1.
The result of split of polysemy capital
– столица,
заглавная
буква

Homonymy
differs from polysemy because there is no semantic bond (связь)
between homonyms; it has been lost & doesn’t exist.

2.
as the result of leveling of grammar in flections, when different
parts of speech become identical in their forms. Care
(in OE) — caru(n), care (OE) – carian (v)

3.
By conversion
slim – to slim, water – to water

4.
With the help of the same suffix fro the same stem. Reader
– the person who reads/a book for reading.

5.
Accidentally. Native words can coincide in their form beran
– to bear, bera (animal) – to bear

6.
Shortening of different words. Cab
(cabriolet, cabbage, cabin)

Homonyms can be of 3 kinds:

1.
Homonyms proper (the sound & the spelling are identical)
bat – bat
— flying
animal (летучая
мышь)
— cricket bat (бита,
back — part of body, away from the front, go to back

2.
Homophones (the same sound form but different spelling)
flower – flour, sole – soul, rain – reign, bye-by-buy

3.
Homographs (the same spelling)
tear [iə] – tear [εə, lead [i:] – lead [e]

Homonyms in English are very
numerous. Oxford English Dictionary registers 2540 homonyms, of which
89% are monosyllabic words and 9,1% are two-syllable words.

So,
most homonyms are monosyllabic words. The trend towards
monosyllabism, greatly increased by the loss of inflections and
shortening, must have contributed much toward increasing the number
of homonyms in English.

Among the other ways of
creating homonyms the following processes must be mentioned:

From
the viewpoint of their origin homonyms are sometimes divided into
historical and etymological. Historical
homonyms are those which result from the breaking up of polysemy;
then one polysemantic word will split up into two or more separate
words. Etymo1ogiсal
homonyms are words of different origin which come to be alike in
sound or in spelling (and may be both written and pronounced alike).

Borrowed
and native words can coincide in form, thus producing homonyms (as in
the above given examples). In other cases homonyms are a result of
borrowing when several different words become identical in sound or
spelling. E.g. the Latin vitim — «wrong», «an immoral
habit» has given the English vice — вада
«evil conduct»; the Latin vitis -«spiral» has
given the English »vice» — тиски
«apparatus with strong jaws in which things can be hold
tightly»; the Latin vice — «instead of», «in
place of» will be found in vice — president.

8.
Synonymy.

A
synonym – a word of similar or identical meaning to one or more
words in the same language. All languages contain synonyms but in
English they exist in superabundance. There no two absolutely
identical words because connotations, ways of usage, frequency of an
occurrence are different. Senses of synonyms are identical in respect
of central semantic trades (denotational meaning) but differ in
respect of minor semantic trades (connotational). In each group of S
there’s a word with the most general meaning, with can substitute
any word of the group. TO
LOOK AT — to glance – to stare

Classification:

Weather the different in
denotational/ connotational component

1.
Ideographic
synonyms. They
bear the same idea but not identical in their referential content,
different shades of meaning or degree. BEAUTIFUL
– fine, handsome – pretty,
to
ascent – to mount – to climb.

2.
Stylistic
synonyms. Different
in emotive and stylistic sphere.

child girl happiness	Infant maid bliss	Kid
neutral	elevated	colloquial
To die	To kick the bucket

Eat
— Devour (degradation),
Face
— muzzle
(морда)

Synonymic condensation is
typical of the English language.

It
refers to situations when writers or speakers bring together several
words with one & the same meaning to add more conviction, to
description more vivid. Ex.:
Lord & master, First & foremost, Safe & secure,
Stress & strain, by force & violence

Among
synonyms there’s a special group of words –
euphemism used
to substitute some unpleasant or offensive words. Drunk
– marry

According to interchangability
context S are classified

3.
Total
synonyms
An extremely rare occurrence. Ulman: “a luxury that language
can hardly afford.” M. Breal spoke about a law of distribution in
the language (words should be synonyms, were synonyms in the past
usually acquire different meanings and are no longer
interchangeable). Ex.: fatherland
— motherland

4.
Contextual
synonyms.
Context can emphasize some certain semantic trades & suppress
other semantic trades; words with different meaning can become
synonyms in a certain context. Ex.: tasteless
– dull, Active – curious, Curious – responsive

Synonyms can reflect social
conventions.

Ex.:

clever	bright	brainy	intelligent	Dever-clever
neutral	Only speaking about younger people by older people	Is not used by the higher educated people	Positive connotation	Stylistically remarked

5.
Dialectical
synonyms.
Ex.:
lift – elevator, Queue – line, autumn – fall

6.
Relative
some
authors classify group like:
like – love – adore, famous- celebrated – eminentthey
denote different degree of the same notion or different shades of
meanings and can be substituted only in some context.

Antonymy.
Words
belonging to the same part of speech identical in speech expressing
contrary or contradictory notion.

Комиссаров
В.Н.
classify them into absolute/
root (late/early)they
have different roots
,
derivational (to
please-to
displease) the
same root but different affixes. In most cases “-“ prefixes from
antonyms an,
dis, non.
Sometimes they are formed by suffixes full
& less.
But they do not always substitute each other selfless
– selfish, successful – unsuccessful .the
same with “-“ prefixes
to appoint – to disappoint.

The
difference is not only in structure but in semantic. The DA
express
contradictory notions, one of then excludes the other active
– inactive. The
AA
express
contrary notion: ugly
–
plain – good-looking – pretty –
beautiful

Antonimy
is
distinguished from complementarily
by being based on different logical relationshipd for pairs of
antonyms like
good – bad, big – small.
He
is good (not bad). He is not good (doesn’t imply he is bad).
The negation (отрицание)
of one term doesn’t implies the assertion of the other.

John
Lines suggests proper
hot-warm
– tapped – cold &
complementary antonyms only
2 words negative and assertion not
male — female.

There’s
also one type of semantic opposition conversives
words
denote one reference as viewed from different points of view that of
the subject & that of the object.
Bye
– sell, give — receive

Conversness
is
minor image relations of functions husband
– wife, pupil – teacher, above – below, before — after

9.
Phraseology.
Phrasiological units/ idioms – motivated word group. They are
reproduced as readymade units. Express a singe notion, used in
sentence as one part of it.

Idiomaticy
—
PU when the meaning of the whole
is
not deducible from the sum of the meanings of the parts. Stability
of PU implies that it exist as a readymade linguistic unit, which
doesn’t allow of any variability of its lexical component of gr.
Structure.

In
ling. literature the term
Phraseology is
used for the expressions where the meaning of one element is depended
on the other. Vinogradov: “irrespective of structure and properties
of the units”. Smernitsky: “it denotes only such set expressions
which do not possess expressiveness or emotional coloring”. Arnold:
“it says that only denotes such set expressions that are
imaginative, expressive and emotional”. Ammosova call them fixed
context units – we
can’t substitute an element without changing the meaning of the
whole. Ahmanova insists on the semantic intearity of such phrases:
“prevailing over the structural separates of their element”.
Kuning lays stress on the structural separatness of the elements in
the PU on the change of meaning in the whole as compared with its
elements taken separately with its elements and on a certain minimum
stability.

Phraseology
(Webster’s
dictionary) mode of expression peculiarities of diction. That is
choice and arrangement of words and phrases characteristic of some
author.there are difficult terms. Idioms word equivalents & these
difficult units or terminology reflects certain differences in the
main criteria used to distinguish.

The
features: 1.
lack of semantic motivation 2. Lexical & grammatical stability

Semantic
classification:2
criteria: 1). The degree of semantic isolation 2). The degree of
disinformation

1.
Opaque in meaning (трудный
для
понимания)
the meaning of the individual words can’t be summed together to
produce the meaning of the whole.to
kick the bucket = to die It
contains no clue to the idiomatic meaning of this expression.The
degree of semantic isolation is the highest.

The 3 typesof PU:

1.
Phraseological fusions. The degree of motivation is very low. one
component preserves its direct meaning Ex.:
to pass the buck = to pass responsibility – свалить
ответственность,

2.
Phraseological unities. Clearly motivated. Transparent both
components in their direct meaning but the combination acquires
figurative sense to
see the light = to understand, old salt — морской
волк

3.
Phraseological combinations. There is a component used in its
direct meaning. There are lots of idioms (proverbs, saying). To
be good at smth.:
Curiosity
killed the cat, but satisfaction brought it back
Idioms institutionalized formulas of politeness:How
do you do?Good-bye (God be with you) How about a drink?

Structural classification
of PU

Prof. A.I. Smirnitsky worked
out structural classification of phraseological units, comparing them
with words. He points out one-top units which he compares with
derived words because derived words have only one root morpheme. He
points out two-top units which he compares with compound words
because in compound words we usually have two root morphemes.

Among
one-top units he
points out three structural types;

a)
units of the type «to give up» (verb + postposition type), e.g. to
art up, to back up, to drop out, to nose out, to buy into, to
sandwich in etc.;

b)
units of the type «to be tired» . Some of these units remind the
Passive Voice in their structure but they have different prepositions
with them, while in the Passive Voice we can have only prepositions
«by» or «with», e.g. to
be tired of, to be interested in, to be surprised at etc.
There are also units in this type which remind free word-groups of
the type «to be young», e.g. to be akin to, to be aware of etc.
The difference between them is that the adjective «young» can be
used as an attribute and as a predicative in a sentence, while the
nominal component in such units can act only as a predicative. In
these units the verb is the grammar centre and the second component
is the semantic centre;

c)
Prepositional- nominal phraseological units. These units are
equivalents of unchangeable words: prepositions, conjunctions,
adverbs, that is why they have no grammar centre, their semantic
centre is the nominal part, e.g.
On the doorstep (quite near), on the nose (exactly), in the course
of, on the stroke of, in time, on the point of
etc. In the course of time such units can become words, e.g.
tomorrow,
instead etc.

Among
two-top units
A.I. Smirnitsky points out the following structural types:

a) attributive-nominal such
as: a month of Sundays, grey matter, a millstone round one’s neck
and many others. Units of this type are noun equivalents and can be
partly or perfectly idiomatic. In partly idiomatic units (phrasisms)
sometimes the first component is idiomatic, e.g. high road, in other
cases the second component is idiomatic, e.g. first night. In many
cases both components are idiomatic, e.g. red tape, blind alley, bed
of nail, shot in the arm and many others.

b) verb-nominal phraseological
units, e.g. to read between the lines , to speak BBC, to sweep under
the carpet etc. The grammar centre of such units is the verb, the
semantic centre in many cases is the nominal component, e.g. to fall
in love. In some units the verb is both the grammar and the semantic
centre, e.g. not to know the ropes. These units can be perfectly
idiomatic as well, e.g. to burn one’s boats,to vote with one’s
feet, to take to the cleaners’ etc.

Very close to such units are
word-groups of the type to have a glance, to have a smoke. These
units are not idiomatic and are treated in grammar as a special
syntactical combination, a kind of aspect.

c) phraseological repetitions,
such as : now or never, part and parcel , country and western etc.
Such units can be built on antonyms, e.g. ups and downs , back and
forth; often they are formed by means of alliteration, e.g cakes and
ale, as busy as a bee. Components in repetitions are joined by means
of conjunctions. These units are equivalents of adverbs or adjectives
and have no grammar centre. They can also be partly or perfectly
idiomatic, e.g. cool as a cucumber (partly), bread and butter
(perfectly).

Phraseological units the same
as compound words can have more than two tops (stems in compound
words), e.g. to take a back seat, a peg to hang a thing on, lock,
stock and barrel, to be a shaddow of one’s own self, at one’s own
sweet will.

Syntactical classification
of PU

Phraseological
units can be classified as parts of speech. This classification was
suggested by I.V. Arnold. Here we have the following groups:

a) noun phraseologisms
denoting an object, a person, a living being, e.g. bullet train,
latchkey child, redbrick university, Green Berets,

b) verb phraseologisms
denoting an action, a state, a feeling, e.g. to break the log-jam, to
get on somebody’s coattails, to be on the beam, to nose out , to
make headlines,

c) adjective phraseologisms
denoting a quality, e.g. loose as a goose, dull as lead ,

d) adverb phraseological
units, such as : with a bump, in the soup, like a dream , like a dog
with two tails,

e) preposition phraseological
units, e.g. in the course of, on the stroke of ,

f) interjection phraseological
units, e.g. «Catch me!», «Well, I never!» etc.

In I.V.Arnold’s
classification there are also sentence equivalents, proverbs, sayings
and quatations, e.g. «The sky is the limit», «What makes him
tick», » I am easy». Proverbs are usually metaphorical, e.g. «Too
many cooks spoil the broth», while sayings are as a rule
non-metaphorical, e.g. «Where there is a will there is a way».